UNIT-II

The Data Link Layer: Services Provided to the Network Layer, Framing, Error Control,
Flow Control, Error Detection and Correction, Error Detecting Codes.
Elementary Data Link Protocols: Stop and Wait Protocol for an Error free channel, A
Simplex Stop and Wait Protocol for a Noisy Channel, Sliding Window Protocols, A
One Bit Sliding Window Protocol, Go-Back-N, Selective Repeat.

DATALINKLAYERFUNCTIONS(SERVICES)
1. Providingservicestothenetworklayer:
1Unacknowledgedconnectionlessservice.
Appropriateforlow [Link]:Ethernet
2. Acknowledgedconnectionlessservice.
Usefulinunreliablechannels,[Link]/Timer/Resend
3. Acknowledgedconnection-orientedservice.
Guaranteeframesarereceivedexactlyonceandintherightorder. Appropriate over
long, unreliable links such as a satellite channel or a long - distance telephone
circuit
1. Framing:Framesarethestreamsofbitsreceivedfromthenetworklayer
[Link] Link Layer.
2. PhysicalAddressing:TheDataLinklayeraddsaheadertotheframein
ordertodefinephysicaladdressofthesenderorreceiveroftheframe,if the framesare
tobedistributedtodifferentsystemson thenetwork.
3. FlowControl:Areceivingnodecanreceivetheframesatafasterrate
[Link],thereceiver'sbuffer
canoverflow,[Link],thedata
linklayerusestheflowcontroltopreventthesendingnodeononesideof
[Link]
preventstraffic jamatthe receiverside.
4. ErrorControl:Errorcontrolisachievedbyaddingatrailerattheendof
[Link]
[Link] frames.
Errordetection: Errors can beintroduced bysignal attenuation and noise.
DataLinkLayerprotocolprovidesamechanismtodetectoneormore errors. This is
achieved by adding error detection bits in the frame and then
receivingnodecanperformanerror check.
Errorcorrection:ErrorcorrectionissimilartotheErrordetection,except
thatreceivingnodenotonlydetectstheerrorsbutalsodeterminewhere the
errorshave occurredinthe frame.
5. Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine which of the devices has
control over the link at any given time, when two or more devices are
connected to the same link.
6. Reliabledelivery:DataLinkLayerprovidesareliabledeliveryservice, i.e., transmits
the network layer datagram without any error. A
reliabledeliveryserviceisaccomplishedwithtransmissions and
[Link]
serviceoverthelinksastheyhavehighererrorratesandtheycanbe corrected locally, link at which
an error occurs rather than forcing toretransmit the data.
7. Half-Duplex&Full-Duplex: In aFull-Duplexmode,both the nodescan
[Link]-Duplexmode,onlyonenode can
transmitthe dataatthe same time.

FRAMING:
To provide service to the network layer, the data link layer must use the
[Link] accept a raw bit
stream and attempt to deliver it to the destination. This bit stream is
notguaranteed tobe errorfree. Thenumber of bits received may be
lessthan,equalto,ormorethanthenumberofbitstransmitted,andthey may have
different values. It is up to the data link layer todetect and, if
necessary,[Link]
breakthebitstreamupintodiscreteframesandcomputethechecksumfor
eachframe(framing).Whenaframearrivesatthedestination,the
[Link] the one
contained in the frame, the data link layer knows that an error has occurred and
takes steps to deal with it (e.g., discarding the bad frame and
possiblyalsosendingbackanerrorreport).Wewilllookatfourframing methods:
1. Charactercount.
2. Flagbyteswithbytestuffing.
3. Startingandendingflags,withbitstuffing.
4. Physicallayercodingviolations.
Character countmethod uses a field in the header to specify the number of
characters in the frame. When the data link layer at the destination sees the
charactercount,itknowshowmanycharactersfollowandhencewheretheend
[Link].(a)Forfourframesofsizes5,5, 8, and 8
characters,respectively.
Acharacterstream.(a)Withouterrors.(b)Withoneerror
Thetroublewiththisalgorithmisthatthecountcanbegarbledbya
[Link],ifthecharactercountof5inthesecond
frameofFig.(b)becomesa7,thedestinationwillgetoutofsynchronization
[Link]
isincorrectsothedestinationknowsthattheframeisbad,itstillhasnoway
[Link]
askingforaretransmissiondoesnothelpeither,sincethedestinationdoes not know how
many characters to skip over to get to the start of the retransmission. For this
reason, the character count method is rarely used anymore.

Flag bytes with byte stuffing method gets around the problem of
resynchronizationafteranerrorbyhavingeachframestartandendwith special bytes. In
the past, the starting and ending bytes were different, but in recentyears
mostprotocols have usedthe same byte,calleda flag byte,as both the starting
andendingdelimiter,asshown in Fig.(a)as FLAG. In this way, if the receiver ever
loses synchronization, it can justsearchfor theflag byte to find theend of the
[Link] consecutive flag bytes indicate the end of one frame and start
of the next one.

(a) Aframedelimitedbyflagbytes(b)Fourexamplesofbytesequences
beforeandafterbytestuffing

Itmayeasilyhappenthattheflagbyte'sbitpatternoccursinthedata. This situation

will usually interfere with the framing. One way to solve this
problemistohavethesender'sdatalinklayerinsertaspecialescapebyte
(ESC)justbeforeeach''accidental''[Link]
onthereceivingendremovestheescapebytebeforethedataaregivento
[Link].
Thus, a framing flag byte can be distinguished from one in the data by
theabsenceorpresenceofanescapebytebeforeit.
Whathappensifanescapebyteoccursinthemiddleofthedata?The
answeristhat,[Link],anysingleescape
byteispartofanescapesequence,whereasadoubledoneindicatesthata
[Link]
Fig.(b).Inallcases,thebytesequencedeliveredafterdestuffingisexactly
thesameastheoriginalbyte sequence.
Amajordisadvantageofusingthisframingmethodisthatitisclosely
tiedtotheuseof8-bitcharacters.Notallcharactercodesuse8-bit
characters.ForexampleUNICODEuses16-bitcharacters,soanewtechnique
hadtobedevelopedtoallowarbitrarysizedcharacters
Startingandendingflags,withbitstuffing allowsdataframesto contain an arbitrary
number of bits and allows character codes with an arbitrary
[Link]
withaspecialbitpattern,01111110(infact,aflagbyte).Wheneverthe
sender'sdatalinklayerencountersfiveconsecutive1sinthedata,it automatically stuffs a
0 bit into the outgoing bit stream. This bit stuffing isanalogous to byte stuffing, in
which an escape byte is stuffed into the outgoing
characterstreambeforeaflagbyteinthe data.
When the receiver sees five consecutive incoming 1 bits, followed by a 0 bit, it
automaticallyde-stuffs(i.e.,deletes)[Link] stuffingis
completelytransparenttothenetworklayerinbothcomputers,soisbit
[Link],01111110,thisflagis
transmittedas011111010butstoredinthereceiver'smemoryas01111110.

