Tissues in Plants and Animals
Introduction to Tissues
Definition: A tissue is a group of cells that have a similar shape and function and work
together to perform a specific function.
Hierarchy of Organization: Cells to Tissues to Organs to Organ Systems to Organism.
Utility in Multicellular Organisms: Tissues allow for the specialization of cells, leading to the
formation of organs and organ systems that can perform specific activities (e.g., digestion,
respiration, excretion) more efficiently.
Plant Tissues
Plant tissues are broadly classified into two main types: Meristematic Tissue and Permanent
Tissue.
Meristematic Tissue
Characteristics: Cells are actively dividing and are responsible for plant growth. Cells are
small, isodiametric (same shape in all dimensions), and have thin cell walls. Intercellular
spaces are generally absent. Vacuoles are usually absent or very small. Cell walls are thin,
allowing for cell division.
Types of Meristematic Tissue:
Apical Meristem: Found at the tips of roots and shoots. Responsible for increasing the
length of the plant (primary growth). Includes Shoot Apical Meristem and Root Apical
Meristem.
Lateral Meristem: Found on the lateral sides of stems and roots. Responsible for
increasing the girth or thickness of the plant (secondary growth). Includes vascular
cambium and cork cambium.
Intercalary Meristem: Found at the base of leaves or internodes. Responsible for the
growth of specific parts, such as elongating internodes in grasses.
Permanent Tissue
Characteristics: Cells are derived from meristematic tissue and have lost their ability to divide
(or have limited division capacity). Cells have taken up a specific shape, size, and function
(differentiation). Cells may have thick or thin cell walls. Intercellular spaces may be present.
Vacuoles are usually present.
Types of Permanent Tissue:
Simple Permanent Tissue: Composed of only one type of cell.
Parenchyma: Living cells with thin walls. Main functions: Food storage, support.
Chlorenchyma: Parenchyma containing chlorophyll for photosynthesis. Aerenchyma:
Parenchyma with large air spaces, providing buoyancy to aquatic plants.
Collenchyma: Living cells with thickened corners, providing mechanical support and
flexibility. Found in leaf stalks and stems. Allows bending of plant parts without
breaking.
Sclerenchyma: Dead cells with very thick, lignified cell walls. Main function: Providing
hardness and strength to the plant. Found in coconut husks, nut shells. Includes fibers
and sclereids.
Complex Permanent Tissue: Composed of different types of cells that work together.
Xylem: Main functions: Transport of water and minerals from roots to leaves; provides
mechanical support. Composed of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma (living, stores
food), and xylem fibers (dead, provides support). Transport is unidirectional (upwards).
Also known as "wood."
Phloem: Main functions: Transport of food (sugars) from leaves to other parts of the
plant. Composed of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma (living, stores
food), and phloem fibers (dead, provides support). Transport is bidirectional (upwards
and downwards).
Protective Tissues in Plants
Epidermis: Outermost layer of cells covering the entire plant body. Protects against
mechanical injury, pathogen entry, and water loss. In desert plants, it is often covered with a
thick waxy layer called cuticle to prevent water loss. Contains stomata (pores) for gas
exchange and transpiration, regulated by guard cells. In roots, epidermal cells (root hairs)
increase surface area for water absorption.
Cork (Phellem): Forms the outer bark of older stems and roots. Composed of dead cells with
thick, suberized cell walls (containing suberin, a waterproof substance). Protects the plant
from mechanical injury, infection, and excessive water loss.
Animal Tissues
Animal tissues are classified into four basic types.
Epithelial Tissue
Function: Covers body surfaces, lines body cavities and hollow organs, and forms glands.
Primarily protective, secretory, absorptive, and sensory.
Characteristics: Cells are tightly packed with little intercellular space. Always rests on a
basement membrane. Avascular (lacks blood vessels), nutrients diffuse from underlying
connective tissue.
Types of Epithelial Tissue:
Squamous Epithelium: Single layer of flattened cells. Found in lining of blood vessels,
alveoli of lungs, and lining of mouth. Facilitates diffusion and filtration.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium: Multiple layers of flattened cells. Forms the outer layer of
skin. Provides protection against mechanical and chemical stress.
Cuboidal Epithelium: Single layer of cube-shaped cells. Found in lining of kidney tubules
and ducts of glands. Functions in secretion and absorption.
Columnar Epithelium: Single layer of tall, column-shaped cells. Found in the lining of the
stomach and intestines. Functions in absorption and secretion. May have cilia or
microvilli.
Ciliated Epithelium: Columnar or cuboidal cells bearing cilia on their free surface. Found in
the lining of the respiratory tract and oviducts. Cilia help in moving substances (e.g.,
mucus, eggs).
Muscular Tissue
Function: Responsible for movement within the body.
Characteristics: Composed of elongated cells called muscle fibers. Contractile properties
allow for movement.
Types of Muscular Tissue:
Striated Muscle (Skeletal Muscle): Voluntary control (under conscious control). Cells are
long, cylindrical, multinucleated, and unbranched. Exhibit alternate light and dark bands
(striations). Found attached to bones. Can fatigue and require rest.
Non-striated Muscle (Smooth Muscle): Involuntary control (not under conscious control).
Cells are spindle-shaped, uninucleated, and unbranched. Lack striations. Found in the
walls of internal organs like the stomach, intestines, blood vessels, and uterus. Do not
fatigue easily.
Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary control. Found only in the heart. Cells are striated, branched,
and uninucleated, connected by intercalated discs. Does not fatigue; contracts
rhythmically and continuously.
Connective Tissue
Function: Connects, supports, binds, or separates other tissues and organs.
Characteristics: Cells are scattered within an extracellular matrix.
Types of Connective Tissue:
Blood: Fluid connective tissue. Matrix is plasma (fluid, 90% water). Contains Red Blood
Cells (Erythrocytes): Transport oxygen via hemoglobin. Contains White Blood Cells
(Leukocytes): Involved in defense against infection. Contains Platelets (Thrombocytes):
Involved in blood clotting.
Bone: Hard, rigid connective tissue. Matrix is calcified, rich in calcium salts and collagen
fibers. Provides structural support, protection, and facilitates movement.
Cartilage: Slightly flexible connective tissue. Matrix is largely made of proteins
(chondroitin sulfate) and collagen fibers. Found in joints, ear, nose, trachea. Provides
support and flexibility.
Areolar Tissue: Loosely arranged connective tissue. Fills spaces between organs,
surrounds muscles, blood vessels, and nerves. Functions in support and repair.
Adipose Tissue: Fat tissue. Cells (adipocytes) are filled with fat globules. Found beneath
the skin, around organs. Functions in insulation, energy storage, and shock absorption.
Tendons: Connect muscle to bone. Fibrous connective tissue, inelastic. Ligaments:
Connect bone to bone. Fibrous connective tissue, elastic.
Nervous Tissue
Function: Transmits nerve impulses to coordinate and control body activities.
Characteristics: Composed of specialized cells called neurons.
Neuron Structure Cell Body (Soma/Cytone): Contains the nucleus and other organelles.
Dendrites: Branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons. Axon: Long
projection that transmits signals away from the cell body. Myelin Sheath: Insulating layer
around the axon (formed by Schwann cells in PNS, oligodendrocytes in CNS). Nerve Endings:
Transmit signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Function: Neurons receive stimuli, convert them into electrical impulses, and transmit these
impulses throughout the body, enabling rapid communication and response.