BASIC ELECTRICAL SAFETY

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PREFACE

The concepts discussed herein are intended to provide

explanation and clarification of basic electrical safety for
individuals who have little or limited training or familiarity
with the field of electricity.

An understanding of these principles is essential for

comprehension of OSHA's Electrical Safety Standards.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPIC PAGE

Theory of Electricity..........................................................................1

Hazards of Electricity......................................................................25

Effects of Electricity on the Human Body........................................28

Common Workplace Circuits..........................................................33

Electrical Protective Devices...........................................................35

Grounding.......................................................................................40

Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters....................................................46

Reversed Polarity............................................................................51

Glossary..........................................................................................58

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THEORY OF ELECTRICITY

What is Electricity?

Though you cannot see electricity, you are aware of it every day. You see it
used in countless ways. You cannot taste or smell electricity, but you can feel
it.

Basically, there are two kinds of electricity - static (stationary) and dynamic
(moving). This module is about dynamic electricity because that is the kind
commonly put to use.

Electricity (dynamic) is characterized by the flow of electrons through a

conductor. To understand this phenomenon, you must know something about
chemical elements and atoms.

Elements and Atoms

Elements are the most basic of materials. Every known substance - solid,
liquid, or gas - is composed of elements.

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains all the properties of
that element. Each element has its own kind of atom; i.e., all hydrogen atoms
are alike, and they are all different from the atoms of other elements. However,
all atoms have certain things in common. They all have an inner part, the
nucleus, composed of tiny particles called protons and neutrons. An atom also
has an outer part. It consists of other tiny particles, called electrons, which orbit
around the nucleus. Neutrons have no electrical charge, but protons are
positively charged. Electrons have a negative charge. The atoms of each
element have a definite number of electrons, and they have the same number
of protons. An aluminum atom, for example, has thirteen of each. The
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opposite charges - negative electrons and positive protons - attract each other
and tend to hold electrons in orbit. As long as this arrangement is not changed,
an atom is electrically balanced. This is illustrated in the figure below.

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However, the electrons of some atoms are easily moved out of their orbits.
This ability of electrons to move or flow is the basis of current electricity.

When electrons leave their orbits, they are referred to as free electrons. If the
movement of free electrons is channeled in a given direction, a flow of electrons
occurs. As previously stated, the flow of electrons through a conductor
characterizes dynamic electricity.

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Electrical Materials

A material that contains many free electrons and is capable of carrying an

electric current is called a conductor. Metals and (generally) water are
conductors. Gold, silver, aluminum and copper are all good conductors.

Materials that contain relatively few free electrons are called insulators. Non-
metallic materials such as wood, rubber, glass and mica are insulators.

Fair conductors include the human body, earth, and concrete.

Generating Electricity

There are several ways to produce electricity. Friction, pressure, heat, light,
chemical action, and magnetism are among the more practical methods used to
make electrons move along a conductor.

To date, magnetism is the most inexpensive way of producing electrical power

and is therefore of most interest to us. Because of the interaction of electricity
and magnetism, electricity can be generated economically and abundantly and
electric motors can be used to drive machinery. Electricity is produced when a
magnet is moved past a piece of wire. Or, a piece of wire can be moved
through a magnetic field. A magnetic field, motion, and a piece of wire are
needed to produce electricity.

Voltage, Current and Resistance

Voltage
A force or pressure must be present before water will flow through a pipeline.
Similarly, electrons flow through a conductor because a force called
electromotive force (EMF) is exerted. The unit of measure for EMF is the volt.
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The symbol for voltage is the letter E. A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.

Current
For electrons to move in a particular direction, it is necessary for a potential
difference to exist between two points of the EMF source. The continuous
movement of electrons past a given point is known as current. It is measured in
amperes. The symbol for current is the letter I and for amperes, the letter A. It
is sometimes necessary to use smaller units of measurement. The milliampere
(mA) is used to indicate 1/1000 (0.001) of an ampere. If an even smaller unit is
needed, it is usually the microampere (A). The microampere is one-millionth of
an ampere.

An ammeter is used to measure current in amperes. A microammeter or a

milliammeter may be used to measure smaller units of current.

Resistance
The movement of electrons along a conductor meets with some opposition.
This opposition is known as resistance. Resistance can be useful in electrical
work. Resistance makes it possible to generate heat, control current flow, and
supply the correct voltage to a device. The symbol for resistance is shown in
the accompanying figure.

In general, resistance in a conductor depends on four factors: the material from

which it is made, the length, the cross-sectional area, and the temperature of
the material.

! Material. Different materials have different resistances. Some, such as

silver and copper, have a low resistance, while others, such as iron have a
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higher resistance.

! Length. For a given material that has a constant cross-sectional area,

the total resistance is proportional to the length. The longer the conductor,
the greater the resistance.
! Cross-Sectional Area. Resistance varies inversely with the cross-sectional
area of the conductor. In other words, the resistance decreases as the
cross-sectional area increases.

! Temperature. Generally, in metals, the resistance increases as the

temperature increases. For non-metals, the reverse is usually true.

The symbol for resistance is the letter R. Resistance is measured by a unit

called the ohm. The Greek letter omega () is used as the symbol for electrical
resistance.

The figure below summarizes the factors that affect resistance.

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Direct Current (dc) Circuits

Introduction
This section discusses the electrical relationships in direct-current circuits.
Although alternating current is more commonly used in electrical work, direct
current has its own unique applications and advantages. Direct current always
flows in one direction.

Some dc motors, for example, have speed control characteristics that are better
in some production operations. Direct current is used to charge storage
batteries, for plating operations, for aluminum refining, and to operate
electromagnetic lifting devices and most welding equipment.

Complete Circuit
A complete circuit is necessary for the controlled flow or movement of electrons
along a conductor. A complete circuit is made up of a source of electricity (e.g.,
battery), a conductor, and a consuming device (load). This is illustrated in the
figure below.

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The orientation of the positive (+) and negative (-) terminals of the battery
remains constant. Since this voltage polarity does not change, the electrons
flow in one direction. The negatively charged electrons flow away from the (-)
terminal of the voltage source and toward the (+) terminal of the voltage source.
By convention, the direction of current flow is the direction in which positive
electricity would move to cause the same effects as are produced by the actual
motion of electricity. Therefore, the direction of current, as it is usually
considered, is in the opposite direction to the motion of the electrons.

