Basic Computer Questions:

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE : Boolean algebra and computer

arithmetic, flip-flops, design of combinational and sequential circuits,
instruction formats, addressing modes, interfacing peripheral devices,
types of memory and their organization, interrupts and exceptions.
Von Neumann Computer, System Bus. Instruction Cycle, Data
Representation, Machine instruction and Assembly Language.

1. What is Boolean Algebra?

Boolean Algebra is a mathematical system used to represent and manipulate
logical expressions using binary values 0 and 1.
2. Who introduced Boolean Algebra?
George Boole.
3. What are the basic Boolean operations?
AND, OR, NOT.
4. What does the AND operation do?
It returns 1 only when both inputs are 1.
5. What does the OR operation do?
It returns 1 if at least one input is 1.
6. What does the NOT operation do?
It inverts the input (0 becomes 1, 1 becomes 0).
7. What are the Boolean variables?
Variables that take only two values: 0 or 1.
8. What is a Boolean expression?
An expression formed using Boolean variables and logical operators.
9. What is the identity law in Boolean algebra?
o A+0=A
o A⋅1=A
10. What is the null law?

 A+1=1
 A⋅0=0

11. What is the idempotent law?

 A+A=A
 A⋅A=A
12. What is the complement law?

 A+A′=1
 A⋅A′=0

13. What is De Morgan’s Theorem?

 (A+B)′=A′⋅B′
 (A⋅B)′=A′+B′

14. What is a truth table?

A table showing all possible input combinations and outputs.
15. What is a logic gate?
A digital circuit that performs a Boolean operation.
16. What is a universal gate?
A gate that can implement any Boolean function.
17. Which gates are universal gates?
NAND and NOR.
18. What is a minterm?
A Boolean expression where each variable appears once in true or
complemented form.
19. What is a maxterm?
A Boolean expression where variables are combined using OR operations.
20. What is Karnaugh Map (K-Map)?
A graphical method used to simplify Boolean expressions.
21. What is a Boolean function?
A function that produces binary output (0 or 1) based on logical operations.
22. What is a literal in Boolean algebra?
A variable or its complement (e.g., A or A').
23. What is a canonical form?
A Boolean expression written as sum of minterms or product of
maxterms.
24. What is Sum of Products (SOP)?
A Boolean expression where AND terms are combined using OR.
25. What is Product of Sums (POS)?
A Boolean expression where OR terms are combined using AND.
26. What is a switching function?
A Boolean function used to describe digital circuits.
27. What is simplification in Boolean algebra?
Reducing a Boolean expression to its simplest form.
28. What is absorption law?
29. A+A⋅B=A
30. A(A+B)=A
31. What is the distributive law?
32. A(B+C)=AB+AC
33. What is the commutative law?
34. A+B=B+A
35. A⋅B=B⋅A
36. What is the associative law?
37. A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C
38. A(B⋅C)=(A⋅B)C
39. What is a Boolean constant?
The fixed values 0 and 1.
40. What is duality principle in Boolean algebra?
Interchanging AND with OR and 0 with 1 in an expression.
41. What is a Karnaugh map used for?
To minimize Boolean expressions.
42. How many variables can a standard K-map handle easily?
Usually 2 to 6 variables.
43. What is grouping in K-map?
Combining adjacent 1s or 0s to simplify expressions.
44. What is adjacency in K-map?
Cells differing by only one variable.
45. What is a don't care condition?
A condition where the output does not matter (X).
46. Why are don't care conditions used?
To simplify Boolean expressions further.
47. What is the difference between combinational and sequential circuits?
Combinational circuits depend only on current inputs, while sequential
circuits depend on inputs and previous states.
48. What is computer arithmetic?
It is the study of performing arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division) using binary numbers.
49. What number system do computers use?
Binary number system (base 2).
50. What are the digits in binary system?
0 and 1.
51. What is a bit?
A binary digit (0 or 1).
52. What is a nibble?
4 bits.
53. What is a byte?
8 bits.
54. What is binary addition?
Addition performed using binary numbers.
55. What is the rule of binary addition?

