University of Hilla , College of Dentistry

Department of Basic Sciences

Subject: Microbiology / 3rd Class

Lect. 1 / 2025- 2026 Prof. Dr. Abdulridha T. Sarhan

Morphology and Ultra-structures of Microorganisms

Microorganisms are classified into major categories based on their morphological

features, such as shape, size, arrangement, and staining characteristics. The study of the
ultrastructure and morphological classification of bacteria involves the examination of
the physical characteristics and internal features of bacterial cells. This microscopic
analysis is crucial for understanding the diversity of bacterial forms and structures,
providing valuable information for taxonomy, identification, and the development of
therapeutic strategies.
Microbiology is a branch of biology that study microscopic forms of life, concerned with
the structure, function, and classification of such organisms in addition to the ways of
both exploiting and controlling their activities. The microbiology comes from a three
Greek words: Mikros means "extremely small", bios means "life" and logy means
"science", so together get microbiology. This branch of science involves studying and
looking closely at unicellular microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and in
addition to viruses).

Microorganisms, or "microbes", are microscopic organisms, which may exist in its

single-celled form or a colony of cells (bacteria, fungi, protozoa in addition to viruses
and other microbes). They are found all around us (air, water, earth, food, surfaces &
animals) and even inside our bodies. They present in two groups: prokaryotes
(archaea and bacteria) are almost always microscopic, or eukaryotes (protists , fungi
and protozoa) are also microscopic. Viruses are submicroscopic but non-living things
( do not have a cellular structure), therefore not considered as microorganisms.

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Note 1:
Protists are a diverse group of mostly unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms that are
not plants, animals or fungi. They may share certain characteristics with animals or
plants, or exhibit features of both. Protists include protozoa (animal-like), algae (plant-
like), and slime molds and water molds (fungus-like). (Fig, 1)
Note 2:
Virus is an infectious agent of small size and simple composition that can multiply
only in living cells of animals, plants, or bacteria. The name is from a Latin word
meaning “poison.” They play important roles in the ecosystems worldwide.

Fig. 1: Different types of protists.

The prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in structure, function, and evolution. Prokaryotes
are unicellular organisms that lack membrane-bound structures, including the nucleus
and other organelles. Usually, prokaryotic cells are small and relatively simple in
structure compared with eukaryotic cells.
According to a proposal by Woese (American microbiologist 1999, that has been
gaining general acceptance in recent years), who classified the world of living things in
to three domains:
1) Archaea: This domain includes forms like bacteria are prokaryotic unicellular
that live under extreme environmental conditions, including thermophilic,
halophilic and methanogenic microorganisms. (Fig. 2)

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 Fig. 2: Morphology of Archaea.

2) Bacteria: This domain includes the kingdom of the prokaryotic unicellular

heterotrophic bacteria and all human pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria.
In addition to other kingdoms, for instance, the photosynthetic cyanobacteria are
non-pathogenic.
3) Eucarya / Eukaryota: This domain includes all life forms of the eukaryotic forms
with cells possessing a true nucleus. The plant and animal kingdoms in addition to
pathogenic eukaryotic microorganisms, fungi and protozoan species.

The Fungi:
On the basis of morphology, fungi can be divided into yeast, mold, and dimorphic
fungi. Yeasts have several unicellular species, such as the yeast Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, Some pathogenic yeast such as Candida albicans, can undergo phenotypic
switching and grow as single cells (yeast / in human) in some environments,
and filamentous hyphae (mold) as (dimorphic), causes thrush disease (candidiasis).
Whereas, mold form multicellular threadlike hyphae.
(Fig. 3- A, B & C)

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 A B C
Candida albicans Penicillium sp. as multicellular threadlike
growing as yeast filamentous fungus hyphae

Fig. 3: Morphology of fungi, (A) yeast form , (B) & (C) threadlike form.

The Protozoans:
They are unicellular eukaryotes that lack cell walls, some are recognized as
microbes inhabiting the oral cavity specially Entamoeba gingivalis and
Trichomonas tenax. These forms are generally associated with pathogenesis
and their presence in oral cavity is taken as sign of poor dental hygiene.
(Fig. 4- A & B)

A. Entamoeba gingivalis B. Trichomonas tenax

Fig. 4: Morphology of Oral Protozoa.

The Viruses:
They are the smallest known infective agents and the simplest form of life. The viral
genome of a virus is a nucleic acid, DNA or RNA. It can be double-stranded (ds) or
single-stranded (ss), and it might have a sense. The virus is covered by a protein shell

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(capsid) which is, consists of several identical subunits called capsomers, made of
proteins. Morphology of viruses is grouped on the basis of size and shape in three
types: icosahedral (spherical), helical, and complex morphology (Fig. 5 - A, B & C ) .

A B C
Icosahedral Helical Complex

Fig. 5: Morphology of Viruses.