Fig:Bitstuffing.(a)Theoriginaldata.(b)Thedataastheyappearontheline.
(c)Thedataastheyarestoredinthereceiver'smemoryafterdestuffing.
With bit stuffing, the boundary between two frames can be unambiguously
[Link],ifthereceiverlosestrackofwhereitis,
allithastodoisscantheinputforflagsequences,sincetheycanonlyoccur
atframeboundariesandneverwithinthe data.
Physical layer coding violationsmethod of framing is only applicable to
networks in which the encoding on the physical medium contains
[Link],someLANsencode1bitofdatabyusing2physical
[Link],[Link]
schememeansthateverydatabithasatransitioninthemiddle,makingit
[Link]-
high and low-low are notused for data butare used for delimitingframes in some
protocols.

Asafinalnoteonframing,manydatalinkprotocolsusecombinationofa charactercount
with one of the othermethods forextra [Link] a frame
arrives,[Link] appropriate
delimiter is present at that position and the checksum is correctis
[Link],theinputstreamisscannedforthe next
delimiter

ELEMENTARYDATALINKPROTOCOLS

SimplestProtocol
Itis very [Link] asequence offrames withouteven thinking about the
receiver. Data are transmitted in one direction only. Both sender& receiver always
ready. Processing time can be ignored. Infinite buffer space is
[Link],thecommunicationchannelbetweenthedatalink
[Link], which we will
nickname ‘‘Utopia,’’ .The utopia protocol is unrealistic becauseit
doesnothandleeitherflowcontrolorerrorcorrection
Stop-and-waitProtocol

[Link]
[Link],thesendersendsthenextframe
It is Stop-and-Wait Protocol because the sender sends one frame, stops until it
receives confirmation from thereceiver(okaytogoahead),andthensends the next
frame. Westillhaveunidirectionalcommunicationfordataframes, but auxiliary ACK
frames (simple tokens of acknowledgment)travelfromthe other direction. We add
flow control to our previousprotocol.

NOISYCHANNELS
Although the Stop-and-Wait Protocol givesusanideaofhowtoaddflow control to its
predecessor, [Link]
theerror(aswesometimesdo),orweneedtoadderrorcontroltoour [Link] discuss
three protocols in this section thatuse error control.
SlidingWindowProtocols:
1 Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat
Request

2 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat

Request

3 SelectiveRepeatAutomaticRepeatRequest

1Stop-and-WaitAutomaticRepeatRequest
To detect andcorrect corruptedframes,we needtoaddredundancy bits to our
data [Link] the framearrivesatthe receiver site,itischecked and if it is
corrupted, itis silently discarded. The detection of errors in this protocol is
manifested by the silence of the receiver.
[Link]
previousprotocols,[Link]
rectone,oraduplicate,[Link] to number the frames.
When the receiver receives a data frame that is out
oforder,thismeansthatframeswereeitherlostorduplicated
The lost frames need to be resent in this protocol. If the receiver does not
respondwhen thereis anerror,howcanthesenderknowwhichframeto resend? To
remedy this problem, thesenderkeeps a copy of the sent [Link] the same time, it
starts a timer. If the timer expires and there is noACK for the sent frame, the frame
is resent, the copyisheld,and the timer isrestarted. Sincetheprotocolusesthestop-
and-waitmechanism,thereisonlyone specific frame that needs an ACK
ErrorcorrectioninStop-and-WaitARQisdonebykeepingacopyofthesent
frameandretransmittingoftheframewhenthetimerexpires

InStop-and-WaitARQ,weusesequencenumberstonumberthe
[Link]-2arithmetic.

In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, the acknowledgment number always announces

in modulo-2 arithmetic the sequence number of the next frame
expected.
BandwidthDelayProduct:
Assumethat,inaStop-and-WaitARQsystem,thebandwidthofthelineis1 Mbps, and 1 bit
takes 20 ms to make a round trip. What is the bandwidth-delay
product?Ifthesystemdataframesare1000bitsinlength,whatisthe utilization percentage
ofthe link?

Thelinkutilizationisonly1000/20,000,[Link],fora link with a high

bandwidth or long delay, the use of Stop-and-Wait ARQ wastes the capacity of the
link.

2. Go-Back-NAutomaticRepeatRequest

Toimprovetheefficiencyoftransmission(fillingthepipe),multipleframesmustbein
[Link]
words,weneedtoletmorethanoneframebeoutstandingtokeepthe
channelbusywhilethesenderiswaitingforacknowledgment.
 [Link]
sendseveralframesbeforereceivingacknowledgments;wekeepacopyof
theseframesuntiltheacknowledgmentsarrive.
IntheGo-Back-NProtocol,thesequencenumbersaremodulo2 m,
[Link]
[Link],ifmis4,theonly
sequencenumbersare0through15inclusive.

Thesenderwindowatanytimedividesthepossiblesequencenumbers into four

regions.
Thefirstregion,fromthefarlefttotheleftwallofthewindow,defines
thesequencenumbersbelongingtoframesthatarealreadyacknowledged.
Thesenderdoesnotworryabouttheseframesandkeepsnocopiesofthem.
The second region, colored in Figure (a), defines the range of sequence
[Link] sender
needs towaittofind outif these frameshave been receivedor were lost. We call these
outstanding frames.
Thethirdrange,whiteinthefigure,definestherangeofsequence
numbersforframesthatcanbesent;however,thecorrespondingdata
packetshavenotyetbeenreceivedfromthenetworklayer.
Finally,thefourthregiondefinessequencenumbersthatcannotbeused until the
window slides
Thesendwindowisanabstractconceptdefininganimaginaryboxof
size2m−1withthreevariables:Sf,Sn,[Link]
thesequencenumberofthefirst(oldest)[Link] holds the
sequence number that will be assigned to the next frame to be sent.
Finally,thevariableSsizedefinesthesizeofthewindow.
Figure(b)showshowasendwindowcanslideoneormoreslotstothe
[Link] acknowledgments in this
protocol are cumulative, meaning that more than one
[Link],frames0,I,and2are
acknowledged,[Link] value ofSfis 3
because frame 3 is now the first outstanding [Link] send
windowcanslideoneormoreslotswhenavalidacknowledgment arrives.