The movement of the electrons along the completed path provides energy. If
the circuit is so arranged that the electrons have only one path, the circuit is
called a series circuit. If there are two or more paths for electrons, the circuit is
called a parallel circuit.

Series Circuit
The figure below shows three loads (resistors) connected in series. The current
flows through each of them before returning to the battery.
To find
the
total

R SUB T~=~R SUB 1~+~R SUB 2~+~R SUB 3~+~.~.~.

resistance in a series circuit, just add the individual resistances:

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Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit, each load is connected directly across the voltage source.
There are as many separate paths for current flow as there are branches. See
figure below.

The voltage across all branches of a parallel circuit is the same. This is
because all branches are connected across the voltage source. Current in a
parallel circuit depends on the resistance of the branch. Ohm's Law (discussed
later) can be used to determine the current in each branch. You can find the
total current by adding the individual currents. Expressed as a formula:

I SUB T~=~I SUB 1~+~I SUB 2~+~I SUB 3~+~.~.~.

The total resistance of a parallel circuit cannot be found by adding the resistor
values. The following formula can be used to determine the total resistance in
a parallel circuit:

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{1 over R sub T}~=~{1 OVER R SUB 1}~+~{1 OVER R SUB 2}~+~{1 OVER R
SUB 3}~+~.~.~.

Open Circuit
An open circuit is one, which does not have a complete path for electrons to
follow. Therefore, there is no current flow. Such an incomplete path is usually
brought about by a loose connection or the opening of a switch. An open circuit
caused by an open switch is illustrated in the figure below.

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Short Circuit
A short circuit is one, which has a path of low resistance to electron flow. It is
usually created when a low-resistance wire is placed across a consuming
device. A greater number of electrons will flow through the path of least
resistance rather than through the consuming device. A short usually
generates an excess current flow, which results in overheating, possibly
causing a fire or other damage. The figure above illustrates a short circuit.

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It is easy to compute the amount of current flowing in a circuit if the voltage and
the resistance are known. The relationship between voltage, current, and
resistance in any circuit is shown by Ohm's Law.

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Ohm's Law

Ohm's Law states the relationship that exists among the three basic quantities
of electricity: current, voltage, and resistance. A physicist named Georg S.
Ohm discovered the relationship in 1827. With this law you can calculate any
one of the three quantities if you know the other two. Ohm's Law is the most
important and most often applied law in electricity. To understand electricity
and electrical safety, you must thoroughly understand Ohm's Law.

Simply stated, voltage (E) in volts is equal to the current (I) in amperes

E~=~I~R

multiplied by the resistance (R) in ohms. In equation form:

This is the formula to use in order to find the voltage when the current and
resistance are known.

To find the current when the voltage and resistance are known, the formula

I~=~E OVER R

becomes:
To find the resistance when the voltage and current are known, the formula

R~=~E OVER I

becomes:

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The best way to become accustomed to using Ohm's Law is to solve some
basic problems, such as:

1. If the current is 5 amps and the resistance is 20 ohms, what is the applied

linespace 150 STACKALIGN {E~=&~I~R # E~=&~(5)`(20) # E~=&~100~volts}

voltage?

2. If the voltage is 100 volts and the resistance is 25 ohms, what is the current

linespace 150 Stackalign {I~=&~E over R # I~=&~100 over 25 # I~=&~4

~amps}

in the circuit?
3. If the current is 2 amps and the applied voltage is 100 volts, what is the

linespace 150 stackalign {R~=&~E OVER I # R~=&~100 OVER 2 #

R~=&~50~ohms}

resistance?

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Power

Power is defined as the rate of doing work. It is expressed in metric

measurements in watts. Power formulas are sometimes needed to figure the
voltage of a circuit. The three most commonly used formulas are:

linespace 150 stackalign {P~=&~E~I # P~=&~{~~E SUP 2} OVER R # P~=&~{I

SUP 2} ~R}

Similar to the application of Ohm's Law, you can calculate any one of the three
quantities if you know the other two. Later in this module, we will discuss the
problem of "I2 R" losses.

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Alternating Current (ac) Circuits

Comparison of ac and dc
Direct current flows continuously in one direction through a circuit because the
polarity of the voltage source never changes. But alternating current changes
rapidly in both direction and value. In an ac circuit, current flows from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal, just as in a dc circuit. But the polarity
of the ac terminals reverses at regular intervals, causing the direction of current
flow to also reverse.

Advantages of Alternating Current

Power companies use ac generators, also called alternators, to produce
electrical power more economically than was previously possible with dc
generators. The main reason for this is that the power lost during the
transmission of ac from the generating station to the user is very much less
than with dc. Using ac, the power companies are able to "transform" the
produced electrical energy into a high-voltage, but low-current, equivalent
power. The device used to conveniently raise or lower the voltage is called a
transformer.

Conductors, or transmission lines, transport electrical power. All conductors

have some amount of resistance. Although the amount of resistance for a one
foot length of conductor may be small, this resistance is placed in series with
each foot of a transmission line, which can be hundreds of miles long. Over
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these long distances, the power losses, as given by P=I2 R, can become
excessive due to the resistance of the transmission lines.

With dc, load governs the current flowing in the line; i.e., the current may be
zero if there is no demand, or very high if there is a large demand. The only
way to reduce power losses in this situation is to try to lower the resistance of
the transmission lines.

Note, however, that even if the resistance could be cut in half, the power loss
would also be only halved, as shown by P=I2R. But because power is
proportional to the square of the current, reducing the current by half reduces
the power loss by four times. Another power formula, P=EI, tells us that we
could indeed cut the current in half by doubling the voltage, and still transmit the
same amount of power.

Powerful transformers operating on the principle of mutual induction can boost

the voltage in accordance with these requirements. A transformer consists of
two coils of wire wound on the same core. The input voltage is applied to one
coil, called the primary, and the voltage output is taken from the other coil,
called the secondary. When the secondary has twice as many turns of wire as
the primary, the transformer has a turns ratio of 2:1. The rising and falling
magnetic field in the primary coil cuts across twice as many conductors in the
secondary, and the transformer is called a step-up transformer. By reversing
this procedure, the original voltage can be obtained using a step-down
transformer. The symbol for a transformer is shown in the accompanying

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figure.

