STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
INTERVIEW PREPARATION GUIDE
Consulting & Design Firms | Buildings & Industrial
Technical Concepts • AS 3600 Concrete Design • AS 4100 Steel Design
Buildings & Industrial Structures • Serviceability • Consulting Practice
Prepared for: Senior Structural Engineer Interview
12 Years Experience | M.E. Structural | CPEng Candidate
TOPIC 1: Structural Analysis Fundamentals
1.1 Load Types & Load Combinations (AS/NZS 1170)
A consulting firm interviewer will almost certainly start here. Be fluent in load types and how they
combine under Australian Standards.
Load Type Symbol Standard Key Notes
Dead Load G AS 1170.1 Self-weight of structure + permanent
fixtures
Live Load Q AS 1170.1 Occupancy-dependent; check Table 3.1
for values
Wind Load W AS/NZS 1170.2 Critical for tall buildings & industrial sheds
Earthquake E AS 1170.4 Importance level and site sub-soil class
drive design
Snow S AS/NZS 1170.3 Rarely governs in QLD but know it exists
Thermal/Shrinkage T AS 3600 / AS Often missed; important for long structures
4600
Key Load Combinations — AS/NZS 1170.0
• ULS (Strength): 1.2G + 1.5Q — most common governing combo
• ULS with wind: 1.2G + Wu + ψcQ (ψc = combination factor from Table 4.1)
• ULS with earthquake: G + Eu + ψcQ
• SLS (Serviceability): 1.0G + ψsQ (ψs = short-term combination factor)
• SLS long-term: 1.0G + ψlQ (ψl = long-term combination factor for deflection)
💡 Interview Tip: Always mention you check BOTH ULS and SLS in your design process. Many
candidates forget SLS. Consultants care deeply about serviceability because that is what clients
feel — cracking, vibration, deflection.
1.2 Load Path — The Most Fundamental Concept
If there is one thing a consulting interviewer will probe, it is your intuition about load paths. Every
load must have a continuous, traceable path from where it is applied all the way down to foundation.
Typical load path in a multi-storey building:
• Slab → Secondary Beams → Primary Beams → Columns
• Columns → Transfer Structure (if applicable) → Pad/Raft Footing → Soil
📌 Key Point: What interviewers look for: Can you trace the load path for an irregular structure?
Do you understand how removing one element redistributes load? Can you identify where the
load path is weak or discontinuous?
1.3 Lateral Load Resisting Systems
Very common interview topic for buildings and high-rise roles. Know these systems and when to use
each.
System How It Works Best For
Shear Walls In-plane stiffness resists lateral loads; RC buildings — most common in
walls act as vertical cantilevers Australia
Moment Frames Rigidity at beam-column joints resists Steel buildings needing open
sway floor plans
Braced Frames Diagonal bracing carries axial load to Industrial, steel-framed buildings
resist lateral forces
Core + Outrigger Central RC core + perimeter columns High-rise buildings (20+ storeys)
linked by stiff outrigger floors
Dual System Shear walls + moment frames combined; Seismic zones, added
frames carry 25% of base shear redundancy
1.4 Interview Questions — Structural Analysis
Q: Walk me through how you determine the lateral wind load on a building.
A: Determine building classification and importance level → identify wind region from AS
1170.2 Figure 3.1 → select terrain category → calculate site wind speed Vdes,θ → calculate
design wind pressures using Cp,e and Cp,i coefficients → distribute to diaphragm levels →
transfer to lateral resisting system. For tall or dynamically sensitive buildings, I check
whether dynamic analysis is required per Clause 6.1 (h/b > 5 or first mode frequency < 1
Hz).
Q: What is a transfer structure and what are the design challenges?
A: A transfer beam, plate, or wall redirects load from columns above that do not continue to
foundation — common in podium buildings where column grids change. Key challenges:
very high shear and bending demand requiring deep sections; coordination with services;
differential settlement concerns; punching shear at column heads; construction sequence
loading during pour before the structure above provides restraint; and long-term creep in
post-tensioned transfer plates.
Q: What is the difference between a determinate and indeterminate structure?
A: A statically determinate structure can be solved from equilibrium alone — reactions and
member forces are unique. Indeterminate structures have more unknowns than equilibrium
equations, so you need compatibility conditions and stiffness to solve them. In practice,
nearly all real structures are indeterminate, which provides redundancy — if one element
yields, load redistributes. The trade-off is that stiffness assumptions matter, temperature
effects and settlement induce additional forces, and analysis requires FEM tools like ETABS
or SpaceGass.
