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9th Class Biology Notes

Chapter # 4 Cell Cycle

1. What is the cell cycle? (OR) Name the two major phases of the cell cycle.

Ans: The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in a eukaryotic cell from its formation to its division
into two daughter cells. There are two major phases: Interphase and Mitotic (M) phase

2. Why mitosis is important for living organisms? (OR) What is the importance of mitosis?

Ans: Mitosis is important for the growth, repair, and maintenance of tissues.

3. Why is meiosis important for living organisms? (OR) What is the importance of meiosis?

Ans: Meiosis is vital for creating reproductive cells like eggs and sperm.

4. What is interphase? (OR) What happened during interphase?

Ans: This phase lasts for about 90% of the total time of the cell cycle. During interphase, the cell performs its
life functions according to its specialty and prepares itself for the next division.

5. What do you know about the G1 Phase? (OR) What happened during the G1 phase?

Ans: During this phase cell makes proteins and organelles and so grows in size. Cell also makes enzymes that
are required in the S phase for the replication of DNA.

6. What is the S phase? (OR) In which phase does duplication of chromosomes occur?

Ans: During this phase, the DNA of each chromosome is replicated (copied). It results in the duplication of
chromosomes (each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids).

7. What happens during the G2 phase? (OR) Why is the G2 phase important?

Ans: In this phase, the cell continues to grow and produces proteins necessary for cell division. The cell checks
for any DNA damage that may have occurred during replication and makes necessary repairs.

8. What is the Go phase? (OR) Which cells remain in Go for an indefinite period?

Ans: Many cells stop dividing and start performing their specific functions. This phase is called the Go phase.
E.g., Many cells (e.g., neurons) remain in Go for indefinite periods.

9. What do you know about mitosis? (OR) Name the two major phases of mitosis.

Ans: Mitosis is the type of cell division in which a cell divides into two daughter cells, each with the same
number of chromosomes as were present in the parent cell. There are two major phases: Karyokinesis and
cytokinesis.

10. Write down the names of the stages of karyokinesis. (OR) Enlist different phases of karyokinesis.

Ans: The stages of karyokinesis are:

(i) Prophase (ii) Metaphase (iii) Anaphase (iv) Telophase

11. What Major events occur during prophase? (OR) What are the major changes that take place in
prophase?

Ans: (i) Chromatin condenses into chromosomes

(ii) The nuclear envelope breaks down

(iii) Spindle fibers form as centrosomes move to opposite poles.

12. What is the function of spindle fibers in mitosis? (OR) Write the role of spindle fibers in

Ans: Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of chromosomes and help pull sister chromatids toward opposite
poles of the cell.

13. What is a metaphase plate? (OR) How is the metaphase plate formed in mitosis?

Ans: The chromosomes attached with spindle fibers arrange themselves along the equator of the cell. In this
way, a plate is formed called the metaphase plate.

14. What is a cleavage furrow? (OR) How does cytokinesis occur in animal cells?

Ans: A furrow develops at the equator. At this furrow, the cytoplasm has a ring of microfilaments. The ring
contracts and the furrow moves inward. In this way parent cell is pinched into two.

15. What is a phragmoplast? (OR) What is a cell plate? (OR) How does cytokinesis occur in plant cells?

Ans: In plant cells, the Golgi apparatus makes vesicles. These vesicles move to the middle and fuse to form a
plate called the phragmoplast. The plate grows outward and its membranes fuse with the cell membrane. The
result is two daughter cells.

16. How would you differentiate between a benign and malignant tumor? (OR) What are the types of
tumors? (OR) What is metastasis?

Ans: There are two types of tumors.

(i) Benign tumors:

If the tumors remain in their original location, they are called benign.

(ii) Malignant tumor:

If they migrate and invade other tissues, they are called malignant tumors (cancer). It is called metastasis
(spreading of disease).