Transformers perform two functions in the transmission of ac. They step up

and step down the voltage, and they isolate the generating station from the
load. In this way, power companies can maintain low current levels in the
transmission lines, and hold power losses to a minimum. The figure below
represents the common means of generating, transmitting, and distributing
electric power.
Electromagnetism
The first indication of a relationship between magnetism and electricity was
discovered by Hans Christian Oersted in 1820. He connected a wire between

the two terminals of a battery and held the wire over a magnetic compass
needle. When the wire was held parallel to the compass needle, the needle
deflected from its normal position.

When current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is formed outside of

the conductor. The current direction determines the direction of the magnetic
field. This is illustrated in the figure below.

Inductance

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Inductance is the property of an electric circuit by virtue of

which a varying current induces an electromotive force in
that circuit or in a neighboring circuit. We know from our
previous discussion that magnetic lines of force surround the outside of a
conductor when current flows. With an ac circuit, the voltage is constantly
changing direction and the magnetic lines of force are constantly moving in and
out from the conductor. In any conductor, an expanding or collapsing magnetic
field will cut across the conductor and induce a voltage in the conductor that
opposes the applied voltage. The symbol for inductance is shown in the
accompanying figure.

Inductive Reactance
The opposition to current flow in a circuit due to inductance is called inductive
reactance. The symbol for inductive reactance is XL and it is measured in
ohms.

Capacitance
Capacitance is the property of an electric circuit that opposes any change of
voltage. When the applied ac voltage increases, capacitance opposes the
change and delays the voltage increase across the circuit. When the applied
voltage decreases, capacitance tends to maintain the original voltage across
the circuit and delays the decrease in voltage. The symbol for capacitance is
shown in the accompanying figure.

Capacitive Reactance
The opposition to current flow in a circuit due to capacitance is called capacitive

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reactance. The symbol for capacitive reactance is XC and it is measured in

ohms.

Impedance
We have shown that resistance is a characteristic of electrical conductors which
tends to hold back or impede the flow of current. This effect can be visualized
as friction inside of the conductor. Friction requires force to overcome it; just as
friction makes it difficult to push a heavy box along a concrete floor. And in
each case, the friction produces heat.

In addition to overcoming resistance (friction) inside of a conductor, the current

may also encounter some impedance cause by something outside of the
conductor. That something is called "magnetic reactance," because it is a
magnetic effect reacting against the current which caused it. Alternating current
is constantly forcing this magnetic field to change, and this is a burden imposed
on the current.

Inductive reactance (XL) and capacitive reactance (XC) can be combined to

X~=~X SUB L`-`X SUB C

yield the total "magnetic reactance" (X). In equation form:

Resistance and reactance combine to form the total opposition to current flow in
ac systems, known as impedance. The symbol for impedance is Z and, like
resistance and reactance, it is measured in ohms.

The table below provides a summary of the meaning and use of the electrical
terms that we have discussed up to this point.

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SUMMARY OF ELECTRICAL TERMS

FUNCTION TERM SYMBOL UNIT OF ABBREVIATION
MEASURE

Force Voltage E Voltage V

Result of Force Current I Ampere A
Resists Current Flow Resistance R Ohm 
Due to Physical
Properties
Resists Current Flow Reactance X Ohm 
Due to Magnetic
Effect
Total Opposition to Impedance Z Ohm 
Current Flow in ac
Systems

Extending Ohm's Law to ac Circuits

Since "magnetic reactance" helps the resistance in holding back the flow of
current, we must amend Ohm's Law to show the influence of both of these
factors.
If resistance (R) and reactance (X) are correctly added, we call the sum
impedance (Z), and represent it thus:

Z~=~sqrt {R sup 2~+~X sup 2}

Ohm's Law for ac circuits then becomes:

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I~=~E over Z

The importance of the distinction between "R" and "Z" will become apparent
when we discuss how overcurrent and grounding protection are supposed to
protect against electrical accidents.

Low Impedance Circuit

The concepts we have discussed so far are of primary importance to

understanding electrical safety. Although the details of this will be discussed
later, it seems appropriate at this time to discuss the concept of a low
impedance circuit.

The figure below should aid in this discussion.

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In a conventional circuit, the current flowing in the returning line produces a

magnetic flux which is equal and opposite to the field produced by the outgoing
line. The various loads on a circuit are combined into one symbol as though it
were all one resistance. The source of current is represented as a coil of a
generator. A coil drawn like this may also represent a transformer.

If the outgoing and returning conductors of a circuit are close together, the two
magnetic fields cancel each other. The magnetic reactance is then close to
zero for that part of the circuit. It is vitally important that you understand this
point. There are many electrical circuits that are hazardous because a return
conductor for ground fault current is not close to the supply conductor. We will
learn why this is a hazard later in this module.

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HAZARDS OF ELECTRICITY

The primary hazards associated with electricity and its use are:

! SHOCK. Electric shock occurs when the human body becomes part of
a path through which electrons can flow. The resulting effect on the
body can be either direct or indirect.

P Direct. Injury or death can occur whenever electric current

flows through the human body. Currents of less than 30 mA can
result in death. A thorough coverage of the effects of electricity
on the human body is contained in the section of this module
entitled Effects of Electricity on the Human Body.

P Indirect. Although the electric current through the human body

may be well below the values required to cause noticeable
injury, human reaction can result in falls from ladders or
scaffolds, or movement into operating machinery. Such reaction
can result in serious injury or death.

! BURNS. Burns can result when a person touches electrical wiring or

equipment that is improperly used or maintained. Typically, such burn
injuries occur on the hands.

! ARC-BLAST. Arc-blasts occur from high-amperage currents arcing

through air. This abnormal current flow (arc-blast) is initiated by contact
between two energized points. This contact can be caused by persons
who have an accident while working on energized components, or by
equipment failure due to fatigue or abuse. Temperatures as high as
35,000oF have been recorded in arc-blast research. The three primary
hazards associated with an arc-blast are:

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P Thermal Radiation. In most cases, the radiated thermal energy

is only part of the total energy available from the arc. Numerous
factors, including skin color, area of skin exposed, type of
clothing have an effect on the degree of injury. Proper clothing,
work distances and overcurrent protection can improve the
chances of curable burns.