0+0=0

0+1=1

1+0=1

1 + 1 = 10

56. What is carry in binary addition?

When 1 + 1 produces 10, the extra 1 is the carry.
57. What is binary subtraction?
Subtracting numbers in the binary number system.
58. What is 1’s complement?
Flipping all bits of a binary number (0→1, 1→0).
59. What is 2’s complement?
1’s complement + 1.
60. Why is 2’s complement used?
It is used to represent negative numbers in computers.
61. What is overflow in arithmetic operations?
When the result exceeds the number of bits available.
62. What is a half adder?
A circuit that adds two binary bits and produces sum and carry.
63. What is a full adder?
A circuit that adds three bits (including carry input).
64. What are arithmetic operations in computers?
Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
65. What is signed number representation?
Representing positive and negative numbers using a sign bit.
66. What is BCD?
Binary Coded Decimal, where each decimal digit is represented by 4
binary bits.
67. What is an arithmetic logic unit (ALU)?
A component of the CPU that performs arithmetic and logical operation
68. What is radix in number systems?
The base of a number system.
69. What is the radix of binary system?
2
70. What is the radix of decimal system?
10
71. What is the radix of hexadecimal system?
16
72. What are hexadecimal digits?
0–9 and A–F
73. What is number system conversion?
Converting numbers between binary, decimal, octal, and hexadecimal
systems.
74. What is binary multiplication?
Multiplying numbers using binary digits.
75. What is binary division?
Dividing numbers using binary arithmetic rules.
76. What is signed magnitude representation?
A representation where one bit indicates sign and the rest represent
magnitude.
77. What is the sign bit?
The leftmost bit used to indicate positive or negative numbers.
78. What is fixed-point representation?
Numbers with a fixed position for the decimal point.
79. What is floating-point representation?
Numbers represented with mantissa and exponent.
80. What is IEEE 754 standard?
A standard used for floating-point arithmetic in computers.
81. What is rounding in computer arithmetic?
Reducing a number to fewer digits while keeping it close to the original
value.
82. What is truncation?
Removing extra digits without rounding.
83. What is underflow?
When a number is too small to be represented.
84. What is overflow?
When a number is too large to be represented.
85. What is Booth’s algorithm?
An algorithm used for binary multiplication of signed numbers.
86. What is restoring division?
A method used in computers for binary division.
87. What is non-restoring division?
An improved binary division method without restoring the remainder
each time.