17. Describe the Significance of mitosis? (OR) Write the importance of mitosis.

Ans: (i) Growth (ii) Cell replacement (iii) Regeneration (iv) Asexual reproduction

18. What is regeneration? Give an example. (OR) How does a starfish regenerate its lost body part?

Ans: Some animals can regenerate parts of the body. For this purpose, they form new cells by carrying out
mitosis in the cells of remaining parts. For example, starfish

19. How is genetic material equally distributed between daughter cells during cell division? Which
process ensures the formation of millions of cells from a single zygote?
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Ans: Your body consists of about 200 trillion cells. All these cells were formed from a single cell (zygote) at
the start of your life. Millions of cell divisions occurred while your body was reaching its present form. In
each of these divisions, the genetic material was equally distributed between the daughter cells. It happened
through mitosis.

20. What do you know about meiosis and who discovered it? (OR) Who discovered meiosis?

Ans: It is the type of cell division in which each daughter cell receives half the number of chromosomes as
compared to the parent cell. Meiosis was discovered by German biologist Oscar Hertwig in 1876.

21. What happens during prophase-I of meiosis? (OR) What major changes take place during prophase-
I of meiosis?

Ans: During this stage, chromatin condenses and takes the shape of chromosomes. The nucleoli disappear,
and the nuclear envelope breaks.

22. What happens during Telophase-I of meiosis? (OR) What is telophase-I of meiosis?

Ans: Spindles disappear, and a new nuclear envelope is made around each haploid set. The chromosomes
uncoil into chromatin.

23. What is synapsis? (OR) What are chiasmata? (OR) What is the difference between synapsis and
chiasmata?

Ans: Homologous chromosomes move close together. They pair up in a process called synapsis.

Non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes become "zipped" together, forming X-shaped structures
called chiasmata.

24. What is crossing over, and why is it Important? (OR) What is the significance of crossing over
during meiosis?

Ans: Each Chiasmata is the site for crossing over, i.e. exchange of portions of chromosomes between non-
sister chromatids. Crossing over leads to the recombination of genetic material.

25. How does metaphase-I differ from metaphase-II? (OR) What is the difference between metaphase-
I and metaphase-II?

Ans: In metaphase-1, homologous chromosomes (tetrads) align at the equator, whereas in metaphase-II,
individual chromosomes align at the equator.

26. What is the difference between disjunction and non-disjunction? (OR) What is non-disjunction?

Ans: During meiosis-I, chromosomes separate, while during meiosis-Il sister chromatids separate. It is called
disjunction, and chromosomes are equally distributed to each parent cell.

Sometimes non-disjunction occurs. Due to it, the daughter cells (gametes) receive more or less than the normal
number of chromosomes. There is no equal distribution of chromosomes.

27. What is the significance of meiosis? (OR) What is the importance of meiosis?

Ans: (i) Meiosis maintains the number of chromosomes (ii) Meiosis brings genetic diversity
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28 . What is the difference between haploid and diploid cells? (OR) Define haploid and diploid cells.

Ans: Diploid:

It means the cells in which chromosomes are in pairs (homologous pairs) and two sets of chromosomes are
present.

Haploid:

Haploid means the cells with no pairs of chromosomes and one set of chromosomes are present.

29. Write any two similarities between mitosis and meiosis. (OR) How does mitosis and meiosis similar
to each other?

Ans: (i) DNA replication occurs during interphase (S phase) before both divisions.

(ii) Both divisions begin with a parent cell that has chromosomes in pairs.

30. Name two differences between mitosis and meiosis. (OR) How does mitosis and meiosis different
from each other?

Ans:

Mitosis Meiosis
Variations are not generated Variations occur due to crossing over
Occurs in somatic cells Occurs in germ-line cells

31. Why does variation occur in meiosis but not in mitosis? (OR) Which brings variation in the next
generation?

Ans: Variation occurs due to crossing over during meiosis, while mitosis produces genetically identical cells.

Exercise
Write short answers.