P Pressure Wave. A high-energy arcing fault can produce a

considerable pressure wave. Research has shown that a
person 2 feet away from a 25 kA arc would experience a force of
approximately 480 pounds on the front of their body. In addition,
such a pressure wave can cause serious ear damage and
memory loss due to mild concussions.

In some instances, the pressure wave may propel the victim

away from the arc-blast, reducing the exposure to the thermal
energy. However, such rapid movement could also cause
serious physical injury.

P Projectiles. The pressure wave can propel relatively large

objects over a considerable distance. In some cases, the
pressure wave has sufficient force to snap the heads of 3/8 inch
steel bolts and knock over ordinary construction walls.

The high-energy arc also causes many of the copper and

aluminum components in the electrical equipment to become
molten. These "droplets" of molten metal can be propelled great
distances by the pressure wave. Although these droplets cool
rapidly, they can still be above temperatures capable of causing
serious burns or igniting ordinary clothing at distances of 10 feet
or more. In many cases, the burning effect is much worse than
the injury from shrapnel effects of the droplets.

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! EXPLOSIONS. Explosions occur when electricity provides a source of

ignition for an explosive mixture in the atmosphere. Ignition can be due
to overheated conductors or equipment, or normal arcing (sparking) at
switch contacts. OSHA standards, the National Electrical Code and
related safety standards have precise requirements for electrical
systems and equipment when applied in such areas.

! FIRES. Electricity is one of the most common causes of fire both in the
home and workplace. Defective or misused electrical equipment is a
major cause, with high resistance connections being one of the primary
sources of ignition. High resistance connections occur where wires are
improperly spliced or connected to other components such as
receptacle outlets and switches. This was the primary cause of fires
associated with the use of aluminum wire in buildings during the 1960s
and 1970s.

Heat is developed in an electrical conductor by the flow of current at the

rate I2R. The heat thus released elevates the temperature of the
conductor material. A typical use of this formula illustrates a common
electrical hazard. If there is a bad connection at a receptacle, resulting
in a resistance of 2 ohms, and a current of 10 amperes flows through
that resistance, the rate of heat produced (W) would be:
W~=~I sup 2`R~=~10^2~x~2~=~200~watts

If you have ever touched an energized 200 watt light bulb, you will
realize that this is a lot of heat to be concentrated in the confined space
of a receptacle. Situations similar to this can contribute to electrical
fires.

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EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON THE HUMAN BODY

The effects of electric shock on the human body depend on several factors.
The major factors are:

1. Current and Voltage

2. Resistance
3. Path through body
4. Duration of shock

The muscular structure of the body is also a factor in that people having less
musculature and more fat typically show similar effects at lesser current values.

Current and Voltage

Although high voltage often produces massive destruction of tissue at contact

locations, it is generally believed that the detrimental effects of electric shock
are due to the current actually flowing through the body. Even though Ohm's
law (I=E/R) applies, it is often difficult to correlate voltage with damage to the
body because of the large variations in contact resistance usually present in
accidents. Any electrical device used on a house wiring circuit can, under
certain conditions, transmit a fatal current. Although currents greater than 10
mA are capable of producing painful to severe shock, currents between 100
and 200 mA can be lethal.

With increasing alternating current, the sensations of tingling give way to

contractions of the muscles. The muscular contractions and accompanying
sensations of heat increase as the current is increased. Sensations of pain
develop, and voluntary control of the muscles that lie in the current pathway
becomes increasingly difficult. As current approaches 15 mA, the victim cannot
let go of the conductive surface being grasped. At this point, the individual is
said to "freeze" to the circuit. This is frequently referred to as the "let-go"

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threshold.
As current approaches 100 mA, ventricular fibrillation of the heart occurs.
Ventricular fibrillation is defined as "very rapid uncoordinated contractions of the
ventricles of the heart resulting in loss of synchronization between heartbeat
and pulse beat." Once ventricular fibrillation occurs, it will continue and death
will ensue within a few minutes. Use of a special device called a de-fibrillator is
required to save the victim.

Heavy current flow can result in severe burns and heart paralysis. If shock is of
short duration, the heart stops during current passage and usually re-starts
normally on current interruption, improving the victim's chances for survival.

Resistance

Studies have shown that the electrical resistance of the human body varies with
the amount of moisture on the skin, the pressure applied to the contact point,
and the contact area.

The outer layer of skin, the epidermis, has very high resistance when dry. Wet
conditions, a cut or other break in the skin will drastically reduce resistance.

Shock severity increases with an increase in pressure of contact. Also, the

larger the contact area, the lower the resistance.

Whatever protection is offered by skin resistance decreases rapidly with

increase in voltage. Higher voltages have the capability of "breaking down" the
outer layers of the skin, thereby reducing the resistance.

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The path the current takes through the body affects the degree of injury. A
small current that passes from one extremity through the heart to the other
extremity is capable of causing severe injury or electrocution. There have been
many cases where an arm or leg was almost burned off when the extremity
came in contact with electrical current and the current only flowed through a
portion of the limb before it went out into the other conductor without going
through the trunk of the body. Had the current gone through the trunk of the
body, the person would almost surely have been electrocuted.

A large number of serious electrical accidents in industry involve current flow

from hands to feet. Since such a path involves both the heart and the lungs,
results can be fatal.

Duration of Shock

The duration of the shock has a great bearing on the final outcome. If the
shock is of short duration, it may only be a painful experience for the person.

If the level of current flow reaches the approximate ventricular fibrillation

threshold of 100 mA, a shock duration of a few seconds could be fatal. This is
not much current when you consider that a small light duty portable electric drill
draws about 30 times as much.

At relatively high currents, death is inevitable if the shock is of appreciable

duration; however, if the shock is of short duration, and if the heart has not
been damaged, interruption of the current may be followed by a spontaneous
resumption of its normal rhythmic contractions.

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Summary of Effects

We can sum up the lethal effects of electric current as follows:

! Current flow greater than the "let-go" threshold of an individual may

cause a person to collapse, become unconscious and can result in
death. The current flow would most often have to continue for longer
than five seconds. Although it may not be possible to determine the
exact cause of death with certainty, asphyxiation or heart failure are the
prime suspects.

! Current flow through the chest, neck, head or major nerve centers
controlling respiration may result in a failure of the respiratory system.
This is usually caused by a disruption of the nerve impulses between
the respiratory control center and the respiratory muscles. Such a
condition is dangerous since it is possible for the respiratory failure to
continue even after the current flow has stopped.