Receiverwindow:variableRn(receivewindow,nextframeexpected).
The sequence numbers to the left of the window belong to the frames already
received and acknowledged; the sequence numbers to the right of this window
[Link]
[Link]
sequencenumbermatchingthevalueofRnisacceptedandacknowledged.
Thereceivewindowalsoslides,[Link]
frameisreceived(andaframeisreceivedonlyoneatatime),thewindow
slides.(seebelowfigureforreceivingwindow)

Thereceivewindowisanabstractconceptdefininganimaginaryboxofsize1
[Link]
arrived;slidingoccursone slotata time

Fig:Receiverwindow(beforesliding(a),Aftersliding(b))
Timers
Althoughtherecanbeatimerforeachframethatissent,inourprotocolwe
[Link]
alwaysexpiresfirst;wesendalloutstandingframeswhenthistimerexpires.
Acknowledgment
The receiver sends a positive acknowledgment if a frame has arrived safe
[Link],the
receiverissilentandwilldiscardallsubsequentframesuntilitreceivesthe one it is
expecting. The silence of the receiver causes the timer of the unacknowledged
frame at the sender side to expire. This, in turn, causes
thesendertogobackandresendallframes,beginningwiththeonewiththe
[Link]
[Link].
ResendingaFrame
Whenthetimerexpires,[Link],supposeth
esenderhasalreadysentframe6,butthetimerfor
frame3expires.Thismeansthatframe3hasnotbeenacknowledged;the
sendergoesbackandsendsframes3,4,5,[Link] protocolis calledGo-
Back-NARQ.

Below figure is an example(if ack lost) of a case where the forward channel is
reliable,butthe reverse is not. No data frames are lost, butsome ACKs are
[Link]
acknowledgmentscanhelpifacknowledgmentsaredelayedorlost

Belowfigureisanexample(ifframelost)
Stop-and-Wait ARQ is a special case of Go-Back-N ARQ in which the size of the
send window is 1.

3SelectiveRepeatAutomaticRepeatRequest
InGo-Back-NARQ,Thereceiverkeepstrackofonlyonevariable,andthereis
noneedtobufferout-of-orderframes;[Link],
thisprotocolisveryinefficientforanoisylink.
In a noisy link a frame has a higher probability of damage, which means the
resending of multiple frames. This resending uses up the bandwidth and slowsdown
the transmission.
Fornoisylinks,thereisanothermechanismthatdoesnotresendNframes when just one
frame is damaged; only the damaged frame is resent. This
mechanismiscalledSelectiveRepeatARQ.
It is more efficient for noisy links, but the processing at the receiver is more
complex.

SenderWindow(explaingo-backNsenderwindowconcept(before&after sliding.) The

only difference in sender window between Go-back N and Selective Repeat is
Window size)
Receiverwindow

The receiver window in Selective Repeat is totally different from the oneinGo
Back-N. First, the size of the receivewindowisthe sameasthesize ofthe send window
(2m-1).
TheSelectiveRepeatProtocolallowsasmanyframesasthesizeofthe
receiverwindowtoarriveoutoforderandbekeptuntilthereisasetofin-
[Link]
sendwindowandreceivewindowarethesame,alltheframesinthesend
framecanarriveoutoforderandbestoreduntiltheycanbedelivered. However the
receiver never delivers packets out of order to the network layer. Above Figure
shows the receive window. Those slots inside the window that are colored define
frames that have arrived out of order and are waiting for their
neighborstoarrivebeforedeliverytothenetworklayer.

In Selective Repeat ARQ, the size of the sender and receiver window must be at
most one-half of 2m

DeliveryofDatainSelectiveRepeatARQ:

FlowDiagram
DifferencesbetweenGo-BackN&SelectiveRepeat

[Link],eachframesentor
resentneedsatimer,whichmeansthatthetimersneedtobenumbered(0,
1,2,and3).Thetimerforframe0startsatthefirstrequest,butstopswhen the ACK for this
frame arrives.
There are two conditions for the delivery of frames to the network
layer:First,[Link],thesetstarts
[Link],therewasonlyone
[Link],
therearethreeframesandthefirstonestartsfromthebeginningofthe window.
AnotherimportantpointisthataNAKissent.
The next point is about the ACKs. Notice that only two ACKs are sent [Link]
first one acknowledges only the first frame; the second one
[Link],ACKsaresentwhendataaredeliveredto
[Link], only oneACKis
sentfor allof them.

Piggybacking
A technique calledpiggybackingis used to improve the efficiency of the
[Link],itcanalso
carrycontrolinformationaboutarrived(orlost)framesfromB;whenaframe
iscarryingdatafromBtoA,itcanalsocarrycontrolinformationaboutthe arrived(or
lost)frames from A.
RANDOMACCESSPROTOCOLS
We can consider the data link layer as two sub layers. The upper sub layer is
responsible for data link control, and the lower sublayer is responsible for
resolvingaccesstothesharedmedia
The upper sub layer that is responsible for flow and error control is called the
logicallinkcontrol(LLC)layer;thelowersublayerthatismostlyresponsible
formultipleaccessresolutioniscalledthemediaaccesscontrol(MAC)layer.
Whennodesorstationsareconnectedanduseacommonlink,calleda multipoint or
broadcast link, we need a multiple-access protocol to coordinate access to the link.
Taxonomyofmultiple-accessprotocols