Q: How do you decide which lateral system to use?
A: It depends on building height, aspect ratio, wind and seismic demand, architectural
constraints, and construction method. For a mid-rise RC building in Brisbane, shear walls are
typically most efficient and suit jump-form construction. For a steel industrial structure,
braced frames are preferred for simplicity. As height increases past about 20 storeys, a core-
outrigger system becomes more competitive. In seismic zones, a dual system (shear wall +
moment frame) is often required to achieve the necessary ductility and redundancy.
TOPIC 2: AS 3600 — Concrete Design
2.1 Key Concepts & Clauses You Must Know
AS 3600:2018 is the current edition. Know the key clause numbers — citing them in an interview
signals genuine familiarity with the standard.
Design Aspect Key What to Know
Clause
Concrete strength Cl. 3.1.1 f'c = characteristic compressive strength at 28 days; fc =
0.9f'c in flexure
Flexural strength Cl. 8.1 φMu ≥ M*; φ = 0.85 for bending; ku ≤ 0.36 for ductility
Shear strength (beams) Cl. 8.2 φVu ≥ V*; include Vuc (concrete) + Vus (stirrups)
Deflection control Cl. 8.5 Deemed-to-comply L/d ratios OR refined calc with Ief
Cracking control Cl. 8.6 Bar spacing and size limits to control crack widths
Columns Cl. 10 Combined bending + axial; slenderness check; braced vs
unbraced
Slabs — one way Cl. 9.1 Treat as wide beam; check flexure, shear, deflection
Slabs — two way Cl. 9.4 Idealised frame method or yield line; check punching
shear
Punching shear Cl. 9.2 Critical perimeter at dom/2 from column face; dom =
mean effective depth
Development length Cl. 13.1 Lsy.t for tension; [Link] for compression; applies at all
bar cutoffs
Cover Cl. 4.10 Exposure classification A1/A2/B1/B2/C1/C2 drives
minimum cover
Minimum reinforcement Cl. 8.1.6 [Link] to prevent brittle failure on first crack
2.2 Flexural Design — Singly Reinforced Beam
Step-by-step process:
• 1. Calculate factored moment M* from load combinations
• 2. Assume effective depth d = overall depth D − cover − tie − bar_dia/2
• 3. Estimate required Ast using: Ast ≈ M* / (φ × fsy × 0.9d)
• 4. Calculate ku = Ast×fsy / (α2×f'c×b×d) — must be ≤ 0.36 for ductile failure
• 5. Calculate Muo = Ast×fsy×d×(1 − 0.5×ku×γ) and verify φMuo ≥ M*
• 6. Check Ast ≥ [Link] = (0.20/fsy)×(D/d)²×bw×d
📌 Key Point: ku ≤ 0.36 ensures tensile reinforcement yields before concrete crushes — ductile
failure mode. For doubly reinforced sections, ku can exceed 0.36 if compression steel is
provided.
💡 Interview Tip: In an interview, if asked to do a quick check, show the process even if you
skip exact numbers. Showing the right thought process matters more than mental arithmetic.
2.3 Shear Design — Beams
AS 3600:2018 introduced significant changes to shear design, moving closer to the Modified
Compression Field Theory (MCFT). Know the new approach.
• Design shear: V* ≤ φVu where Vu = Vuc + Vus
• Vuc depends on: bw, dv, f'c, Ast, and now a size factor kv from Cl. 8.2.4
• Vus = (Asv/s) × fsy.f × dv × (cot θv) — stirrup contribution
• θv = strut angle; default 36° for non-prestressed members
• Maximum shear capacity: [Link] = 0.55×(f'c + 0.25)×bw×dv — check crushing
📌 Key Point: AS 3600:2018 removed the simplified Vuc formula from the 2009 edition. The
new formula uses the longitudinal strain εx which requires iteration. In practice, RAPT or
SpaceGass handles this automatically.
2.4 Deflection Control — Cl. 8.5
Deflection is one of the most common serviceability issues on real projects. Interviewers often probe
this.
Two approaches:
• Deemed-to-comply: Use L/d limits from Table 8.5.4 — quick for simple cases
• Refined calculation: Calculate Ief (effective second moment of area) considering cracked
sections
Ief calculation (Branson's formula):
Ief = Icr + (Ig − Icr) × (Mcr/Ms)³ but not greater than Ig
• Ig = gross section second moment of area
• Icr = cracked section second moment of area (requires cracked section analysis)
• Mcr = cracking moment = f'ct.f × Ig / yt (f'ct.f = 0.6√f'c)
• Ms = maximum service moment
💡 Interview Tip: Mention that long-term deflection must multiply short-term by a multiplier
(typically 2 to 3 for sustained loads) to account for creep and shrinkage. This often governs in
post-tensioned flat plates.