Characterization of Morphology and Ultra Structure of Bacteria:

There are six different shapes and structures of bacteria: (Fig. 6)
1. The bacterial cells are prokaryotic type (0.3-5 µm) in size, they have three
basic forms: cocci , straight rods and curved (or spiral rods).
2. The nucleoid consists of a thin, long, circular double strand DNA that is not
surrounded by a membrane. Moreover, nonessential genetic structures are the
plasmids.
3. The cytoplasmic membrane is surrounded by the cell wall, the most important
element of which is supporting murein skeleton.
4. Many bacteria have capsules made of polysaccharides that protect them from
phagocytosis.
5. Attachment pili or fimbriae facilitate adhesion to host cells and biofilm. Motile
bacteria possess flagella.
6. Some bacteria produce spores, dormant forms that are highly resistant to
chemical and physical effects.

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 Fig. 6: Morphology of Different Bacteria.

Cytoplasmic Structure:
The cytoplasm contains a large number of low- and high-molecular weight
substances:
1. The cytoplasmic Matrix (the substance lying between the plasma membrane
and the nucleoid).
2. Nucleoid (nucleus-like) a double-stranded DNA, not surrounded by a membrane.
3. Plasmids (bearing important genes) are small circular pieces of DNA that provide
functional benefits such as resistance to antibiotics.
4. Ribosomes (site of protein synthesis) made of both protein and ribonucleic acid.
5. Inclusion Bodies (storage granules) as carbon compounds, inorganic substances.
6. Cytoplasmic membrane (plasma membrane) a double layer of phospholipids
with numerous proteins.
+ve -ve
Comparison Between G & G Cell Walls:
Most bacteria are classified as gram-positive or gram-negative according to their
response to the Gram-staining procedure. The Gram stain depends on the ability of
certain bacteria (G+ bacteria) to retain a complex of crystal violet (a blue dye and
iodine) after a brief wash with alcohol or acetone. G– bacteria do not retain the dye-
iodine complex and become translucent , but they can then be counter-stained with
safranin (a red dye). Thus , G+ bacteria look blue under the microscope, and G–
bacteria look red. (Table 1 & Fig. 7)

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Table 1: Comparative characteristics of G -positive and G –negative bacteria.
Characteristic Gram-positive Gram-negative

Gram reaction Retain crystal violet dye and Not retain violet dye, be
(G- stain) stain dark violet or decolorized to accept safranin red
stain
Peptidoglycan layer Thick (multilayered) Thin (single-layered)
Teichoic acids Present in many Absent
Periplasmic space One layer Two layers
Lipopolysaccharide Virtually none High
Lipid and lipoprotein Low High

Fig. 7: The staining of cell wall of Gram negative & Gram positive.

The Cell Wall of G+ Bacteria:

Gram-positive cell walls are thick and with thick peptidoglycan (also known
as murein) layer constitutes almost 95% of the cell wall in some gram-positive bacteria
and as little as 5-10 % of the cell wall in gram-negative bacteria. A major component
of the gram-positive cell wall is lipoteichoic acid. One of its purposes is providing an
antigenic function. (Fig. 8)

The Cell Wall of G– Bacteria: (Fig. 8)

Gram-negative cell walls are thin and contain a thin peptidoglycan layer adjacent to
the cytoplasmic membrane and thick outer membrane lipopolysaccharides which is

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responsible for many of the antigenic properties of these strains.
Lipopolysaccharides, also called endotoxins, are composed of polysaccharides
and lipid that are responsible for much toxicity of gram-negative bacteria.

Fig. 8: Cell wall structure of gram positive and gram negative bacteria.

Eukaryotic Vs Prokaryotic Cells:

All living things (unicellular or multicellular) are made of cells and there are
two basic cell types: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
1. Prokaryotic cells:
They are primitive cells, such as archaea and bacteria, which have no
nucleus, no mitochondria, or any other membrane – bound organelles
(Golgi bodies , chloroplast). Most prokaryotes are unicellular, but a few of
them have multi-cellular stages in their life cycles.
2. Eukaryotic cells:
They are true cells that contain a nucleus and organelles, which include
fungi and protists in addition to animals and plants, which contain double-
membrane bound nucleus with DNA chromosomes and contain
membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm that perform specific
functions. (Table 2 & Fig. 9).

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Table 2: Cells Characteristics of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Microorganisms.
Cell characteristic Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
(Bacteria) (Fungi & Protozoans)
Nuclear structure Circular DNA molecule not Complex of DNA and basic proteins
covered with proteins
Localization of nuclear In cytoplasm ; dense DNA no In nucleus surrounded by
structure nuclear membrane ; nucleoid or nuclear membrane
nuclear equivalent
DNA Nucleoid and plasmids In nucleus
Cytoplasm No mitochondria and no Mitochondria and
endoplasmic reticulum, endoplasmic reticulum,
70s ribosomes 80s ribosomes
Cell wall Usually rigid wall with murein Present only in fungi:
layer ; exception: Mycoplasma glucans, mannans, chitin,
chitosan, cellulose.
Reproduction Asexual, by binary fission Sexual and asexual

Fig. 9: The Main Characteristics of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells.

References:
1. Essential Microbiology for Dentistry 5th ed. 2018. by Lakshman Samaranayake
2. Kuby Immunology 5th ed. 2019. By Jenni P.; Sharon S.; Patricia J.; Judy O