OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
INTRODUCTION +DESCRIPTION
Observation
- Systematically recording behavior and events in a natural setting.
- present for a long time
- method or data collection technique? people argue
- method because you use different techniques including 5 senses
- linked to ethnography (immersion in an environment)
Participant observation
- join
Ethnography
- “work of describing a culture"
- “another way of life from the native point of view”
ethnography is a type of research and observation is a method
ROLES OF THE RESEARCHER
Roles
- characteristic posture reasearchers assume
Nonparticipation
- no level of involvement
- “observe” from an entirely different environment
- transaction log analysis - non intrusive method
Complete Observer
- passive
- present but does not interact
- detachment - double edged sword
- video, audio, photograph
Observer-as-participant
- more observation than participation
- overt, short interviews
- do not cross platonic domain
- attentive strangers & less temptation of personal relations
- disadvantage: brief interviews can lead to miscommunication
Moderate or Peripheral Membership
- insider outsider balance
- more interactive
- engagement with activities but do not participate
- 2 reasons, limit researcher involvement in fear of bias in anaylsis , intentional restriction
Participant-as-Observer, Active Participation, Active Membership
- more involve, but does not commit to values and goals
- *friends* allowed
- risk of participant becoming researcher, or researcher going native
Complete Participation
- ultimate level!
- native, already member of the group they're studying
- "revealing his true self"
- violated observer role-> report findings = impossible
Complete Membership
- encouraged to go native
- let go of previous world and adopt to new worldviews
2 types of researchers:
1. opportunistic - already involved in or are members of a group whom they eventually decide
to study
2. convert - purely reasearch -> become on e with the phenomenon
CHARACTERISTICS UNIQUE TO OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
Training
- apprenticeship, on-the-job
Gaining access and leaving the field
- access is not automatic, its dipolamatic. time effort patience.
- when and who to disclose researcher identity
- abrupt (personalhealth, funding, withdrawal of access) or gradual leave complete
participant/membership)
- emotional attachment = withdraw over a period of time for preparation
Length of Time in the Field
- important: prolonged personal contact in natural setting long enough to ge raport
- length varies
- nonpaticipant = quantitative
Sampling
2 categories: molar (whole) molecular (small and specific behaviors)
- timing is everything
- maximum variety sampling = heterogenous
- extreme case sampling = exemplify characteristics of interest
- intensity samplig = expereinced participants
- snowball sampling = referal
probelms of snowball
Finding respondents and starting referral chains
• Verifying the eligibility of potential respondents
• Engaging respondents as research assistants
• Controlling the types of chains and number of cases in any chain
• Pacing and monitoring referral chains and data quality (p. 144)
Data collection techniques
- logs = daily conversations and events
- field notes = broader, interpretative and analytic
categories of filed notes:
- observational note = what was seen
- method notes = strategies used
- personal notes = researcher's own feelings
- theoretical notes = interpretation, attach meaning
- condensed version = notes during event
- epanded version = notes after event
3 principles
- identify language, proper use of punctuationand quotation
- verbatim, distinguish native terms and observer terms
- concrete language
- use intstruments (video tape, audio recording)
ETHICAL ISSUES IN OBSERVATION
- covert, complete observer, observer-as-participant are outlawed by IRB
(1) study participants come fi rst; (2) their rights,
interests, and sensitivities should be safeguarded by the researcher; (3)
participants have the right to know the aims of the researcher; (4) the
privacy of the participants must be protected; (5) the participant should
not be exploited or harmed in any way; and (6) reports should be made
available not only to sponsors but also to the participants and the general
public
guilty knowledge - researcher is privy
dirty hands - ressearcher can correct wrongdoing but doesnt
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
validity - plausible, credible, defensible, trustworthy
researcher bias- threat to validity, selective observation, or recording, subjective interpretation
hpw to reduce bias
1. multiple observers (triangulation )
2. refelxifity (critical self reflection)
3. negative case analysis (look for data that disproves your expectations) (prevetns confirmation
bias)
3 types of validity
1. descriptive validity = accurate recording of events
2. interpretive validity = understanding of researcher is correct
- participant feedback
- direct quotes
3. theoretical validity = does theory fir data?
chatman's version
1. face validity - does it make sense? common sense
2. criterion validity = are the findings correct when compared to other data sources or methods
3. construct validity = does your findings align with the concept you're studying
Reliability - how many times can u get the same result
generalizability - external validity, applicable irl or other contexts
SMIT
3 observational procedures
1. descriptive - broad, nonjudgemental, take nothing for granted
2. focused observation - filter, some entities are irrelevant, concrete on well defined entities
3. selective observation - specific, most narrow
emic perspective - aim of ethnography , insider:s viewpoint
Ontological authenticity - raised level of awareness
tactical authentiity - performative use of realness or personal sincerity to achieve academic
goals