2.5 Columns — Combined Bending & Axial
For column design, the interaction diagram (N-M diagram) is your key tool. Key concepts:
• Pure axial capacity: [Link] = φ×[0.85×f'c×(Ag−Ast) + fsy×Ast]
• Balanced condition: concrete crushes simultaneously as steel yields — transition point on N-
M curve
• Below balanced point: tension controls — ductile failure
• Above balanced point: compression controls — less ductile
• Slenderness: check Le/r ratio; if > 25 (braced) or 22 (unbraced), moment magnification
required
📌 Key Point: For slender columns, use moment magnification factor δb from Cl. 10.4. In tall
buildings, use P-delta analysis in ETABS rather than hand calculations.
2.6 Exposure & Durability — Cl. 4.10
Durability is often overlooked by candidates but is critical in Australian coastal and industrial
environments.
Exposure Environment Min. Cover (std grade) Min. f'c
Class
A1 Mild — interior, arid 20 mm 25 MPa
A2 Near-coastal, tropical 25 mm 32 MPa
B1 Near sea (> 50 m) 35 mm 40 MPa
B2 Coastal (≤ 50 m) 40 mm 40 MPa
C1 Seawater splash zone 45 mm 50 MPa
C2 Direct seawater contact 50 mm 50 MPa
💡 Interview Tip: In industrial projects (mining, chemical plants), C1/C2 exposure is common.
Mention epoxy-coated bars or stainless steel inserts for highly aggressive environments.
2.7 Interview Questions — AS 3600 Concrete Design
Q: A simply supported beam has a factored midspan moment of 300 kNm. Walk me
through your design approach.
A: Assume a target d, say 600 mm, with b = 300 mm. Required Ast ≈ M*/(φ×fsy×0.9d) =
300×10⁶/(0.85×500×0.9×600) ≈ 1307 mm². Try 3N24 bars (Ast = 1350 mm²). Check ku =
Ast×fsy/(α2×f'c×b×d) — if f'c = 32 MPa, ku ≈ 0.165, well below 0.36, so ductile. Verify φMuo
≥ 300 kNm, check minimum reinforcement and crack control, then check deflection with L/d
or Ief method.
Q: What is punching shear and when does it govern?
A: Punching shear occurs around columns in flat slabs where the column load punches
through the slab in a truncated cone failure mode. The critical perimeter is located at dom/2
from the column face, where dom is the mean effective depth. It governs when columns are
closely spaced or slab depth is shallow. Design check: V* ≤ φVuo. If it fails, options include:
increasing slab thickness, adding drop panels, using shear studs or shear head
reinforcement, or adding column capitals.
Q: What has changed in AS 3600:2018 compared to 2009?
A: Key changes include: revised shear design approach using MCFT-based equations;
updated exposure classifications for durability; revised fire resistance provisions; new
requirements for robustness and structural integrity ties; and updated deflection provisions.
The shear design change is the most significant — the old simplified Vuc formula is replaced
with a strain-based approach that is more accurate but requires iteration or software.
TOPIC 3: AS 4100 — Steel Design
3.1 Key Concepts & Clauses
Design Aspect Key What to Know
Clause
Tension members Cl. 7 φNt ≥ N*; two checks: yielding of gross section AND
fracture of net section
Compression members Cl. 6 φNs ≥ N*; slenderness λn drives capacity reduction factor
αc
Bending (beams) Cl. 5 φMs (section capacity) and φMbx (member capacity —
LTB)
Shear Cl. 5.11 φVv ≥ V*; web shear yielding or buckling
Combined actions Cl. 8 Interaction formula for N*+M*+V* combined loading
Connections Cl. 9 Bolt groups, welds; Category 8.8/N or 8.8/X snug vs
preloaded
Section classification Cl. 5.2 Compact / non-compact / slender — drives local buckling
behaviour
Member restraints Cl. 5.3 Full (F), partial (P), lateral (L) — critical for LTB
calculation
3.2 Flexural Design — Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB)
LTB is the most commonly tested topic in steel design interviews. A laterally unrestrained beam can
buckle out-of-plane at a load well below the full plastic moment.