! The most dangerous condition can occur when fairly small amounts of
current flow through the heart area. Such current flow can cause
ventricular fibrillation. This asynchronous movement of the heart
causes the hearts' usual rhythmic pumping action to cease. Death
results within minutes.

! When relatively large currents flow through the heart area, heart action
may be stopped entirely. If the shock duration is short and no physical
damage to the heart has occurred, the heart may begin rhythmic
pumping automatically when the current ceases.

! Extensive tissue damage, including internal organ damage due to high

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temperatures, occurs when very large currents flow through major

portions of the body.
! There are recorded cases of delayed death after a person has been
revived following an electrical shock. This may occur within minutes,
hours or even days after the event has occurred. Several assumptions
for such delayed effects are:

P internal or unseen hemorrhaging

P emotional or psychological effects of the shock

P aggravation of a pre-existing condition

In many accidents, there is a combination of the above effects, or additional

effects may develop after the initial accident, thus making an accurate
diagnosis quite difficult.

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COMMON WORKPLACE CIRCUITS

Following are simplified descriptions of typical circuits to which workers are

most commonly exposed.

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ELECTRICAL PROTECTIVE DEVICES

Introduction

As a power source, electricity can create conditions almost certain to result in

bodily harm, property damage, or both. It is important for workers to
understand the hazards involved when they are working around electrical
power tools, maintaining electrical equipment, or installing equipment for
electrical operation.

The electrical protective devices we will discuss include fuses, circuit breakers,
and ground-fault circuit-interrupters (GFCIs). These devices are critically
important to electrical safety. Overcurrent devices should be installed where
required. They should be of the size and type to interrupt current flow when it
exceeds the capacity of the conductor. Proper selection takes into account not
only the capacity of the conductor, but also the rating of the power supply and
potential short circuits.

Types of Overcurrent

There are two types of overcurrent:

1. Overload - When you ask a 10 hp motor to do the work of a 12 hp

motor, an overload condition exists. The overcurrent may be 150
percent of normal current.

2. Fault - When insulation fails in a circuit, fault current can result that may
be from 5 times to 50 times that of normal current.

When a circuit is overloaded, the plasticizers in the insulation are vaporized

over a long period of time, and the insulation becomes brittle. The brittle

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insulation has slightly better electrical insulating properties. However,

movement of the conductors due to magnetic or other forces can crack the
insulation, and a fault can result. Conductors should be protected from
overload and the eventual damage that results.

Faults occur in two ways. Most of the time a fault will occur between a
conductor and an enclosure. This is called a ground fault. Infrequently, a fault
will occur between two conductors. This is called a short circuit, and was
discussed earlier in this module.

In order to predict what will happen in a normal circuit and a ground-fault circuit,
we first need to understand the terminology used to describe electrical systems.
The figure below should aid in this discussion. The dashed lines represent the
enclosures surrounding the electrical system. These enclosures include the
service panel, conduit, and boxes enclosing switches, controllers, equipment
terminals, etc. The conduit bonds all of the enclosures together such that there
is no electrical potential between them. It also provides an emergency path for
ground-fault current to return to the voltage source, which in this case is shown
as secondary windings of a transformer.

Notice that there must be a wire between the grounded conductor and the
enclosure to allow the fault current to return to its source. This wire is called the
main bonding jumper. If there is no wire, then the electrical system is isolated
and requires extra safety features.

The basic idea of an overcurrent protective device is to make a weak link in the
circuit. In the case of a fuse, the fuse is destroyed before another part of the
system is destroyed. In the case of a circuit breaker, a set of contacts opens
the circuit. Unlike a fuse, a circuit breaker can be re-used by re-closing the
contacts. Fuses and circuit breakers are designed to protect equipment and
facilities, and in so doing, they also provide considerable protection against
shock in most situations. However, the only electrical protective device whose

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sole purpose is to protect people is the ground-fault circuit-interrupter. These

various protective devices are further discussed below.

Fuses

A fuse is an electrical device that opens a circuit when

the current flowing through it exceeds the rating of the
fuse. The "heart" of a fuse is a special metal strip (or
wire) designed to melt and blow out when its rated
amperage is exceeded.

Overcurrent devices (fuses, circuit breakers) are always placed in the "hot" side
of a circuit (usually a black wire) and in series with the load, so that all the
current in the circuit must flow through them.
If the current flowing in the circuit exceeds the rating of the fuse, the metal strip
will melt and open the circuit so that no current can flow. A fuse cannot be re-
used and must be replaced after eliminating the cause of the overcurrent.

Fuses are designed to protect equipment and

conductors from excessive current. It is important to
always replace fuses with the proper type and current
rating. Too low a rating will result in unnecessary blowouts, while too high a
rating may allow dangerously high currents to pass. The symbol for a fuse is
shown in the accompanying figure.

Circuit Breaker

Circuit breakers provide protection for equipment and conductors from

excessive current without the inconvenience of changing fuses. Circuit
breakers trip (open the circuit) when the current flow is excessive.

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There are two primary types of circuit breakers based

on the current sensing mechanism. In the magnetic
circuit breaker, the current is sensed by a coil that forms an electromagnet.
When the current is excessive, the electromagnet actuates a small armature
that pulls the trip mechanism - thus opening the circuit breaker. In the thermal-
<xpe circuit breaker, the current heats a bi-metallic strip, which when heated
sufficiently bends enough to allow the trip mechanism to operate. The symbol
for a circuit breaker is shown in the accompanying figure.

Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupter

A ground-fault circuit-interrupter is not an overcurrent device. A GFCI is used

to open a circuit if the current flowing to the load does not return by the
prescribed route. In a simple 120 volt circuit we usually think of the current
flowing through the black (ungrounded) wire to the load and returning to the
source through the white (grounded) wire. If it does not return through the
grounded wire, then it must have gone somewhere else, usually to ground. The
GFCI is designed to limit electric shock to a current- and time-duration value
below that which can produce serious injury. The operation of the GFCI will be
discussed later in this module.

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GROUNDING

Grounding must be taken into account wherever electrical current flows. It can
never be stressed too strongly that proper grounding and bonding must be
correctly applied if the system, the equipment, and the people that come in
contact with them are to be protected.