RANDOMACCESS
Inrandomaccessorcontentionmethods,nostationissuperiortoanother
stationandnoneisassignedthecontroloveranother.
[Link],thereisnoscheduledtime
[Link] why these
methods are calledrandom [Link], no rules specify whichstation
[Link] one another to access the
[Link].
ALOHA
1PureALOHA
The original ALOHA protocol is called pure ALOHA. This is a simple, but elegant
[Link]
[Link],sincethereisonlyonechanneltoshare,thereisthe
[Link]
showsanexampleofframecollisionsinpureALOHA.
 FramesinapureALOHAnetwork
InpureALOHA,thestationstransmitframeswhenevertheyhavedatatosend.
 Whentwoormorestationstransmitsimultaneously,thereiscollisionandthe frames are
destroyed.
 In pure ALOHA, whenever any station transmits a frame, it expects the
acknowledgementfrom the receiver.
 Ifacknowledgementisnotreceivedwithinspecifiedtime,thestationassumes
thattheframe(oracknowledgement)hasbeendestroyed.
 If theframeisdestroyedbecauseofcollisionthestationwaitsforarandom
[Link] be random
otherwisesameframeswillcollideagainandagain.
 ThereforepureALOHAdictatesthatwhentime-outperiodpasses,each station
mustwaitfora [Link]
randomnesswillhelpavoidmorecollisions.
VulnerabletimeLetusfindthelengthoftime,thevulnerabletime,in which there is a
possibility of collision. We assume that the stations send fixed - length frames with
each frame takingTfrS to send. Below Figure shows the vulnerable time for station
A.

[Link] frame between t-

Tfr and [Link] leads to a collision between the frames from station A and station B.
The end of B's frame collides with the beginning of
A'[Link],supposethatstationCsendsaframebetweentand
t+[Link],thereisacollisionbetweenframesfromstationAandstationC.
ThebeginningofC'sframecollideswiththeendofA'sframe
 LookingatFigure,weseethatthevulnerabletime,duringwhichacollision
mayoccurinpureALOHA,[Link]
time=2xTfr

ProcedureforpureALOHAprotocol

Example
A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a sharedchannel of 200
kbps. What is the requirement tomake this frame collision-free?
Solution
AverageframetransmissiontimeTfris200bits/[Link]
vulnerabletimeis2x1ms=[Link]
than1msbeforethisstationstartstransmissionandnostationshouldstart
sendingduringtheoneI-msperiodthatthisstationissending.
The throughput for pure ALOHA is S = G × e −2G . The maximum
throughputSmax= 0.184whenG=(1/2).
PROBLEM
ApureALOHAnetworktransmits200-bitframesonasharedchannelof200
[Link](allstationstogether)producesa.
1000framespersecondb.500framespersecondc.250framespersecond.
Theframetransmissiontimeis200/200kbpsor1ms.
a. Ifthesystemcreates1000framespersecond,thisis1frameper
 [Link]=G×e−2GorS=0.135(13.5
percent).Thismeansthatthethroughputis1000×0.135=135frames.
Only135framesoutof1000willprobablysurvive.
b. Ifthesystemcreates500framespersecond,thisis(1/2)frameper
[Link](1/2).InthiscaseS=G×e −2GorS=0.184(18.4 percent). This
meansthatthethroughputis500×
0.184=[Link]
thatthisisthemaximumthroughputcase,percentagewise.
c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)frame per
[Link] loadis (1/4).In this case S=G× e−2Gor S= 0.152 (15.2
percent).Thismeansthatthethroughputis250×0.152=38.Only38frames outof 250
willprobably survive.
2SlottedALOHA

[Link]
[Link] another station
has started or soon before another station has finished. Slotted
ALOHAwasinventedtoimprovetheefficiencyofpureALOHA.

In slottedALOHAwedividethetimeintoslotsofTfrsandforce the station to

sendonlyatthebeginningofthetimeslot.Figure3showsanexampleof framecollisions in
slotted ALOHA

FIG:3
Because a station isallowedtosendonly atthe beginningofthe synchronized
timeslot,ifastationmissesthismoment,itmustwaituntilthebeginningof
[Link] of this slot
has already finished sending its frame. Of course, there is still the
possibilityofcollisioniftwostationstrytosendatthebeginningofthesame
[Link],thevulnerabletimeisnowreducedtoone-half,equalto TfrFigure 4
showsthe situation
Below fig shows that the vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA is one-half that of
[Link]=Tfr
 Thethroughput forslotted ALOHAisS=G ×e−G .The maximum throughput
Smax = 0.368 when G =1.

A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames using a shared channel witha200-
Kbps bandwidth. Find the throughput if the system (all stations together) produces
a. 1000framespersecondb.500framespersecondc.250 frames per
second
Solution
Thissituationissimilartothepreviousexerciseexceptthatthenetworkis using slotted
ALOHA instead of pure ALOHA. The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1
ms.
a. [Link]=Gxe-GorS=0.368(36.8percent).Thismeansthat
thethroughputis1000x0.0368=368frames.Only368outof1000frames will probably
survive. Note that this is the maximum throughput case, percentagewise.
b. HereGis1/2InthiscaseS=Gxe-GorS=0.303(30.3percent).This
meansthatthethroughputis500x0.0303=151.Only151framesoutof 500 will probably
survive.
c. NowGis1/[Link]=Gxe-GorS=0.195(19.5percent).This
meansthatthethroughputis250x0.195=49.Only49framesoutof250 will probably
survive
ComparisonbetweenPureAloha&SlottedAloha
CarrierSenseMultipleAccess(CSMA)
Tominimizethechanceofcollisionand,therefore,increasethe performance, the
CSMA method was developed. The chance of collision can be reduced if a station
senses the medium before trying to use [Link] sensemultiple access
(CSMA)requires that each station first listen to the medium
(orcheckthestateofthemedium)[Link],CSMAisbasedontheprinci
ple"sensebeforetransmit"or "listenbeforetalk."
CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it cannot eliminate it. The
reason for this is shown in below [Link] are connected to a
sharedchannel(usually adedicatedmedium).
The possibility of collision still exists because of propagation delay; station may
sense the medium and find it idle, only because the first bit sent by
anotherstationhasnotyetbeen received.
AttimetI'stationBsensesthemediumandfindsitidle,soitsendsa
frame.Attimet2(t2>tI)'stationCsensesthemediumandfindsitidle
because,atthistime,thefirstbitsfromstationB
[Link] collide andboth
framesare destroyed.
 Space/timemodelofthecollisioninCSMA
Vulnerable Time
[Link]
neededforasignaltopropagatefromoneendofthemediumtotheother.
Whenastationsendsaframe,andanyotherstationtriestosendaframe
duringthistime,[Link] the end of the
medium, every station will already have heard the bit and will refrain from sending
VulnerabletimeinCSMA