Design check: φMbx ≥ M*
• Ms = fy × Zex (section moment capacity — full plastic moment if compact)
• Moa = reference buckling moment (depends on segment length, section properties, load
height)
• αm = moment modification factor (accounts for moment gradient — uniform moment is most
severe)
• αs = slenderness reduction factor from Cl. [Link]
• Mbx = αm × αs × Ms ≤ Ms
📌 Key Point: αm > 1 for non-uniform moment diagrams (e.g., simply supported beam with
central point load). This is beneficial — the beam is less susceptible to LTB under moment
gradient than under uniform moment.
💡 Interview Tip: Always check whether the beam is fully restrained (then LTB does not apply),
partially restrained, or unrestrained. Interviewers often probe restraint conditions — what counts
as full restraint? Both flanges must be restrained against lateral movement AND the cross-
section must be restrained against twist.
3.3 Compression Members — Column Buckling
• φNs = φ × αc × kf × An × fy where αc = member slenderness reduction factor
• Slenderness ratio: λ = Le/r where Le = effective length
• Effective length factor ke: from Table 4.6.3 (pin-pin = 1.0, fixed-fixed = 0.5, fixed-pin = 0.7)
• Modified slenderness: λn = (Le/r) × √(fy/250) — normalised for yield strength
• αc reduces from 1.0 towards 0 as λn increases; read from Figure 6.3.3
📌 Key Point: Residual stresses from rolling or welding reduce column capacity below the
theoretical Euler load. αc implicitly accounts for this through column curves calibrated to
physical test data.
3.4 Connections
Bolt Categories:
Category Description Capacity Basis
4.6/S Grade 4.6 snug tight — bearing Shear on shank or bearing on plate
connection
8.8/S Grade 8.8 snug tight — bearing Higher shear capacity; still bearing type
connection
8.8/TB Grade 8.8 fully tensioned — Friction at SLS; bearing at ULS
bearing under overload
8.8/TF Grade 8.8 fully tensioned — Friction at both SLS and ULS; no slip
friction only
Weld Design:
• Fillet weld: φVw = 0.6 × fuw × tw × lw (per unit length: φvw = 0.6 × fuw × tw / √2)
• Category SP (structural purpose): more rigorous inspection, higher category
• Category GP (general purpose): lower category for secondary welds
• Weld size tw typically 6 mm minimum for structural connections
💡 Interview Tip: When asked about connections, mention the load path through the connection
— bolt group centroid, eccentricity moments, prying forces in tension bolts. This shows system-
level thinking.
3.5 Industrial Structures — Portal Frames
Portal frames are ubiquitous in industrial buildings in Australia (sheds, warehouses, factories).
Consulting engineers working on industrial projects must know these.
Key design considerations:
• Haunched columns and rafters — haunch depth sized to reduce span moments
• Critical load case: often 1.0G + Wu (net uplift with large roof area)
• Plastic design: moment redistribution at plastic hinges; check rotation capacity
• Serviceability: eaves deflection limit typically L/150 for standard sheds
• Purlin and girt spacing drives rafter/column restraint conditions for LTB checks
• Bracing: wall and roof bracing panels carry longitudinal wind; design as tension-only if
required
📌 Key Point: In large industrial/mining structures, fatigue loading from crane rails and vibrating
equipment must be considered. Mention AS 4600 for cold-formed purlins/girts which are
designed under a different standard.
3.6 Interview Questions — AS 4100 Steel Design
Q: A 9-metre simply supported steel beam has no intermediate restraints. How does
this affect design?
A: With no intermediate restraints, the full 9-metre span is an unrestrained segment. The
reference buckling moment Moa will be low, resulting in a low αs and hence a reduced
member moment capacity Mbx well below the section capacity Ms. I would either add
discrete restraints at third-points (reducing segment length to 3 m), use a heavier section
with higher torsional rigidity (e.g. CHS or SHS which are not susceptible to LTB), or check if
the top flange can be restrained by the floor/deck above.
Q: What is the difference between section capacity and member capacity for a beam?
A: Section capacity φMs relates to local cross-section strength — yielding of the extreme
fibre (elastic) or full plastification (plastic). It assumes the section is held against LTB.
Member capacity φMbx accounts for lateral torsional buckling of the beam between restraint
points. Member capacity is always ≤ section capacity. The ratio Mbx/Ms = αm×αs, which
approaches 1.0 for short, well-restrained segments and drops significantly for long
unrestrained segments.