1. What is a combinational circuit?

A digital circuit whose output depends only on present inputs.
2. Does a combinational circuit have memory?
No, it has no memory.
3. What are the main components of combinational circuits?
Logic gates.
4. What is the first step in designing a combinational circuit?
Problem specification.
5. What is the second step in combinational circuit design?
Constructing a truth table.
6. What is the third step in combinational circuit design?
Simplifying Boolean expressions.
7. What is the final step in combinational circuit design?
Implementing the logic circuit.
8. What is a half adder?
A circuit that adds two binary bits and produces sum and carry.
9. What is a full adder?
A circuit that adds three bits (two bits and a carry input).
10. What is a half subtractor?
A circuit that subtracts two bits and produces difference and borrow.
11. What is a full subtractor?
A circuit that subtracts three bits (including borrow).
12. What is a multiplexer (MUX)?
A circuit that selects one input from many inputs and sends it to output.
13. What is a demultiplexer (DEMUX)?
A circuit that takes one input and routes it to one of many outputs.
14. What is an encoder?
A circuit that converts multiple inputs into coded binary output.
15. What is a decoder?
A circuit that converts binary input into multiple outputs.
16. What is a priority encoder?
An encoder that gives priority to the highest input.
17. What is a comparator?
A circuit that compares two binary numbers.
18. What is a code converter?
A circuit that converts one binary code to another.
19. What is a BCD to 7-segment decoder?
A circuit used to display decimal digits on a 7-segment display.
20. What is propagation delay?
The time taken for input change to affect the output.
21. What is the main characteristic of a combinational circuit?
The output depends only on present inputs.
22. Do combinational circuits use feedback?
No, feedback is not used.
23. What is the role of a truth table in combinational circuit design?
It shows all possible input combinations and their outputs.
24. What is logic minimization?
Reducing a Boolean expression to use fewer gates.
25. Which methods are used for Boolean simplification?
Boolean algebra and Karnaugh Map (K-Map).
26. What is a 2-to-1 multiplexer?
A multiplexer that selects one of two inputs.
27. What is a 4-to-1 multiplexer?
A multiplexer that selects one of four inputs.
28. What are selection lines in a multiplexer?
Lines that determine which input is selected.
29. What is a binary decoder?
A circuit that converts n inputs into 2n2^n2n outputs.
30. Example of decoder size?
A 3-to-8 decoder.
31. What is a binary encoder?
A circuit that converts 2n2^n2n inputs into n outputs.
32. What is a parity generator?
A circuit used to generate a parity bit for error detection.
33. What is a parity checker?
A circuit that checks whether data contains errors.
34. What is a magnitude comparator?
A circuit that determines whether A > B, A = B, or A < B.
35. What is a carry look-ahead adder?
An adder designed to reduce propagation delay.
36. What is a ripple carry adder?
An adder where carry propagates sequentially through stages.
37. What is a code converter example?
Binary to Gray code converter.
38. What is Gray code?
A code where only one bit changes between successive numbers.
39. Why is Gray code used?
To reduce errors in digital systems.
40. What is a combinational logic block?
A block that performs logic operations without memory.
41. What is a sequential circuit?
A digital circuit whose output depends on current inputs and previous
state.
42. Does a sequential circuit have memory?
Yes, it has memory elements.
43. What stores data in sequential circuits?
Flip-flops or latches.
44. What is a clock signal?
A timing signal used to synchronize operations.
45. What are the types of sequential circuits?
Synchronous and Asynchronous circuits.
46. What is a synchronous sequential circuit?
A circuit that changes state according to a clock signal.
47. What is an asynchronous sequential circuit?
A circuit that changes state immediately with input changes.
48. What is a latch?
A basic memory device that stores one bit.
49. What is a flip-flop?
A clock-controlled memory device.
50. What is an SR flip-flop?
A flip-flop with Set and Reset inputs.
51. What is a JK flip-flop?
An improved SR flip-flop that eliminates invalid states.
52. What is a D flip-flop?
A flip-flop that stores the value of input D at clock edge.
53. What is a T flip-flop?
A flip-flop that toggles its state when triggered.
54. What is a register?
A group of flip-flops used to store binary data.
55. What is a shift register?
A register that shifts data left or right.
56. What is a counter?
A sequential circuit that counts clock pulses.
57. What is a ripple counter?
A counter where flip-flops trigger sequentially.
58. What is a synchronous counter?
A counter where all flip-flops receive the same clock.
59. What is a finite state machine (FSM)?
A system that moves between states based on inputs.
60. What are the two types of FSM?
Moore machine and Mealy machine.
61. What is the basic memory element in sequential circuits?
Flip-flop.
62. How many states can one flip-flop store?
Two states (0 and 1).
63. What is the excitation table?
A table showing inputs required to change states of a flip-flop.
64. What is a state table?
A table representing present state, next state, and outputs.
65. What is a state diagram?
A graphical representation of states and transitions.
66. What is a present state?
The current state of a system.
67. What is a next state?
The state after a clock pulse.
68. What is state reduction?
Minimizing the number of states in a sequential circuit.
69. What is state assignment?
Assigning binary values to states.
70. What is a register transfer?
Moving data from one register to another.
71. What is a serial shift register?
A register where data enters and exits one bit at a time.
72. What is a parallel shift register?
A register where multiple bits are transferred simultaneously.
73. What is a ring counter?
A counter where output of last flip-flop feeds the first.
74. What is a Johnson counter?
A modified ring counter with inverted feedback.
75. What is modulo-N counter?
A counter that counts from 0 to N-1.
76. What is a decade counter?
A counter that counts from 0 to 9.
77. What is clock skew?
A difference in arrival time of clock signals.
78. What is setup time?
Minimum time input must remain stable before clock edge.
79. What is hold time?
Minimum time input must remain stable after clock edge.
80. What is a synchronous register?
A register that operates using a common clock signal.