Effective grounding means that the path to ground: (1) is permanent and
continuous, and (2) has ample current-carrying capacity to conduct safely any
currents liable to be imposed on it, and (3) has impedance sufficiently low to
limit the potential above ground and to facilitate the operation of the overcurrent
devices in the circuit.

Effective bonding means that the electrical continuity of the grounding circuit is
assured by proper connections between service raceways, service cable armor,
all service equipment enclosures containing service entrance conductors, and
any conduit or armor that forms part of the grounding conductor to the service
raceway.

The requirement for effective grounding is one of the most frequently cited
violations of OSHA's electrical standards. Effective grounding has no function
unless and until there is electrical leakage from a current-carrying conductor to
its enclosure. When such a ground fault occurs, the equipment grounding
conductor goes into action to provide the following:

! It prevents voltages between the electrical enclosure and other

enclosures or surroundings.

! It provides a path for large amounts of fault or overload current to flow

back to the service entrance, thus blowing the fuse or tripping the circuit
breaker.

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How does grounding do its job?

Proper grounding requires connecting all of the enclosures (equipment
housings, boxes, conduit, etc.) together, and back to the service entrance
enclosure. This is accomplished by means of the green wire in the cord
(portable equipment), and the conduit system or a bare wire in the fixed wiring
of the building.

When a ground fault occurs, as in a defective tool, the grounding conductor

must carry enough current to immediately trip the circuit breaker or blow the
fuse. This means that the ground fault path must have low impedance. The
only low impedance path is the green wire (in portable cord) and the metallic
conduit system (or an additional bare wire if conduit is not used).

Note that the normal useful current flows in the "current-carrying" loop from the
transformer over the black wire, through the tool motor and back over the white
wire to the transformer. The grounding conductor carries no current. See the
figure below.

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However, when the insulation on the black (ungrounded) conductor fails and
the copper conductor touches the case of the tool, the ground-fault current
flows through the green (grounding) conductor and the conduit system back to
the service entrance. This is shown in the figure below.

If the equipment-grounding conductors are properly installed, this current will be

perhaps 10 times or more greater than normal current, so the circuit breaker will
trip out immediately.

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But what happens if the grounding does not do the job?

If the ground-fault path is not properly installed, it may have such high
impedance that it does not allow a sufficiently large amount of current to flow.
Or, if the grounding conductor continuity has been lost (as when the "U"-shaped
grounding prong has been broken off the plug), no fault current will flow. In
these cases, the circuit breaker will not trip out, the case of the tool will be
energized, and persons touching the tool may be shocked. See figure below.

The hazard created is that persons touching the tool may provide a path
through their body and eventually back to the source of voltage. This path may
be through other surfaces in the vicinity, through building steel, or through

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earth. The dangerous ground-fault current flowing through this high-impedance

path will not rise to a high enough value to immediately trip the circuit breaker.
Only the metallic equipment-grounding conductor, which is carried along with
the supply conductors, will have impedance sufficiently low so that the required
large amount of fault current will flow.

So the only way to ensure that the equipment grounding conductor does its job
is to be certain that the grounding wire, the grounding prong, the grounding
receptacle, and the conduit system are intact and have electrical continuity from
each electrical tool back to the service entrance. This is illustrated in the figure
below.

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As we have discussed, effective grounding along with overcurrent devices

(fuses and circuit breakers) are used to protect equipment and facilities, and in
so doing, they may also provide considerable protection against shock in most
situations. However, the only protective device whose sole purpose is to
protect people is the ground-fault circuit-interrupter. The GFCI is discussed in
the next section of this module.

GROUND-FAULT CIRCUIT-INTERRUPTERS

Introduction

In most cases, insulation and grounding are used to

prevent injury from electrical wiring systems or
equipment. However, there are instances when these
recognized methods do not provide the degree of
protection required. To help appreciate this, let's
consider a few examples of where ground fault circuit
interrupters would provide additional protection.

! Many portable hand tools, such as electric drills, are now manufactured with
non-metallic cases. If approved, we refer to such tools as double insulated.
Although this design method assists in reducing the risk from grounding
deficiencies, a shock hazard can still exist. In many cases, persons must
use such electrical equipment where there is considerable moisture or
wetness. Although the person is insulated from the electrical wiring and
components, there is still the possibility that water can enter the tool
housing. Ordinary water is a conductor of electricity. Therefore, if the water

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contacts energized parts, a path will be provided from inside the housing to
the outside, bypassing the double insulation. When a person holding a
hand tool under these conditions touches another conductive surface in
their work environment, an electric shock will result.

! Double-insulated equipment or equipment with non-metallic housings, that

does not require grounding under the National Electrical Code, is frequently
used around sinks or in situations where the equipment could be dropped
into water. Frequently, the initial human response is to grab for the
equipment. If a person's hand is placed in the water and another portion of
their body is in contact with a conductive surface, a serious or deadly
electric shock can occur.

! In construction work and regular factory maintenance work, it is frequently

necessary to use extension cord sets with portable equipment. These
cords are regularly exposed to physical damage. Although safe work
procedures require adequate protection, it is not possible to prevent all
damage. Frequently, the damage is only to the insulation, exposing
energized conductors. It is not unusual for a person to handle the cord
often with the possibility of contacting the exposed wires while holding a
metal case tool or while in contact with other conductive surfaces.

The amount of current which flows under such conditions will be enough to
cause serious human response. This can result in falls or other physical
injury and in many cases death.

Since neither insulation (double insulation) nor grounding can provide

protection under these conditions, it is necessary to use other protective
measures. One acceptable method is a ground fault circuit interrupter,
commonly referred to as a GFCI.

How Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters Work

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A ground-fault circuit-interrupter is not an overcurrent device like a fuse or

circuit breaker. GFCI's are designed to sense an imbalance in current flow over
the normal path.

The GFCI contains a special sensor that monitors the strength of the magnetic
field around each wire in the circuit when current is flowing. The magnetic field
around a wire is directly proportional to the amount of current flow, thus the
circuitry can accurately translate the magnetic information into current flow.

If the current flowing in the black (ungrounded) wire is within 5 (1) milliamperes
of the current flowing in the white (grounded) wire at any given instant, the
circuitry considers the situation normal. All the current is flowing in the normal
path. If, however, the current flow in the two wires differs by more than 5 mA,
the GFCI will quickly open the circuit. This is illustrated in the figure below.