Q: When would you use preloaded bolts (8.8/TF) over snug-tight bolts?
A: I would use 8.8/TF (friction-type) connections where slip is unacceptable — for example:
connections subject to load reversal (wind uplift + gravity), connections where bolt holes are
in close tolerance, moment connections in seismic applications, or crane rail connections
where cyclic loading causes fatigue. The higher cost is justified where slip at the connection
would cause distress or damage to the structure or cladding.
TOPIC 4: Buildings & Industrial Structures
4.1 Multi-Storey Building Design — Key Considerations
Structural system selection:
• RC flat plate / flat slab: economical for typical office/residential spans (6–9 m), fast formwork,
low floor-to-floor height
• RC beam-slab: better for longer spans or heavy loads; more formwork complexity
• Post-tensioned slab: spans 8–12 m efficiently; common in commercial buildings
• Steel composite: fast erection, long spans; common for commercial office buildings
Foundation selection:
• Pad footings: isolated columns on competent soil; simple and economical
• Strip footings: load-bearing walls
• Raft: poor soil conditions or where differential settlement must be controlled
• Piles: deep footings to rock or dense gravel; use where shallow foundations are inadequate
💡 Interview Tip: Always mention geotechnical report requirements — a structural engineer
cannot design footings without a geotech investigation. Interviewers at consulting firms value
awareness of multidisciplinary coordination.
4.2 Post-Tensioned Slabs
PT slabs are widely used in Australian commercial construction. Familiarity is expected at senior
level.
Key concepts:
• Prestress load balancing: tendons profiled to produce an upward equivalent UDL equal to a
chosen fraction of dead load (typically 80–100% of slab self-weight)
• Hyperstatic (secondary) moments: arise in continuous structures from tendon profile; must
be included in design checks
• Transfer condition: concrete at stressing (typically f'ci = 25 MPa) is critical — beams and
slabs are most vulnerable at stressing
• Losses: initial (friction, wedge draw-in, elastic shortening) + long-term (creep, shrinkage,
relaxation); total loss typically 15–25%
• Crack control: PT reduces or eliminates cracking under service loads
• Software: RAPT or RAM Concept are industry standard for PT slab design in Australia
📌 Key Point: At stressing, the concrete is young and weak. This is often the governing load
case for columns and walls below a PT transfer slab. Always check stressing sequence in multi-
storey buildings.
4.3 Industrial Structures — Specific Design Issues
Industrial buildings (warehouses, processing plants, mining facilities):
• Heavy equipment loads: dynamic amplification factors for rotating/vibrating machinery
(typically 1.5–2.0×)
• Crane loads: AS 1418 series; runway beam fatigue is critical for Class 3/4 cranes
• Chemical exposure: aggressive environments require special concrete mixes, coatings, or
stainless fittings
• Thermal expansion: long industrial buildings need expansion joints (typically every 50–60 m
for steel, 30–40 m for concrete)
• Blast/pressure loads: process industries — consult process engineer for design pressures
• Flooring: heavy-duty industrial slabs on ground per TR34 or ACI 360; slab thickness and
joint spacing critical
Mining & resources structures:
• Conveyor gantries: fatigue at connection details; dynamic analysis for resonance with belt
speed
• Ore bins & hoppers: lateral pressure from stored material (Janssen's theory); high wear on
floor slabs
• Structural integrity in seismic zones: many Australian mines in high seismic regions — AS
1170.4 applies
4.4 Robustness & Structural Integrity
Consulting firms increasingly ask about robustness, especially post-Grenfell and following updates
to NCC and AS 3600.
• Tie force requirements: AS 3600 Cl. 6.9 — peripheral, internal, horizontal, and vertical ties
• Objective: alternative load path if one element is removed (notional removal scenario)
• Disproportionate collapse: localised failure should not trigger progressive collapse
💡 Interview Tip: Mention the NCC (National Construction Code) requirements for importance
level and structural robustness when discussing multi-storey buildings. Shows awareness of the
regulatory framework.
4.5 Interview Questions — Buildings & Industrial
Q: How would you approach the structural design of a new warehouse with overhead
cranes?
A: I would start by clarifying crane capacity, hook height, span, and class (AS 1418.18).
Then: design the runway beam for bending, shear, web buckling, and fatigue at the crane rail
connection; design the crane column brackets for the vertical (wheel load) and horizontal
(surge and crabbing) crane actions; check the lateral sway frame for crane surge; design the
runway beam-to-column connection for fatigue. At building level: design the portal frame for
dead, live, wind (net uplift critical), and crane loads; check serviceability deflection at eaves
and at crane rail level (typically L/600 for crane structures).