“FLIP-FLOPS”

1. What is a flip-flop?
A flip-flop is a bistable sequential circuit that stores one bit of data.
2. How many stable states does a flip-flop have?
Two stable states (0 and 1).
3. Why are flip-flops called bistable devices?
Because they have two stable states.
4. What is the main function of a flip-flop?
To store one binary bit.
5. In which circuits are flip-flops used?
Sequential circuits.
6. What components store data in sequential circuits?
Flip-flops and latches.
7. What controls most flip-flops?
A clock signal.
8. What is the clock signal?
A timing pulse used to synchronize operations.
9. What is the output of a flip-flop?
Usually Q and Q’ (complement).
10. What does Q’ represent?
The inverse of Q.

Types of Flip-Flops

11. What are the main types of flip-flops?

SR, JK, D, and T flip-flops.
12. What does SR stand for?
Set-Reset.
13. What does JK stand for?
It is named after Jack Kilby (JK inputs).
14. What does D flip-flop stand for?
Data or Delay flip-flop.
15. What does T flip-flop stand for?
Toggle flip-flop.

SR Flip-Flop

16. What is an SR flip-flop?

A flip-flop with Set and Reset inputs.
17. What happens when S = 1 and R = 0?
Output is set (Q = 1).
18. What happens when S = 0 and R = 1?
Output is reset (Q = 0).
19. What happens when S = 0 and R = 0?
No change.
20. What happens when S = 1 and R = 1?
Invalid/undefined state.
21. What is the disadvantage of SR flip-flop?
The invalid state (S=1, R=1).
22. Which gates are used to build SR flip-flop?
NOR or NAND gates.
23. What is the basic memory element in SR latch?
Cross-coupled gates.

JK Flip-Flop

24. What is a JK flip-flop?

An improved SR flip-flop that eliminates invalid state.
25. What happens when J = 1 and K = 0?
Set operation.
26. What happens when J = 0 and K = 1?
Reset operation.
27. What happens when J = 0 and K = 0?
No change.
28. What happens when J = 1 and K = 1?
Toggle.
29. What is toggling?
The output changes to the opposite state.
30. What problem occurs in JK flip-flop?
Race-around condition.
31. When does race-around condition occur?
When J = K = 1 and clock pulse is long.
32. How is race-around condition avoided?
Using master-slave flip-flop.

D Flip-Flop

33. What is a D flip-flop?

A flip-flop that stores the value of input D.
34. How many inputs does a D flip-flop have?
One data input (D).
35. What happens when the clock edge occurs?
Q takes the value of D.
36. Why is D flip-flop widely used?
Because it eliminates invalid states.
37. Where are D flip-flops used?
Registers and memory circuits.

T Flip-Flop

38. What is a T flip-flop?

A flip-flop that toggles when T = 1.
39. What happens when T = 0?
No change.
40. What happens when T = 1?
Output toggles.
41. Where are T flip-flops used?
Counters.
 Timing Concepts

42. What is propagation delay?

Time taken for output to respond after input change.
43. What is setup time?
Minimum time input must be stable before clock edge.
44. What is hold time?
Minimum time input must remain stable after clock edge.
45. What is clock skew?
Difference in arrival time of clock signals.

Flip-Flop Design and Applications

46. Where are flip-flops used?

Registers, counters, memory, shift registers.
47. What is a register?
A group of flip-flops used to store data.
48. How many bits can a flip-flop store?
One bit.
49. What is a shift register?
A register that shifts data left or right.
50. What is a counter?
A sequential circuit that counts clock pulses.