PersistenceMethods
What should a station do if the channel is busy? What should a station do if the
channelisidle?Threemethodshavebeendevisedtoanswerthesequestions: the1-
persistentmethod,thenon-persistentmethod,andthep-persistentmethod
1-Persistent:Inthismethod,afterthestationfindsthelineidle,itsendsits frame
immediately (with probability 1). This method has the highest chance of
collisionbecausetwoormorestationsmayfindthelineidleandsendtheir frames
immediately.
Non-persistent:[Link] is idle, it sends
immediately. If the line is not idle, it waits a random amount of
[Link]
sunlikelythattwoormorestationswillwaitthesame
[Link],thismethodreducesthe
efficiency ofthenetworkbecause the mediumremainsidlewhen
theremaybestationswithframestosend.
p-Persistent:Thisisusedifthechannelhastimeslotswithaslotduration equalto or
greaterthan [Link]-persistent approach combines the
advantages of the other two strategies. It reduces the
chanceofcollisionandimprovesefficiency.
Inthismethod,afterthestationfindsthelineidleitfollowsthesesteps:
1. Withprobabilityp,thestationsendsitsframe.
2. Withprobabilityq=1-p,thestationwaitsforthebeginningofthenext time
slotandchecksthe lineagain.
a. Ifthelineisidle,itgoestostep1.
b. If the line is busy, it acts as though a collision has occurred and uses the
backoff procedure.
 a.
CarrierSenseMultipleAccesswithCollisionDetection(CSMA/CD)
TheCSMAmethoddoesnotspecifytheprocedurefollowingacollision. Carrier sense
multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) augments the algorithmto
handle thecollision.
Inthismethod,astationmonitorsthemediumafteritsendsaframeto see if the
transmission was successful. If so, the station is finished. If, however,
thereisacollision,theframe issentagain.
TobetterunderstandCSMA/CD,letuslookatthefirstbitstransmittedby
[Link]
sendbitsintheframeuntilitdetectsthecollision,weshowwhathappensas
[Link],stationsAandCareinvolvedinthe collision.
CollisionofthefirstbitinCSMA/CD

At timet1, stationAhasexecuteditspersistenceprocedureandstarts sending the bits of

its frame. At timet2, stationC hasnotyetsensedthe first bit sent by [Link]
Cexecutes itspersistenceprocedureand startssending the bits in its frame,which
propagate both to the left and to the right. The collision occurs sometime after
[Link] C detects a collision at timet3 when it receives the first bit of
A'[Link] immediately(oraftera short time, but we assume immediately)
aborts transmission.
StationAdetectscollisionattimet4whenitreceivesthefirstbitofC'sframe;
[Link],weseethatA
transmitsforthedurationt4-tl;Ctransmitsforthedurationt3-t2.
MinimumFrameSize
ForCSMAlCDtowork,[Link] the last bit of
the frame, the sending station must detect a collision, if any, and
[Link],oncetheentireframeis
sent,doesnotkeepacopyoftheframeanddoesnotmonitorthelinefor
[Link],theframetransmissiontimeTfrmustbeatleasttwotimesthe
[Link],letus thinkabouttheworst-
[Link]
arethemaximumdistanceapart,thesignalfromthefirsttakestimeTpto
reachthesecond,andtheeffectofthecollisiontakesanothertimeTptoreach
[Link] after 2Tp .
 CollisionandabortioninCSMA/CD

FlowdiagramfortheCSMA/CD
PROBLEM
AnetworkusingCSMA/CD has abandwidthof [Link] the maximum
propagationtime(includingthedelaysinthedevicesandignoringthetime
neededtosendajammingsignal,asweseelater)is25.6μs,whatisthe minimum size of the
frame?
SOL
TheframetransmissiontimeisTfr=2×Tp=51.2μ[Link],inthe worstcase, a station
needs to transmit for a period of 51.2 μs to detect the collision. The minimum
sizeof the frame is 10 Mbps × 51.2 μs = 512 bits or
[Link].

DIFFERENCESBETWEENALOHA&CSMA/CD
The first difference is the addition of the persistence process. We need to
sense the channel before we startsending the frame by using one of thepersistence
processes
[Link],wefirst transmit the
entire frame and then wait for an acknowledgment. InCSMA/CD,
[Link]
[Link] receives
continuously and simultaneously
 The third difference is the sending of a short jamming signal that enforces
thecollisionincaseotherstationshavenotyetsensedthecollision.

CarrierSenseMultipleAccesswithCollisionAvoidance(CSMA/CA)
Weneedtoavoidcollisionsonwirelessnetworksbecausetheycannotbe
[Link](CSMAlCA)was invented for
wirelesss network. Collisions are avoided through the use of CSMA/CA'sthree
strategies: the inter frame space, the contention window, and

acknowledgments,asshowninFigure
TiminginCSMA/CA
InterframeSpace(IFS)
First,collisionsareavoidedbydeferringtransmissionevenifthechannel
[Link],[Link]
riodoftimecalledtheinterframespaceorIFS.
Eventhoughthechannelmayappearidlewhenitissensed,adistant
[Link]'ssignalhas
[Link]
[Link]
channelisstillidle,thestationcansend,butitstillneedstowaitatimeequal
[Link] or frame
types. For example, a station that is assigned shorter IFS has a higher priority.
InCSMA/CA,theIFScanalsobeusedtodefinethepriorityofastationoraframe.

ContentionWindow
[Link] that is ready
to send chooses a random number of slots as its wait time. The
numberofslotsinthewindowchangesaccordingtothebinaryexponential back-off
strategy. This means that it is set to one slot the first time and then doubles each
time the station cannot detect an idle channel after the [Link] is very similar
to the p-persistent method except that a random outcome
definesthenumberofslotstakenbythewaitingstation.
Oneinterestingpointaboutthecontentionwindowisthatthestation
[Link],ifthestationfinds the channel
busy, it does not restart the process; it just stops the timer
[Link] with the
longest waiting time.
 In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart thetimer
of the contention window; itstops the timer and restarts it when thechannel
becomes idle.
Acknowledgment
Withalltheseprecautions,therestillmaybeacollisionresultingin
[Link],thedatamaybecorruptedduringthetransmission.
Thepositiveacknowledgmentandthetime-outtimercanhelpguaranteethat the
receiverhas receivedthe frame.