1. Enlist the events that occur during the G1 phase of interphase.

Ans:

• It starts from the end of the Mitosis phase. It is also called the growth phase.
• During this phase cell makes proteins and organelles and so grows in size.
• Cell also makes enzymes that are required in the S phase for the replication of DNA.

2. What is the main purpose of the S phase in the cell cycle?

Ans:

• During this phase, the DNA of each chromosome is replicated (copied).

3. During which phase of mitosis do sister chromatids separate?

Ans: During Anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids separate.

4. How does crossing over contribute to genetic variation in meiosis?

Ans: Crossing over creates new combinations of genes on chromosomes. Each chromosome in the gametes
carries a unique set of genes. When diverse gametes from two parents combine, the resulting zygote is
genetically different from both parents. In this way, meiosis contributes to genetic diversity in populations.

5. What is the role of spindle fibers in mitosis?

Ans: Spindle fibers are essential for:

• Separation of chromosomes
• Alignment of chromosomes
• Movement of chromosomes
• It plays vital role in cell division

6. How is cytokinesis in an animal cell different from plant cell?

Ans: Cytokinesis in animal cells:

A furrow develops at the equator. At this furrow, the cytoplasm has a ring of microfilaments. The ring
contracts and the furrow moves inward. In this way parent cell is pinched into two.

Cytokinesis in plant cells:

In plant cells, the Golgi apparatus makes vesicles. These vesicles move to the middle and fuse to form a plate
called the phragmoplast. The plate grows outward and its membranes fuse with the cell membrane. The result
is two daughter cells.

7. What is the difference between prophase of mitosis and prophase-I of meiosis-I?

Ans: Prophase-I of meiosis-I involves crossing over, while prophase of mitosis does not.

Prophase-I of meiosis involves homologous pairing, while prophase of mitosis does not.

8. How does meiosis differ from mitosis in terms of chromosome number?

Ans: In mitosis, chromosomes number in daughter cells remains the same as the parent cell, while in meiosis,
the chromosome number is reduced to half in daughter cells.

9. What are the key events of anaphase in mitosis?

Ans: The spindle fibers attached with the chromosomes pull toward the poles.

Due to this pulling, the chromosome's sister chromatids separate.

In this way, there are two similar sets of chromatids, which move towards the poles of the cell.
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10. What is the function of the centrosome during cell division?

Ans: The centrosome organizes spindle fibers, helping in the proper segregation of chromosomes during cell
division.

11. What are sister chromatids, and when do they separate in meiosis?

Ans: Sister chromatids are two identical copies of a single chromosome, connected by a centromere. They are
formed during DNA replication in the S phase of the cell cycle.

In meiosis, sister chromatids separate during anaphase-II of meiosis.

12. How is mitosis related to the process of regeneration?

Ans: Some animals can regenerate parts of the body. For this purpose, they form new cells by carrying

out mitosis in the cells of remaining parts. For example, starfish

C. Write answers in detail.

1. Describe the events that occur during the phases of mitosis.

Ans: Mitosis is the type of cell division in which a cell divides into two daughter cells, each with the same
number of chromosomes as were present in the parent cell.

Mitosis occurs in the somatic cells of eukaryotes. Prokaryotes also divide to make identical cells. But the
events of their division are different from mitosis. That is why we call it binary fission.

Discovery

The German biologist, Walther Flemming, discovered the events of mitosis in 1880s.

Phases of Mitosis

The process of mitosis is divided into two major phases, i.e., karyokinesis and cytokinesis.

A. Karyokinesis: Karyokinesis means the division of the nucleus. it is further divided into four phases.

Stages of Karyokinesis

i. Prophase

During prophase, the thread-like chromatin material condenses and makes thick, visible chromosomes. Each
chromosome consists of two sister chromatids attached with a single centromere. The nuclear envelope and
nucleolus break down during prophase.

The centrosome of cell duplicates into two. The two centrosomes migrate to opposite side of the nucleus.
When they are migrating, they make a network of microtubules called spindle fibers (complete set is called
mitotic spindle).