Advanced Flip-Flop Questions

51. What is a master-slave flip-flop?

Two flip-flops connected in series to avoid race conditions.
52. What is edge triggering?
Flip-flop changes state only at clock edge.
53. What are types of edge triggering?
Positive edge and negative edge.
54. What is positive edge triggering?
Triggered when clock changes from 0 to 1.
55. What is negative edge triggering?
Triggered when clock changes from 1 to 0.
56. What is asynchronous input?
Input that does not depend on clock.
57. What are preset and clear inputs?
Inputs used to force output to 1 or 0.
58. What is synchronous input?
Input controlled by clock signal.
59. What is state transition?
Change from present state to next state.
60. What is a state table?
A table showing present state, next state, and input conditions.
Instruction Formats – Short Questions with Answers
1. What is an instruction in computer architecture?
An instruction is a command given to the CPU to perform a specific
operation.
2. What is an instruction format?
Instruction format is the layout or structure of bits in an instruction.
3. What are the main fields in an instruction format?
Opcode field and operand field.
4. What is an opcode?
Opcode specifies the operation to be performed.
5. What is an operand?
Operand is the data or memory location on which the operation is
performed.
6. What is a zero-address instruction?
An instruction that does not require any operand address.
7. Which architecture uses zero-address instructions?
Stack-based architecture.
8. What is a one-address instruction?
An instruction that contains one operand address.
9. What is a two-address instruction?
An instruction containing two operand addresses.
10. What is a three-address instruction?
An instruction containing three operand addresses.
11. Which instruction format is fastest to execute?
Register-based instruction format.
12. Why are instruction formats important?
They help the CPU interpret and execute instructions correctly.
 13. What determines instruction length?
Number of opcode bits and operand fields.
14. What is a fixed-length instruction format?
All instructions have the same length.
15. What is a variable-length instruction format?
Instructions may have different lengths.

2. Addressing Modes – Short Questions with Answers

16. What is an addressing mode?
It is the method used to locate the operand of an instruction.
17. Why are addressing modes used?
To provide flexibility in accessing data.
18. What is immediate addressing mode?
Operand value is given directly in the instruction.
19. What is direct addressing mode?
Instruction contains the memory address of the operand.
20. What is indirect addressing mode?
Instruction refers to a memory location that contains the operand address.
21. What is register addressing mode?
Operand is stored in a CPU register.
22. What is register indirect addressing mode?
A register contains the address of the operand.
23. What is indexed addressing mode?
Effective address = index register + address field.
24. What is base addressing mode?
Effective address = base register + displacement.
 25. What is relative addressing mode?
Address is determined relative to the program counter.
26. What is implied addressing mode?
Operand is implicitly specified by the instruction.
27. Which addressing mode is fastest?
Register addressing mode.
28. Which addressing mode requires extra memory access?
Indirect addressing mode.
29. What is effective address?
The actual address of the operand in memory.
30. Why are multiple addressing modes needed?
To improve programming flexibility and efficiency.

3. Interfacing Peripheral Devices – Short Questions with Answers

31. What are peripheral devices?
External devices connected to a computer for input, output, or storage.
32. Give examples of peripheral devices.
Keyboard, mouse, printer, monitor, scanner.
33. What is interfacing?
Connecting peripheral devices with the CPU so they can communicate.
34. Why is interfacing necessary?
To enable data transfer between CPU and external devices.
35. What is an I/O interface?
A hardware unit that connects peripheral devices to the system bus.
36. What is an I/O port?
A communication endpoint used for input/output operations.
37. What are the two main I/O techniques?
Memory-mapped I/O and Isolated I/O.
38. What is memory-mapped I/O?
I/O devices are treated as memory locations.
39. What is isolated I/O?
I/O devices have separate address space from memory.
40. What is programmed I/O?
CPU directly controls data transfer with I/O devices.
41. What is interrupt-driven I/O?
The device interrupts the CPU when it needs attention.
42. What is Direct Memory Access (DMA)?
A technique where devices transfer data directly to memory without CPU
involvement.
43. What is an interrupt?
A signal that temporarily stops CPU execution to handle an event.
44. What is an interrupt controller?
A device that manages interrupt requests.
45. What is a device controller?
A hardware component that controls the operation of a peripheral device.
46. What is buffering in I/O?
Temporary storage of data during transfer.
47. What is handshaking in interfacing?
A synchronization technique between two devices.
48. What is polling?
CPU repeatedly checks device status.
49. Which I/O method is fastest?
Direct Memory Access (DMA).
50. What is the function of system bus in interfacing?
To transfer data, addresses, and control signals between CPU, memory,
and I/O devices.