Q: What is the difference between a flat plate and a flat slab? When would you use
each?
A: A flat plate is a uniform thickness slab supported directly on columns with no beams, drop
panels, or column capitals. A flat slab adds drop panels (thickened slab around columns)
and/or column capitals. The flat plate is simpler, faster to construct, and allows minimum
floor-to-floor height — ideal for residential and light commercial where spans are 6–8 m. Flat
slabs handle heavier loads and longer spans (up to 9–10 m) by improving punching shear
capacity. Both are checked for punching shear, two-way flexure, and deflection under AS
3600.
TOPIC 5: Serviceability, Deflection & Dynamics
5.1 Deflection Limits
Member / Condition Deflection Limit Standard / Reference
Beams/slabs — total deflection L/250 AS 3600 Cl. 2.3.2
Beams/slabs — post-fit-out L/500 or 20 mm max AS 3600 Cl. 2.3.2
(affecting partitions)
Cantilevers — total L/125 AS 3600 Table 2.3.2
Steel beams — DL+LL combined L/300 typical AS 4100 Appendix B
Crane runway beams — vertical L/600 to L/1000 AS 1418 (crane class dependent)
Industrial portal — eaves sway H/150 to H/200 Industry practice
Masonry-supported beams L/1000 or 15 mm AS 3700 / AS 3600
5.2 Floor Vibration
Floor vibration is increasingly important in modern long-span floors (open-plan offices, healthcare,
gyms). It is a serviceability check that goes beyond simple deflection.
Key parameters:
• Natural frequency fn: must exceed 4 Hz for office floors, 8 Hz for sensitive equipment areas
• Fundamental frequency: fn = π/2 × √(g/δ) for simply supported beams (approximate)
• Walking excitation frequency: 1.6–2.4 Hz for normal walking paces
• Acceleration response: checked against limits in AS/NZS 1170.1 Supplement or AISC DG11
• Composite action significantly increases natural frequency — critical to model correctly
💡 Interview Tip: Floor vibration failures are expensive to fix post-construction. In interview,
mention that you check vibration early in design when span-to-depth ratios are long or when
sensitive end use (hospital, lab, concert hall) is involved.
5.3 Cracking in Concrete
Cracking is inevitable in reinforced concrete under service loads. The designer controls crack
widths, not prevention.
• AS 3600 approach: deemed-to-comply bar spacing and bar diameter limits from Tables
8.6.1(a) and (b)
• Crack width target: typically 0.3 mm for normal exposure; 0.2 mm for B1/B2 exposure
• Causes beyond loading: shrinkage (especially early-age plastic shrinkage), thermal
gradients, alkali-silica reaction (ASR)
• Control measures: minimum reinforcement, construction joints, post-tensioning, low w/c
ratio, proper curing
5.4 Interview Questions — Serviceability
Q: A client complains that the floor of a new office building vibrates noticeably when
people walk. What do you do?
A: First, quantify the problem — measure acceleration and frequency using accelerometers
and compare against tolerance limits (typically 0.5–1% g RMS for offices from ISO 10137).
Then assess: was vibration checked in the original design? What is the natural frequency of
the floor bay? Walking frequencies of 1.6–2.4 Hz can excite floors with fn < 4 Hz.
Remediation options include: tuned mass dampers (most practical post-construction),
stiffening the floor (expensive and disruptive), or changing usage patterns. For future
projects, I would check vibration explicitly using AISC DG11 or similar at the design stage.
Q: What is the difference between short-term and long-term deflection in a concrete
beam?
A: Short-term deflection occurs immediately on load application and depends on Ief (the
effective second moment of area of the cracked section). Long-term deflection adds creep
and shrinkage effects over time. AS 3600 uses a multiplier kcs (typically 2–3) applied to the
sustained load deflection component to estimate total long-term deflection. The L/500 post-
fit-out limit applies to the deflection occurring after partitions and finishes are installed —
which is typically the long-term sustained deflection plus variable load deflection.
TOPIC 6: Consulting Practice & Workflow
6.1 Design Process in a Consulting Firm
Consulting firms care about how you work, not just what you know. Understanding the design
lifecycle signals you can hit the ground running.