In plant cells, there is no centrosome. Their mitotic spindle is formed by the aggregation of spindle fibers
present in cytoplasm.
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ii. Metaphase

During this phase, some spindle fibers bind with chromosomes. They attach at the point of centromere, where
special kinetochore proteins are present. Two spindle fibers from both sides bind with one chromosome. The
chromosomes attached with spindle fibers arrange themselves along the equator of the cell. In this way, a plate
is formed called metaphase plate.

iii. Anaphase

The spindle fibers attached with the chromosomes pull toward the poles. Due to this pulling, the chromosome's
sister chromatids separate. In this way, there are two similar sets of chromatids, which move towards the poles
of the cell.

iv. Telophase

In this phase, new nuclear envelope forms around each set of separated chromosomes and nucleolus reforms.
Both sets of chromosomes unfold back into chromatin.

2. Describe cytokinesis in animal and plant cells.

Ans: It is the division of cytoplasm. Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells different in different ways:

Cytokinesis in Animal Cells

In animal cells, a furrow develops in the cell membrane at the equator. At this furrow, the cytoplasm has a
ring of microfilaments. The ring contracts and the inward. In this way parent cell is pinched into two.

Cytokinesis in Plant Cells

In plant cells, Golgi apparatus makes vesicles. These vesicles move to the middle and fuse to form a plate
called the phragmoplast. The plate grows outward and its membranes fuse with the cell membrane. The result
is two daughter cells.

3. Describe the significance of mitosis.

Ans: Mitosis is significant due to the following reasons:

Growth: Growth in organisms means an increase in size. It occurs due to an increase in the number of cells.
Mitosis plays a crucial role in growth by producing new cells that are identical to the original cells.

Cell Replacement: Many cells are constantly dying in our bodies. For example, the red blood cells and the
cells of the walls of the intestine and skin, etc. These are replaced by new ones, which are exact copies of the
older cells. The new cells are formed by mitosis.

Regeneration: Some animals can regenerate parts of the body. For this purpose, they form new cells by
carrying out mitosis in the cells of remaining parts.

Asexual reproduction: Mitosis is a means for asexual reproduction. For example, Hydra reproduces
asexually by the budding. During this process, mitosis forms a mass of cells called bud on the surface of
Hydra. Mitosis continues in the cells of the bud, and it grows into a new individual.
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4. Describe the events that occur during the phases of meiosis-Ⅰ.

Ans: It is the type of cell division in which each daughter cell receives half the number of chromosomes as
compared to the parent cell. In meiosis, a diploid parent cell divides to produce four haploid daughter cells.

Diploid (2n)

Diploid means the cells in which chromosomes are in pairs (homologous pairs).

Haploid (n)

Haploid means the cells with half number of chromosomes, i.e., cells with no pairs of chromosomes.

Discovery

Meiosis was discovered in 1876 by a German biologist Oscar Hertwig.

Phases of Meiosis

Meiosis consists of two divisions, i.e., Meiosis-I and Meiosis-II.

Meiosis-I

In meiosis-I, the homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell separate, and so two haploid daughter cells are
produced. It is subdivided into prophase-l, metaphase-l, anaphase-I, and telophase

Prophase-I

During this stage, chromatin condenses and takes the shape of chromosomes. Each chromosome consists of
two sister chromatids, because the DNA has already replicated before meiosis. Homologous chromosomes
move close together. They pair up in a process called synapsis. Each pair of homologous chromosomes is
called tetrad.

Non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes become "zipped" together, forming X-shaped structures
called chiasmata. Each chiasma is the site for crossing over, i.e., exchange of portions of chromosomes
between non-sister chromatids. Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material.

Other events of prophase-I are similar to prophase of mitosis. The nucleoli disappear, and nuclear envelope
breaks. Centrioles migrate to opposite poles and make spindle fibres to which chromosomes attach.