“Types of Memory and Their Organization”

1. What is computer memory?
Computer memory is a device used to store data and instructions for
processing.
2. What are the main types of memory?
Primary memory and Secondary memory.
3. What is primary memory?
Memory directly accessed by the CPU.
4. Give examples of primary memory.
RAM, ROM, Cache memory.
5. What is secondary memory?
Memory used for permanent data storage.
6. Give examples of secondary memory.
Hard disk, SSD, CD, DVD, Pen drive.
7. What is RAM?
Random Access Memory, a volatile memory used for temporary storage.
8. Why is RAM called volatile memory?
Because data is lost when power is turned off.
9. What are the types of RAM?
SRAM and DRAM.
10. What is SRAM?
Static Random Access Memory, faster and used in cache.
11. What is DRAM?
Dynamic Random Access Memory, slower but cheaper.
12. What is ROM?
Read Only Memory, used to store permanent instructions.
13. Is ROM volatile or non-volatile?
Non-volatile.
14. What are the types of ROM?
PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.
15. What is PROM?
Programmable Read Only Memory.
16. What is EPROM?
Erasable Programmable ROM that can be erased using UV light.
17. What is EEPROM?
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM.
18. What is cache memory?
A small, very fast memory located between CPU and RAM.
19. Why is cache memory used?
To speed up data access.
20. What is memory hierarchy?
Arrangement of memory types based on speed, cost, and size.
21. What are the levels of memory hierarchy?
Registers → Cache → Main memory → Secondary memory.
22. What is a memory cell?
The smallest unit of memory that stores one bit.
23. What is a memory address?
A unique location used to access data in memory.
24. What is memory organization?
The arrangement of memory cells and their addressing system.
25. What is word length?
The number of bits processed at a time by CPU.

2. Interrupts and Exceptions

Short Questions with Answers

26. What is an interrupt?
An interrupt is a signal that temporarily stops CPU execution to handle an
event.
27. Why are interrupts used?
To allow the CPU to respond to external or internal events.
28. What is an interrupt handler?
A program that handles the interrupt request.
29. What is an interrupt service routine (ISR)?
A routine that executes when an interrupt occurs.
30. What is a hardware interrupt?
An interrupt generated by external devices.
31. Give examples of hardware interrupts.
Keyboard, mouse, printer.
32. What is a software interrupt?
An interrupt generated by software instructions.
33. What is an internal interrupt?
An interrupt caused by CPU operations or errors.
34. What is an external interrupt?
An interrupt caused by external hardware devices.
35. What is interrupt latency?
The time taken by CPU to respond to an interrupt.
36. What is interrupt priority?
A system that determines which interrupt is handled first.
37. What is interrupt masking?
Temporarily disabling certain interrupts.
38. What is vectored interrupt?
An interrupt that directly provides the address of the ISR.
39. What is non-vectored interrupt?
The CPU must search for the ISR address.
40. What is polling?
CPU continuously checks device status.
41. What is the difference between polling and interrupt?
Polling checks continuously, while interrupt notifies the CPU automatically.
42. What is an exception?
An abnormal event occurring during program execution.
43. Give examples of exceptions.
Divide-by-zero error, overflow.
44. What is a trap?
A software-generated interrupt used for debugging.
45. What is fault?
An exception that can be corrected and restarted.
46. What is abort?
A serious exception where program cannot continue.
47. What happens when an interrupt occurs?
CPU pauses the current task and executes ISR.
48. What is nested interrupt?
An interrupt that occurs while another interrupt is being processed.
 49. What is interrupt vector table?
A table containing addresses of interrupt service routines.
50. Why are interrupts important?
They improve CPU efficiency and responsiveness.