Stage Structural Engineer's Role
Concept / Scheme Design Structural system selection, preliminary sizing, coordination with
architect/MEP, options study
Design Development (DD) Refined structural layouts, slab/beam/column grid, footing depths, first-
pass analysis
Construction Documentation Completed analysis and design, full drawing set, specification writing
(CD)
Tender / Procurement RFI responses, scope clarifications, value engineering with contractor
Construction Administration Shop drawing review, RFI response, site inspections, variation
(CA) assessment
Post-Construction As-built record, lessons learned, defect liability period inspections
💡 Interview Tip: Show awareness of multi-disciplinary coordination — structural engineers in
consulting firms work closely with architects, geotechnical engineers, fire engineers, and MEP
teams. Mentioning this coordination instinct impresses interviewers.
6.2 Checking & Peer Review
Senior engineers in consulting firms are expected to check junior engineers' work and perform or
participate in independent peer reviews.
Effective checking approach:
• Check the load path first — before checking numbers, confirm the structural model makes
physical sense
• Independent hand check of critical members — do not just re-run the software
• Check critical load combinations — not just the governing one the junior engineer identified
• Verify boundary conditions — is the model fixed or pinned where it should be?
• Check deflection and serviceability — often missed by junior engineers focused on strength
• Sign-off: you are professionally responsible for what you check and stamp
📌 Key Point: In Australia, documents submitted for building permit are typically signed by a
Registered Professional Engineer Queensland (RPEQ) or equivalent state registration. Know
the registration requirements in the state you are working in.
6.3 Value Engineering
Consulting engineers are often asked to reduce cost without compromising structural performance.
This is a key skill interviewers probe.
Common VE strategies:
• Rationalise column grid — fewer but larger columns can reduce beam spans and footing
count
• Post-tension slabs — reduce slab thickness and eliminate downstand beams
• Use higher strength materials (f'c = 50+ MPa, Grade 500 steel) to reduce member sizes
• Simplify connection details — standardise bolt groups and weld sizes
• Optimise foundation type — review if pile lengths can be reduced based on updated geotech
data
• Standardise reinforcement bar sizes — fewer bar types reduce supply and placing cost
💡 Interview Tip: In an interview, show that value engineering is not the same as cutting
corners. The structural engineer's role is to find the most efficient solution that meets safety,
serviceability, and durability requirements — not to simply reduce steel tonnage at the expense
of long-term performance.
6.4 Software & Tools
Software Primary Use Notes
ETABS Multi-storey building analysis (3D Industry standard for buildings in Australia
FEM)
SAP2000 General structural analysis Common for complex or non-building
structures
STAAD Pro Frames, industrial structures Common in mining/resources sector
SpaceGass Australian steel design (AS Very common in QLD/AU consulting firms
4100)
RAPT Post-tensioned concrete design Australian standard for PT slab/beam
design
RAM Concept PT and RC slab design (Bentley) Common alternative to RAPT
Revit Structure BIM documentation Increasingly required for collaborative
projects
Python / ETABS Automation, parametric design Emerging skill; differentiator for senior roles
API
💡 Interview Tip: If asked about software, always say you rely on software to perform
calculations but always perform independent hand checks on critical elements. Never say you
trust the software output without verification.
6.5 Australian Regulatory Framework
• NCC (National Construction Code): sets minimum performance requirements for buildings;
references AS standards
• BCA (Building Code of Australia): Volume 1 (Class 2–9) and Volume 2 (Class 1 & 10) —
now part of NCC
• RPEQ (Queensland): Registered Professional Engineer Queensland — required to certify
structural work
• CPEng (Engineers Australia): Chartered Professional Engineer — professional benchmark
• Building Act 1975 (QLD): regulatory framework for building approvals and certification
• AS 3600, AS 4100, AS 1170 series: primary structural design standards referenced by NCC
📌 Key Point: In Queensland, a Structural Engineering Drawings and Specification set for
building permit must be prepared and certified by an RPEQ. If you are working toward RPEQ,
mention your CPEng pathway — this is highly valued by consulting firms.
6.6 Behavioural / Consulting-Specific Interview Questions
Q: Tell me about a complex structural problem you solved on a project.
A: Use the STAR framework: Situation (project context, what made it complex), Task (your
specific role and responsibility), Action (how you approached it — analysis, hand checks,
coordination, alternatives considered), Result (outcome — problem solved, delivered on
time, client satisfied). Prepare 2–3 strong examples from your L&T experience covering: a
technical problem, a coordination/multi-disciplinary challenge, and a time-pressure or value
engineering situation.