ThisistheCSMAprotocolwithcollisionavoidance.
 The station ready to transmit,sensesthe line by using one of the persistent
strategies.
 As soon as itfinds the line to be idle,the station waitsfor anIFS (Inter frame
space) amount of time.
 Ifthenwaitsforsomerandomtimeandsendstheframe.
 After sending the frame, it sets a timer and waits for the acknowledgement
from the receiver.
 Iftheacknowledgementisreceivedbeforeexpiryofthetimer,thenthe
transmissionissuccessful.
 But if the transmitting station does not receive the expected
acknowledgementbeforethetimerexpirythenitincrementsthebackoff
 parameter,waitsforthebackofftimeandresensestheline

ControlledAccessProtocols

Incontrolledaccess,thestationsseekinformationfromoneanothertofind which station

has the right to send. It allows only one node to send at a time, to
avoidcollisionofmessagesonshared medium.
Thethreecontrolled-accessmethodsare:

1Reservation2Polling3TokenPassing

Reservation

 In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before

sending data.
 Thetimelinehastwokindsofperiods:
1. Reservationintervaloffixedtimelength
2. Datatransmissionperiodofvariableframes.
 If there are M stations, the reservation interval is divided into M slots, and
each station has one slot.
 Supposeifstation1hasaframetosend,ittransmits1bitduringtheslot
1. Nootherstationisallowedtotransmitduringthisslot.
 Ingeneral,ithstationmayannouncethatithasaframetosendby inserting a 1 bit into
i th slot. After all N slots have been checked, each station
knowswhichstationswishto transmit.
 The stations which have reserved their slots transfer their frames in that
order.
 Afterdatatransmissionperiod,nextreservationintervalbegins.
 Sinceeveryoneagreesonwhogoesnext,therewillneverbeany collisions.

The following figure shows a situation with five stations and afiveslot reservation
frame. In the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 ha ve made [Link]
the second interval, only station 1 hasmadea reservation.
 Polling
 Polling process is similar to the roll-call performedin [Link] theteacher,a
controllersendsamessagetoeachnodein turn.
 Inthis,oneactsasaprimarystation(controller)andtheothersare
[Link].
 Themessagesentbythecontrollercontainstheaddressofthenode beingselectedfor
grantingaccess.
 Althoughallnodesreceivethemessagebuttheaddressedoneresponds toitandsends
data,[Link] is nodata,usually a“pollreject”(NAK) message is sent back.
 Problemsincludehighoverheadofthepollingmessagesandhigh
dependenceonthereliabilityofthecontroller.

TokenPassing
 Intokenpassingscheme,thestations areconnectedlogicallytoeach other
in form of ringandaccess of stations is governed bytokens.
 A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulate from
onestationtothenextinthesomepredefinedorder.
 InTokenring,tokenispassedfromonestationtoanotheradjacentstation
intheringwhereasincaseofTokenbus,eachstation usesthebustosendthetoken
tothenextstationin somepredefinedorder.
 Inbothcases,[Link]
framequeuedfortransmissionwhenitreceivesthetoken,itcansendthat
[Link], it passes the
token simply.
 After sending a frame, each station must wait for all N stations (including
itself)tosendthetokentotheirneighborsandtheotherN–1stationstosend a frame, if they
have one.
 Thereexistsproblemslikeduplicationoftokenortokenislostorinsertion
ofnewstation,removalofastation,whichneedbetackledforcorrectand reliable
operation of this scheme.

ErrorDetection

Error
Aconditionwhenthereceiver’sinformationdoesnotmatcheswiththesender’s
[Link],digitalsignalssufferfromnoisethatcan
[Link] means a 0
bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0.
Error Detecting Codes (Implemented either at Data link layer or
Transport Layer of OSI Model)
Wheneveramessageistransmitted,itmaygetscrambledbynoiseordata
[Link],weuseerror-detectingcodeswhichare
additionaldataaddedtoagivendigitalmessagetohelpusdetectifanyerror
hasoccurredduringtransmissionofthemessage.
Basicapproachusedforerrordetectionistheuseofredundancybits,where
[Link] techniques
forerror detection are:

1. SimpleParitycheck

2. Two-dimensionalParitycheck

3. Checksum

4. Cyclicredundancycheck

SimpleParitycheck
Blocksofdatafromthesourcearesubjectedtoacheckbitorparitybit generator
form,wherea parity of:1is addedtotheblockifitcontains odd number of 1’s, and
0isaddedifitcontainsevennumberof1’s
Thisschememakesthetotalnumberof1’seven,thatiswhyitiscalledeven
paritychecking.

Two-dimensionalParitycheck
Paritycheckbitsarecalculatedforeachrow,whichisequivalenttoasimple
[Link],thenboth are sent
along with the data. At the receiving end these are compared with the
paritybitscalculatedonthereceiveddata.
Checksum
 In checksumerror detection scheme, the data is divided intok segments
each of m bits.
 In the sender’s end the segments are added using 1’s complement
[Link] sumiscomplementedtoget thechecksum.
 Thechecksumsegmentissentalongwiththedatasegments.
 At the receiver’s end, all received segmentsare added using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is complemented.
 Iftheresultiszero,thereceiveddataisaccepted;otherwisediscarded.

Cyclicredundancycheck(CRC)
 Unlikechecksumscheme,whichisbasedonaddition,CRC isbasedonbinary division.
 In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits,calledcyclic redundancycheck bits, are
appended to the end of data unitso that the resultingdata unit becomes
exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.
 Atthedestination,[Link]
atthisstepthereisnoremainder,thedataunitisassumedtobecorrectand is therefore
accepted.
 A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and
therefore must be rejected.

ErrorCorrection
Error Correction codes are used to detectand correct the errors when data is
transmittedfromthesenderto thereceiver.