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Note that the GFCI will open the circuit if 5 mA or more of current returns to the
service entrance by any path other than the intended white (grounded)
conductor. If the equipment grounding conductor is properly installed and
maintained, this will happen as soon as the faulty tool is plugged in. If by
chance this grounding conductor is not intact and of low-impedance, the GFCI
may not trip out until a person provides a path. In this case, the person will
receive a shock, but the GFCI should trip out so quickly that the shock will not
be harmful.

Types of Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters

There are several types of GFCI's available, with some variations to each type.
Although all types will provide ground-fault protection, the specific application
may dictate one type over another.

! Circuit-Breaker Type
The circuit-breaker type includes the functions of a standard circuit breaker
with the additional functions of a GFCI. It is installed in a panelboard and
can protect an entire branch circuit with multiple outlets. It is a direct
replacement for a standard circuit breaker of the same rating.

! Receptacle Type
The receptacle style GFCI incorporates within one device one or more
receptacle outlets, protected by the GFCI. Such devices are becoming very
popular because of their low cost. Most are of the duplex receptacle
configuration and can provide GFCI protection for additional non-GFCI type
receptacles connected "down stream" from the GFCI unit.

! Permanently Mounted Type

The permanently mounted types are mounted in an enclosure and designed
to be permanently wired to the supply. Frequently they are used around

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large commercial swimming pools or similar wet locations.

! Portable Type
Several styles of portable GFCI's are available. The portable types are
designed to be easily transported from one location to another. They
usually contain one or more integral receptacle outlets protected by the
GFCI module. Some models are designed to plug into existing non-GFCI
protected outlets, or in some cases, are connected with a cord and plug
arrangement. The portable type also incorporate a no-voltage release
device which will disconnect power to the outlets if any supply conductor is
open.

Units approved for use outdoors will be in enclosures suitable for the
environment. If exposed to rain, they must be listed as rainproof.

! Cord Connected Type

The power supply cord type GFCI consists of an attachment plug which
incorporates the GFCI module. It provides protection for the cord and any
equipment attached to the cord. The attachment plug has a non-standard
appearance and is equipped with test and reset buttons. Like the portable
type, it incorporates a no-voltage release device which will disconnect
power to the load if any supply conductor is open.

Classes of Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters

Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters are divided into two classes: Class A and

Class B. The Class A device is designed to trip when current flow, in other than
the normal path, is 6 milliamperes or greater. The specification is 5
milliamperes  1 milliampere. The Class B device will trip when current flow, in
other than the normal path, is 20 milliamperes or greater. Class B devices are
approved for use on underwater swimming pool lighting installed prior to the
adoption of the 1965 National Electrical Code.

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Testing Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters

Due to the complexity of a GFCI, it is necessary to test the device on a regular

basis. For permanently wired devices, a monthly test is recommended.
Portable type GFCI's should be tested each time before use. GFCI's have a
built-in test circuit which imposes an artificial ground fault on the load circuit to
assure that the ground-fault protection is still functioning. Test and reset
buttons are provided for testing.

REVERSED POLARITY

One potentially dangerous aspect of alternating current electricity is the fact that
many pieces of equipment will operate properly even though the supply wires
are not connected in the order designated by design or the manufacturer.
Improper connection of these conductors is most prevalent on the smaller
branch circuit typically associated with standard 120 volt receptacle outlets,
lighting fixtures and cord- and plug-connected equipment.

Section 1910.304(a)(2) of the OSHA standards and Section 200-11 in the

National Electrical Code cover the requirements for the connection of the
grounded conductor. It is from these sections that the so-called "reversed
polarity" expression comes. Although these sections are addressing the
connection of the grounded conductor, it is extremely important to realize that
improper termination of any conductor can introduce a serious hazard. The
figure below shows correct wiring of a standard medium base screw-shell lamp.

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It is not unusual for persons to place their fingers close to or on the screw-shell
when removing a lamp. When connected as shown in the figure below, the
screw-shell of the lamp would be at 120 volts with reference to other conductive
surfaces in the surroundings. Touching such a conductive surface in the area
while in contact with the screw-shell would pose a serious shock hazard.
Although it is recommended that power be turned off before doing such work,
history shows that this is frequently not done. This is especially serious when
persons are using cord- and plug-connected portable work lights with grounded
metal guards or reflectors. Notice that a person may think that the power has
been turned off by the integral switch on the hand-lamp; however, due to the
"reversed polarity" the switch is not located in the energized wire and does not
remove power from the screw-shell of the lampholder. Typically a person will
hold the fixture by the grounded metal guard. If the person's fingers come in
contact with the screw-shell of the lamp under such conditions, 120 volts will be
applied to the body from hand to hand.
1TYPICAL 120 VOLT BRANCH CIRCUIT WITH CORRECT WIRING
MEDIUM BASE SCREW-SHELL LAMP

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2TYPICAL 120 VOLT BRANCH CIRCUIT WITH INCORRECT WIRING

MEDIUM BASE SCREW-SHELL LAMP
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The figure below shows the correct wiring for the common 120 volt outlet with a

3TYPICAL 120 VOLT BRANCH CIRCUIT WITH CORRECT WIRING

portable hand tool attached.
Suppose now that the black (ungrounded) and white (grounded) conductors are
reversed as shown in the figure below. This is the traditional reversed polarity.
Although a shock hazard may not exist, there are other mechanical hazards
that can occur.

4120 VOLT BRANCH CIRCUIT WITH BLACK AND WHITE WIRES

REVERSED
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For example, if an internal fault should occur in the wiring as shown in the figure
below, the equipment would not stop when the switch is released or would start
as soon as a person plugs the supply cord into the improperly
wired outlet. This could result in serious injury.

5120 VOLT BRANCH CIRCUIT WITH BLACK AND WHITE WIRES

REVERSED
INTERNAL FAULT IN EQUIPMENT WIRING

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The figure below shows the white (grounded) and green (grounding) conductors
reversed. Although it is not fitting, considering OSHA or code terminology, to
call this reversed polarity, a hazard can still exist. In this case, due to the wiring
error, the white wire is being used to provide equipment grounding. Under
certain conditions, this could be dangerous.