Metaphase-I

The tetrads attached with spindle fibres align along the equator. In this way, they form metaphase plate. In the
metaphase plate of meiosis-I, two spindle fibres from both poles attach with one pair of homologous
chromosomes.

Anaphase-l

Each spindle fiber attached with a single chromosome pulls towards the pole. In this way, the paired
chromosomes are separated. One chromosome of each pair is pulled toward one pole and the other towards
opposite pole. So, two haploid sets of chromosomes are formed. Each chromosome still contains two sister
chromatids.
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Telophase-I

Spindles disappear, and a new nuclear envelope is made around each haploid set. Nucleolus also reforms
during Telophase-I. The chromosomes uncoil into chromatin. Cytokinesis occurs, and two daughter cells are
made.

5. Describe the significance of meiosis.

Ans: 1. Meiosis maintains the number of chromosomes

In animals, special cells in reproductive organs undergo meiosis. The daughter cells, called gametes, have half
the number of chromosomes (with no pairs).

During sexual reproduction, male and female gametes join to make the first cell (zygote) of new generation.
The original number of chromosomes is restored in zygote. It undergoes mitosis many times and develops
into the new animal.

In flowering plants, specialized cells in flowers undergo meiosis. The daughter cells, called spores have half
number of chromosomes. These spores grow into new generation inside the flowers. This generation produces
gametes by mitosis. The gametes join to make zygote with full set of chromosomes. The zygote undergoes
mitosis and develops into new plant.

2. Meiosis brings genetic diversity

Crossing over creates new combinations of genes on chromosomes. Each chromosome in the gametes carries
a unique set of genes. When diverse gametes from two parents combine, the resulting zygote is genetically
different from both parents. In this way, meiosis contributes to genetic diversity in populations.

D. Inquisitive Questions

1. What role might mistakes in the cell cycle checkpoints play in the emergence of cancer?

Ans: The cell cycle is the process by which a cell grows, copies its DNA, and divides into two new cells

Checkpoints are like "control points" in the cell cycle that ensure everything is working correctly.

Role of Mistakes in the Checkpoints

If there is a mistake in the checkpoint system, it may allow a damaged or abnormal cell to keep dividing
without being stopped.

Normally, if a cell has problems (like damaged DNA), the checkpoints stop it from dividing until the problem
is fixed. But if the checkpoints fail, the cell keeps dividing even though it's not healthy.

How This Leads to Cancer:

Uncontrolled Division:

When cells divide uncontrollably due to checkpoint failure, it can lead to the growth of tumors.

Genetic Mutations:

Over time, the cells may accumulate more mutations (changes in DNA), which can make them even more
abnormal. This can result in cancer, a disease where cells grow and spread uncontrollably.
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Conclusion:

Mistakes in the cell cycle checkpoints can allow damaged cells to keep dividing, leading to the growth of
tumors and cancer. Proper checkpoints are important for stopping the spread of unhealthy cells.

2. Why do skin cells divide continuously throughout an organism's existence, but nerve and muscle cells
permanently exit the cell cycle?

Ans: Skin cells, nerve cells, and muscle cells all behave differently when it comes to cell division because
they have different roles and needs in the body. Here's why skin cells divide continuously, while nerve and
muscle cells stop dividing:

Skin Cells

Skin cells need to divide continuously because the skin is constantly exposed to damage, like cuts, scrapes, or
sun exposure.

As skin cells get damaged or die, new skin cells need to be made to replace them. This is why skin cells keep
dividing throughout an organism's life.

Nerve and Muscle Cells:

Nerve cells and muscle cells are special because they have a very important function, and once they are
formed, they do not need to divide again.

Nerve cells are responsible for transmitting signals in the body. Muscle cells help in movement, and they are
designed to be strong and long-lasting.

Once these cells are fully developed, they permanently exit the cell cycle because they no longer need to
divide.

Conclusion:

Skin cells divide all the time to replace damaged cells and keep the skin healthy. Nerve and muscle cells stop
dividing once they have developed fully because they are designed to last and do their important jobs without
needing to divide.