ErrorCorrectioncanbehandledintwoways:
Backwarderrorcorrection:Oncethe errorisdiscovered,thereceiverrequests the
sender to retransmit the entire data unit.
Forwarderrorcorrection:Inthiscase,thereceiverusestheerror-correcting code which
automaticallycorrectstheerrors.
Asingleadditionalbitcandetecttheerror,butcannotcorrectit.
For correcting the errors, one has to know the exact position of the error. For
example, If we want to calculate a single-bit error, the error correction code will
determine which one of seven bits is inerror. To achieve this,we haveto add some
additional redundant bits.

Suppose r is the number of redundant bits and d is the total numberofthe data
[Link]:
r
2 >=d+r+1
Thevalueof r [Link] example,if thevalue
ofdis4,thenthepossiblesmallestvaluethatsatisfiestheaboverelationwould be 3.

Todeterminethepositionofthebitwhichisinerror,atechniquedevelopedby
[Link] is Hammingcode whichcan be applied to any length of the data
unitandusestherelationshipbetweendataunitsandredundantunits.

HammingCode
Paritybits:Thebitwhichisappendedtotheoriginaldataofbinarybitssothat the
totalnumberof1s iseven or odd.
Even parity:To check for even parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the
value of the parity bit is 0. If the total number of 1s occurrences is odd, then the
value of the parity bit is 1.
OddParity:Tocheckforoddparity,ifthetotalnumberof1siseven,thenthe
valueofparitybitis1.Ifthetotalnumberof1sisodd,thenthevalueofparity bit is 0.
AlgorithmofHammingcode:
An informationof 'd' bitsare addedto the redundantbits 'r' to formd+r.
Thelocationofeachofthe(d+r)digitsisassignedadecimalvalue.
The'r'bitsareplacedinthepositions1,2,...2k-1
At the receivingend, the parity bits are [Link] decimal value of the
paritybitsdeterminesthepositionofanerror.
Relationshipb/wErrorposition&binarynumber.

Let's understandtheconceptofHammingcodethroughanexample:

Supposetheoriginaldatais1010whichistobesent.

Total number ofdata bits 'd' = 4

r
Numberofredundantbitsr:2 >=d+r+1
 r
2 >= 4+r+1
Therefore, the value of r is 3 that satisfies the above relation.
Totalnumberofbits=d+r=4+3=7;

Determiningthepositionoftheredundantbits
Thenumberofredundantbitsis3.Thethreebitsarerepresentedbyr1,r2,r4. The position
of the redundant bits is calculated with corresponds to the raised
[Link],theircorrespondingpositionsare1,2 1,22.
Thepositionofr1=1,Thepositionofr2=2,Thepositionofr4=4

RepresentationofDataontheadditionofparitybits:

DeterminingtheParitybits
Determiningther1bit:Ther1bitiscalculatedbyperformingaparitycheckon
thebitpositionswhosebinaryrepresentationincludes1in thefirstposition.

Weobservefromtheabovefigurethatthebitpositionthatincludes1inthe first position are

1, 3, 5, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit
positions.Thetotalnumberof1atthesebitpositionscorrespondingtor1is
even,therefore,the valueof ther1bitis0.

Determiningr2bit:Ther2bitiscalculatedbyperformingaparitycheckonthe
bitpositionswhosebinaryrepresentationincludes1inthesecondposition

We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the
secondpositionare2,3,6,[Link],we performtheeven-paritycheckatthese
bit positions. The total number of 1at these bit positions corresponding to r2
isodd,therefore,thevalueofther2bitis 1.

Determiningr4bit:Ther4bitiscalculatedbyperformingaparitycheckonthe
bitpositionswhosebinaryrepresentationincludes1inthethirdposition.

Weobservefromtheabovefigurethatthebitpositionsthatincludes1inthe third position

are 4, 5, 6, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit
positions.Thetotalnumberof1atthesebitpositionscorrespondingtor4is
even,therefore,the valueof ther4bitis0.

Datatransferredisgivenbelow:

Supposethe4thbitischangedfrom0to1atthereceivingend,thenparitybits are
recalculated.

R1 bit
Thebitpositionsofthe r1bitare 1,3,5,7

Weobservefromtheabovefigurethatthebinaryrepresentation ofr1is1100.
Now,weperformtheeven-paritycheck,thetotalnumberof1sappearinginthe
[Link],thevalueofr1is0.

R2 bit
Thebitpositionsofr2bitare2,3,6,7.
Weobservefromtheabovefigurethatthebinaryrepresentation ofr2is1001.
Now,weperformtheeven-paritycheck,thetotalnumberof1sappearinginthe
[Link],thevalueofr2is0.

R4 bit
Thebitpositionsofr4bitare4,5,6,7.

Weobservefromtheabovefigurethatthebinaryrepresentationofr4is1011.
Now,weperformtheeven-paritycheck,thetotalnumberof1sappearinginthe
[Link],thevalueofr4is1.

The binary representation of redundant bits, i.e., r4r2r1 is 100, and

[Link],theerroroccursina4thbit
position.Thebitvaluemustbechangedfrom1to0tocorrecttheerror.

WiredLANs:Ethernet
In1985,theComputerSocietyoftheIEEEstartedaproject,calledProject 802, to set
standards to enable intercommunication among equipment from a variety of
manufacturers. Project 802 is a way of specifying functions of the
physicallayerandthedatalinklayerofmajorLANprotocols.

Therelationshipofthe802StandardtothetraditionalOSImodelisshownin below Figure.

The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sub layers:
logicallinkcontrol(LLC)andmediaaccesscontrol).