“Von Neumann Computer Architecture”

1. What is the Von Neumann computer architecture?
It is a computer design where data and instructions are stored in the same
memory.
2. Who proposed the Von Neumann architecture?
John von Neumann.
3. In which year was Von Neumann architecture introduced?
Around 1945.
4. What is the main idea of Von Neumann architecture?
The stored-program concept.
5. What is the stored-program concept?
Both program instructions and data are stored in the same memory.
6. What are the main components of Von Neumann architecture?
CPU, Memory, Input devices, Output devices.
7. What are the main parts of CPU in Von Neumann architecture?
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) and Control Unit.
8. What is the function of ALU?
To perform arithmetic and logical operations.
9. What is the function of the Control Unit?
To control and coordinate all operations of the computer.
10. What is the Von Neumann bottleneck?
The limitation caused by a single bus used for both data and instructions.
11. Why does the Von Neumann bottleneck occur?
Because data and instructions share the same memory path.
12. What cycle does Von Neumann architecture follow?
The Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle.
13. What happens in the fetch stage?
The CPU retrieves an instruction from memory.
14. What happens in the decode stage?
The CPU interprets the instruction.
15. What happens in the execute stage?
The CPU performs the required operation.
16. What is the program counter (PC)?
A register that stores the address of the next instruction.
17. What is the instruction register (IR)?
A register that holds the current instruction.
18. What is the main advantage of Von Neumann architecture?
Simple design and flexible programming.
19. What is the main disadvantage of Von Neumann architecture?
Slower performance due to shared memory path.
20. Which modern computers use Von Neumann architecture?
Most general-purpose computers.

“Bus System Concepts”

1. What is a bus in computer architecture?
A bus is a set of wires used to transfer data between computer
components.
2. Why is a bus system required?
To enable communication between CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
3. What are the main components connected by the bus?
CPU, memory, and input/output devices.
4. What is a bus line?
An individual wire within a bus.
5. What does bus width mean?
The number of bits that can be transferred simultaneously.
6. What does bus bandwidth mean?
The amount of data that can be transferred per second.
7. What is bus timing?
The synchronization of data transfer over the bus.
8. What is a bus cycle?
The time required to complete one data transfer.
9. What is bus contention?
A situation where multiple devices attempt to use the bus simultaneously.
10. What is bus arbitration?
A process used to decide which device gets control of the bus.

Types of Bus
11. What are the main types of buses in a computer?
Address bus, Data bus, Control bus.
12. What is the function of the address bus?
To carry memory addresses from CPU to memory or I/O devices.
13. What is the function of the data bus?
To transfer data between CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
14. What is the function of the control bus?
To send control signals to coordinate operations.
15. Is the address bus bidirectional?
No, it is unidirectional.
16. Is the data bus bidirectional?
Yes, it is bidirectional.
17. Is the control bus bidirectional?
Usually bidirectional.
18. What signals are carried by the control bus?
Read, Write, Interrupt, Clock signals.

Bus Organization
19. What is bus organization?
The structure and arrangement of buses connecting computer
components.
20. What is a system bus?
A bus that connects CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
21. What is a local bus?
A bus that connects devices directly to the CPU.
22. What is an expansion bus?
A bus used to connect additional hardware devices.
23. Give examples of expansion buses.
PCI, PCI Express, USB.
24. What is PCI?
Peripheral Component Interconnect, used to connect peripherals.
25. What is USB?
Universal Serial Bus, used for connecting external devices.
Bus Operation
26. What is bus master?
A device that controls the bus during data transfer.
27. What is bus slave?
A device that responds to commands from the bus master.
28. What is direct memory access (DMA)?
A technique where devices transfer data directly to memory without CPU
involvement.
29. What happens during a bus read operation?
Data is transferred from memory to CPU.
30. What happens during a bus write operation?
Data is sent from CPU to memory.

Bus Timing
31. What is synchronous bus?
A bus that operates using a clock signal.
32. What is asynchronous bus?
A bus that does not use a clock signal.
33. Which bus is faster?
Synchronous bus.
34. What is handshaking in bus communication?
A synchronization process between sender and receiver.