Q: How do you manage quality on a project when you are supervising junior
engineers?
A: I set up a clear checking hierarchy at the start: every calculation goes through a structured
internal review before it leaves the team. I establish the design basis early — loads,
materials, governing standards — so junior engineers are not making assumptions. I prefer
to do a brief walkthrough of the structural model with the junior engineer rather than just
reading numbers, because it reveals misunderstandings early. And I am explicit that the goal
of checking is to improve the work, not to find fault.
Q: A contractor proposes a substitution that changes a critical structural connection
detail. How do you respond?
A: I would not approve or reject immediately — I would ask for the contractor's proposed
detail and supporting calculations. I would then review whether the substitution maintains the
same structural intent: load capacity, stiffness, ductility, and constructability. If it does and
the calculations are sound, I would accept it. If there are gaps, I would ask the contractor to
address them. I document everything formally through the RFI process. The key principle is
that the engineer of record remains responsible for the structure — contractor substitutions
do not transfer that responsibility.
QUICK REFERENCE — Key Formulas & Values
AS 3600 — Concrete Design Cheat Sheet
Parameter Formula / Value
Compressive strength (design) f'c (characteristic); α1 = 1.0, α2 = 0.85 - 0.007(f'c-28) ≥ 0.67
Modulus of elasticity Ec = ρ^1.5 × 0.043√f'c (MPa); typically 26–33 GPa for normal
weight
Tensile strength (flexural) f'ct.f = 0.6√f'c (MPa)
Cracking moment Mcr = f'ct.f × Ig / yt
Min. flexural reinforcement [Link] = (0.20/fsy) × (D/d)² × bw × d
Neutral axis depth ratio ku = Ast×fsy / (α2×f'c×b×d); must be ≤ 0.36
Capacity reduction factor φ 0.85 (bending), 0.70 (shear/torsion), 0.65 (compression)
Grade 500N steel fsy = 500 MPa; Es = 200,000 MPa
Concrete density (normal wt) ρ = 2400 kg/m³; γ = 24 kN/m³
AS 4100 — Steel Design Cheat Sheet
Parameter Formula / Value
Design action effect N*, V*, M* from factored load combinations
Section moment capacity φMs = φ × fy × Zex; φ = 0.90
Member moment capacity φMbx = αm × αs × φMs ≤ φMs
Compression capacity φNs = φ × αc × kf × An × fy; φ = 0.90
Tension capacity φNt = min(φ×0.9×fu×An, φ×fy×Ag); φ = 0.90 and 0.90
Fillet weld capacity (per mm) φvw = 0.6 × fuw × tw / √2 × φ (0.8 SP, 0.6 GP)
Grade 300 steel (WB/WC/UB/UC) fy = 300 MPa (t ≤ 11 mm), 280 MPa (11 < t ≤ 17 mm)
Grade 350 steel (plate, RHS) fy = 360 MPa (t ≤ 11 mm), 350 MPa (11 < t ≤ 17 mm)
Steel density ρ = 7850 kg/m³; γ = 78.5 kN/m³
AS/NZS 1170 — Load Combinations Summary
Combination Formula Use
ULS Gravity 1.2G + 1.5Q Most common governing combo
ULS Gravity (alt) 1.35G Governs when Q is small
ULS Wind (windward) 1.2G + Wu + ψcQ Wind uplift + gravity
ULS Wind (leeward) 0.9G + Wu Net uplift — often critical for roofs
ULS Earthquake G + Eu + ψcQ Seismic design
SLS Short-term G + ψsQ Deflection, cracking, vibration
SLS Long-term G + ψlQ Long-term deflection (creep/shrinkage)
Common Span-to-Depth Rules of Thumb
Use these for quick preliminary sizing — always verify with full design:
Member Type L/d Rule of Thumb Notes
RC one-way slab (simply L/28 Grade 500N reinforcement
supported)
RC one-way slab (continuous) L/32 Grade 500N reinforcement
RC beam (simply supported) L/16 to L/20 Heavier loads → shallower ratio
RC beam (continuous) L/20 to L/25 Intermediate supports beneficial
PT flat plate L/35 to L/45 Depends on load intensity
Steel beam (composite) L/20 to L/24 Grade 350, composite with deck
Steel beam (non-composite) L/15 to L/18 Non-composite simple spans
Portal frame rafter L/40 to L/60 Eaves height drives sway
— END OF INTERVIEW PREPARATION GUIDE —
Good luck! Back yourself — 12 years of experience is a strong foundation.