IEEEhasalsocreatedseveralphysicallayerstandardsfordifferentLAN protocols
 IEEEstandardforLANs

STANDARDETHERNET
The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research
Center(PARC).Sincethen,ithasgonethroughfourgenerations.
Standard Ethernet (l0 Mbps), Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet(l
Gbps), and Ten-Gigabit Ethernet (l0 Gbps),
WebrieflydiscusstheStandard(ortraditional)Ethernetinthissection

Ethernetevolutionthroughfourgenerations

MACSublayer
In Standard Ethernet, the MAC sublayer governs the operation of the access
[Link] the physical
layer.
FrameFormat
TheEthernetframecontainssevenfields:preamble,SFD,DA,SA,lengthor
typeofprotocoldataunit(PDU),upper-layerdata,[Link]
notprovideanymechanismforacknowledgingreceivedframes,makingit
[Link]
[Link] below figure
 802.3MACframe

Preamble. The first field of the 802.3 framecontains 7 bytes (56 bits) ofalternating
0s and 1s that alerts the receiving system to the coming frame and
[Link]
andatimingpulse.The56-bitpatternallowsthestationstomisssomebitsat
[Link]
layerandisnot(formally)partof theframe.
Start frame delimiter (SFD).The second field (l byte: 10101011) signals the
[Link]
lastchanceforsynchronization.Thelast2bitsis11andalertsthereceiver
thatthenextfieldisthedestinationaddress.
Destinationaddress(DA).TheDAfieldis6bytesandcontainsthephysical
addressofthedestinationstationorstationstoreceivethepacket.
Sourceaddress(SA).TheSAfieldisalso6bytesandcontainsthephysical
addressofthesenderofthepacket.
Length or type. This field is defined as a type field or length field. The original
Ethernetusedthisfieldasthetypefieldtodefinetheupper-layerprotocol
[Link]
thenumberofbytesin [Link].
Data. This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols. It is a
minimumof46andamaximumof1500bytes.
[Link],inthiscaseaCRC-32

FrameLength
Ethernethasimposedrestrictionsonboththeminimumandmaximumlengths of a
frame,as shown in below Figure

Minimumandmaximumlengths

AnEthernetframeneedstohaveaminimumlengthof512bitsor64 bytes. Part of this

length is the header and the trailer. If we count 18 bytes of header and trailer (6
bytes of source address, 6 bytes of destination address,
2bytesoflengthortype,and4bytesofCRC),thentheminimumlengthofdata
fromtheupperlayeris64-18=[Link]-layerpacketisless
than46bytes,paddingisaddedtomake upthedifference
Thestandarddefinesthemaximumlengthofaframe(withoutpreamble andSFD
field)[Link] we subtractthe18bytesofheaderandtrailer,
themaximumlengthofthepayloadis1500bytes.
Themaximumlengthrestrictionhastwohistoricalreasons.
First,memorywasveryexpensivewhenEthernetwasdesigned:amaximum
lengthrestrictionhelpedtoreducethesizeofthebuffer.
Second,themaximumlengthrestrictionpreventsonestationfrom
monopolizingthesharedmedium,blockingotherstationsthathavedatatosend.

Addressing
TheEthernetaddressis6bytes(48bits),normallywritteninhexadecimalnotation,withacolon
betweenthebytes.
Example of an Ethernet address in hexadecimalnotation

Unicast,Multicast,andBroadcastAddressesAsourceaddressisalwaysa unicastaddress-
[Link],however,canbeunicast,m
ulticast,[Link]
showshowtodistinguishaunicastaddressfromamulticastaddress.

Iftheleastsignificantbitofthefirstbyteinadestinationaddressis0,the
addressisunicast;otherwise,itismulticast.

Unicastandmulticastaddresses

Aunicastdestinationaddressdefinesonlyonerecipient;therelationship
betweenthesenderandthereceiverisone-to-one.
A multicast destination address defines a group of addresses; the relationship
betweenthesenderandthereceiversisone-to-many.
Thebroadcastaddressisaspecialcaseofthemulticastaddress;therecipients
[Link]-eight 1s.
AccessMethod:CSMA/CD
Standard Ethernetuses I-persistentCSMA/CD Slot
Time In an Ethernet network.
Slottime=round-triptime+timerequiredtosendthejamsequence

[Link]
to send 512 bits. This meansthattheactualslot timedependsonthedata rate; for
traditional 10-Mbps Ethernet it is 51.2 micro sec.

SlotTimeandMaximumNetworkLengthThereisarelationshipbetweenthe slot time and

the maximum length of the network (collision domain). Itis
dependentonthepropagationspeedof thesignalintheparticularmedium.
Inmosttransmissionmedia,thesignalpropagatesat2x10 8m/s(two-thirdsof the rate
forpropagationinair).
FortraditionalEthernet,wecalculate
MaxLength =PropagationSpeedx (SlotTime/2)
MaxLength=(2x108)X(51.2X10 -6)/2=5120m

Ofcourse,weneedtoconsiderthedelaytimesinrepeatersandinterfaces, and the time

required to send the jam sequence. These reduce the maximum- length of a
traditional Ethernet network to 2500 m, just 48 percent of the
[Link]=2500m

PhysicalLayer

TheStandardEthernetdefinesseveralphysicallayerimplementations;fourofthe
mostcommon,are showninFigure

EncodingandDecoding

All standard implementations use digital signaling (baseband) at 10 Mbps. At the

sender,dataareconvertedtoadigitalsignalusingtheManchesterscheme;at the receiver,
the received signal is interpreted as Manchester and decoded intodata. Manchester
encoding is self-synchronous, providing a transition at each bit [Link]
showstheencodingschemeforStandardEthernet
In Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization

lOBase5:ThickEthernet

Thefirstimplementationiscalled10Base5,thickEthernet,orThicknet. lOBase5 wasthe

first Ethernetspecification to useabustopologywithan
externaltransceiver(transmitter/receiver)connectedviaataptoathick
[Link] diagram ofa lOBase5 implementation

10Base5implementation

10Base2:ThinEthernet

The second implementation is called 10 Base2,thinEthernet, or Cheapernet.

10Base2alsousesabustopology,butthecableismuchthinnerandmore
flexible.Figureshowstheschematicdiagramofa10Base2implementation.

10Base2implementation

thincoaxialcableislessexpensivethanthickcoaxial.
Installation is simpler because the thin coaxial cable is very [Link],
the length of each segmentcannotexceed 185m (close to 200 m) due to the
high level of attenuation in thin coaxialcable.

1OBase-T:Twisted-PairEthernet
The third implementation is called 10Base-T or twisted-pair Ethernet. It uses a
[Link] twistedcable,as
shown in Figure
Themaximumlengthofthetwistedcablehereisdefinedas100m,tominimize
theeffectofattenuationinthetwistedcable

10Base-Timplementation
Although there are several types of optical fiber 10-Mbps Ethernet, the most
commoniscalled10Base-F.10Base-Fusesastartopologytoconnectstations to a hub. The
stations are connected to the hub using two fiber-optic cables, as shown in Figure
10Base-Fimplementation