Advanced Bus Concepts

35. What is multiplexed bus?
A bus where address and data share the same lines.
 36. What is demultiplexing?
Separating address and data signals.
37. What is tri-state bus?
A bus that allows multiple devices to share lines without conflict.
38. What is bus latency?
The delay before data transfer begins.
39. What is bus throughput?
The rate at which data moves through the bus.
40. Why is bus system important in computers?
Because it connects and enables communication between all hardware
components.

1. Instruction Cycle
Short Questions with Answers
1. What is an instruction cycle?
The instruction cycle is the process by which the CPU executes an
instruction.
2. What are the main stages of the instruction cycle?
Fetch, Decode, Execute.
3. What happens in the fetch stage?
The CPU retrieves the instruction from memory.
4. What happens in the decode stage?
The CPU interprets the instruction.
5. What happens in the execute stage?
The CPU performs the required operation.
6. Which register holds the address of the next instruction?
Program Counter (PC).
 7. Which register holds the current instruction?
Instruction Register (IR).
8. What is the purpose of the instruction cycle?
To execute instructions sequentially.
9. What happens after executing an instruction?
The CPU fetches the next instruction.
10. What is an interrupt cycle?
A cycle where the CPU handles interrupt requests.

2. Data Representation

Short Questions with Answers

11. What is data representation?
The method of representing data in binary form inside a computer.
12. Why do computers use binary representation?
Because electronic circuits work with two states (0 and 1).
13. What is a bit?
The smallest unit of data in a computer.
14. What is a byte?
A group of 8 bits.
15. What is a nibble?
A group of 4 bits.
16. What is signed data representation?
Representation of positive and negative numbers.
17. What is unsigned data representation?
Representation of only positive numbers.
18. What is 1’s complement?
Flipping all bits in a binary number.
 19. What is 2’s complement?
1’s complement + 1, used for negative numbers.
20. Why is 2’s complement used?
It simplifies binary subtraction operations.
21. What is BCD?
Binary Coded Decimal, where each decimal digit is represented using 4
bits.
22. What is ASCII?
A coding scheme used to represent characters in binary form.
23. What is Unicode?
A universal character encoding system.
24. What is floating-point representation?
A method to represent real numbers using exponent and mantissa.
25. What is fixed-point representation?
A method where the decimal point position is fixed.

3. Machine Instruction
Short Questions with Answers
26. What is a machine instruction?
A binary-coded command directly executed by the CPU.
27. What language are machine instructions written in?
Binary language (0s and 1s).
28. What are the main parts of a machine instruction?
Opcode and operand.
29. What does the opcode specify?
The operation to be performed.
 30. What does the operand specify?
The data or memory address used in the operation.
31. What is instruction length?
The number of bits in a machine instruction.
32. What is instruction format?
The structure of bits in a machine instruction.
33. What is a zero-address instruction?
An instruction without explicit operands.
34. What is a one-address instruction?
An instruction with one operand address.
35. What is a two-address instruction?
An instruction with two operand addresses.
36. What is a three-address instruction?
An instruction with three operand addresses.
37. Why are machine instructions difficult to write?
Because they use binary numbers.

4. Assembly Language
Short Questions with Answers
38. What is assembly language?
A low-level programming language using mnemonics for machine
instructions.
39. What is a mnemonic?
A symbolic name representing a machine instruction.
40. Give examples of assembly mnemonics.
ADD, SUB, MOV, JMP.
41. What is the advantage of assembly language over machine language?
It is easier for humans to read and write.
42. What is an assembler?
A program that converts assembly language into machine language.
43. What is a label in assembly language?
A symbolic name used to identify memory locations.
44. What is a directive in assembly language?
An instruction that guides the assembler but is not executed by CPU.
45. What is the difference between machine language and assembly
language?
Machine language uses binary, while assembly uses mnemonics.
46. Is assembly language machine dependent?
Yes, it depends on the processor architecture.
47. What is a macro in assembly language?
A group of instructions defined as a single command.
48. What is debugging in assembly language?
The process of finding and correcting errors.
49. Where is assembly language used?
In system programming, embedded systems, and device drivers.
50. Why is assembly language faster than high-level languages?
Because it directly interacts with hardware.