6WHITE AND GREEN WIRES REVERSED

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The figure below shows an extremely dangerous situation. In this example, the
black (ungrounded) and green (grounding) conductors have been reversed.
The metal case of the equipment is at 120 volts with reference to the
surroundings. As soon as a person picks up the equipment and touches a
conductive surface in their surroundings, they will receive a serious, or even
deadly, shock.

Although the equipment will not work with this wiring error, it would not be
unusual for a person to pick up the equipment before realizing this. The person
may even attempt to trouble-shoot the problem before unplugging the power
cord.

7BLACK AND GREEN WIRES REVERSED

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Correct polarity is achieved when the grounded conductor is connected to the

corresponding grounded terminal and the ungrounded conductor is connected
to the corresponding ungrounded terminal. The reverse of the designated
polarity is prohibited. The figure below illustrates a duplex receptacle correctly
wired. Terminals are designated and identified to avoid confusion. An easy
way to remember the correct polarity is "white to light" - the white (grounded)
wire should be connected to the light or nickel-colored terminal; "black to brass"
- the black or multi-colored (ungrounded) wire should be connected to the brass
terminal; and "green to green" - the green or bare (grounding) wire should be
connected to the green hexagonal head terminal screw.

8
DUPLEX RECEPTACLE CORRECTLY WIRED TO DESIGNATED
TERMINALS

9
DUPLEX RECEPTACLE CORRECTLY WIRED TO DESIGNATED
TERMINALS

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GLOSSARY

Alternating Current (ac). The type of electric current which reverses at

regularly recurring intervals of time and which has alternately positive and
negative values.

Ampere. The unit of measurement for the rate of flow of electricity.

Atom. The smallest particle into which an element can be divided chemically.

Capacitance. The ability to accumulate and give up charge. When the voltage
across an electric circuit changes, the circuit opposes this change due to
capacitance. Capacitance affects dc circuits only when they are turned on and
off. In ac circuits, however, the voltage is continuously changing, so that the
effect of capacitance is continuous.

Closed Circuit. A complete path allowing current to flow.

Conductor. A material that gives up free electrons and offers only slight
opposition to current flow. Metals are good conductors. Copper and aluminum
are very good conductors.

Current. The rate of flow of electricity in a circuit. Measured in amperes. The

symbol for current is the letter I.

Direct Current (dc). The type of electric current in which the electrons move
continuously in one direction through the conductor.

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Direction of Current Flow. Electrons flow from a negatively charged point to

a positively charged point. When one point in an electrical circuit is marked (-)
and the other is marked (+), by convention, the current in the circuit flows from
the (+) to the (-).

Electromagnetism. The magnetic effect created when an electric current

flows in a conductor. This magnetic effect surrounds the conductor only while
current is flowing.

Electromotive Force (EMF). The electrical force caused by a difference in

potential between two points. EMF is measured in volts.

Electron. A negatively charged particle with a very small mass. It orbits

around the nucleus of an atom.

Free Electrons. Electrons in the outer orbits of an atom that can easily be
forced out of their orbits.

High Voltage. A term that normally implies a voltage higher than 600 volts.

Impedance. The total opposition offered to the flow of an alternating current. It

may consist of any combination of resistance, inductive reactance, and
capacitive reactance. Impedance is measured in ohms and its symbol is the
letter Z. The relationship among impedance, reactance and resistance is
shown in equation form below.

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Z ~=~sqrt{R SUP 2`+`X SUP 2}

Inductance. The property of an electric circuit by virtue of which a varying

current induces an electromotive force in that circuit or a neighboring circuit.
When the current in an electric circuit changes, the circuit may oppose the
change due to inductance.

Induction. The act or process of producing voltage by the relative motion of a

conductor across a magnetic field.

Insulator. A material that does not give up free electrons easily and offers
opposition to current flow. Some of the best insulators are polystyrene, mica,
glass, and wood.

Neutron. The particle in the nucleus which has no electrical charge.

Open Circuit. A break in the circuit which stops current flow. In a series
circuit, it means the complete circuit is dead.

Ohm. The basic unit of resistance measure. One ohm is equal to the
resistance that allows 1 ampere of current to flow when an EMF of 1 volt is
applied. The symbol for ohm is the greek letter omega ().

Ohm's Law. The voltage (E) is equal to the current (I) times the resistance (R).
The formula is written:

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E~=~I`R

Parallel Circuit. A circuit having its electrical components or equipment

connected so the total current is divided among them.

Parallel Circuit Laws.

Current - The total current is the sum of the individual branch currents.

Voltage - Voltage is the same across each branch in a parallel circuit.

Resistance - Total resistance is less than the lowest resistance. As more

resistors are connected in parallel to a line, the total effective resistance of the
combination is reduced, and the line current increases. This is shown in
equation form below.

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OSHA Office of Training and Education ELECTRICAL/elbasic3/1-95

1 over {R sub T}~=~1 over {R sub 1}~+~1 over {R sub 2}~+~1 over {R sub 3}

Power. The energy consumed in an electrical circuit. Power is the voltage

times the current, and its symbol is the letter P. Power is measured in watts. In

P~=~E`I

equation form:
Proton. The positively charged particle in the nucleus.

Reactance. The opposition offered to the flow of an alternating current due to

the changing magnetic field outside the conductor. This opposition is measured
in ohms. Reactance causes the current to lead or lag the voltage by 90
electrical degrees. Its symbol is the letter X.

Resistance. The opposition to the flow of electrons or current flow in a circuit

due to characteristics of the material. The resistivity of a pure material depends
on the number of free electrons available along the current path. Resistance is
measured in ohms and its symbol is the letter R.

Series Circuit. A circuit that has one and only one path for current flow.

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OSHA Office of Training and Education ELECTRICAL/elbasic3/1-95

Series Circuit Laws.

Current - Current is the same throughout a series circuit.

Voltage - Source voltage equals the sum of the individual voltage drops.

Resistance - Total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances. To find

the current in a series circuit, divide the line voltage applied to the circuit by the
total resistance. The total of individual voltage drops always equals the applied
line voltage.

Short Circuit. When the resistance of any part of a complete circuit drops from
its normal value to a very low resistance.

Volt. The unit of measure for electromotive force.

Voltage. The force (potential) that causes the current to flow. Measured in

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volts. The symbol for voltage is the letter E.

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