BSC-MN-204: GENERAL PHYSICS II

Module 1: Atomic and nuclear physics

Semester II, 2024 - 25
B. Sc. - M. Sc. FORENSIC SCIENCE (5 year integrated)

NATIONAL FORENSIC SCIENCES UNIVERSITY (NFSU),

Curti, Ponda, Goa, PIN 403401

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Introduction

The word “atom” comes from the ancient Greek word meaning
”undivided.” They thought that an atom couldn’t be cut into
anything smaller, which we now know is not exactly right.
Atoms are simply the building blocks of any object.
Human hair is about 100 nanometers across and that is about
1,000,000 carbon atoms.
The mass of a proton is essentially the same as that of a neutron, but
1,840 times greater than the mass of an electron.
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe and there are
about 10 million known compounds that can be made with carbon.
The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic
nucleus by the electromagnetic force. The protons and neutrons in
the nucleus are attracted to each other by the nuclear force.

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Periodic table

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Discovery of the electrons

In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered that cathode rays are not

electromagnetic waves but made of particles because they can be
deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
He measured these particles to be 1,800 times lighter than hydrogen
(the lightest atom).
Thomson concluded that these particles came from the atoms within
the cathode—they were subatomic particles.
He called these new particles corpuscles but they were later renamed
electrons.
J. J. Thomson thought that the negatively-charged electrons were
distributed throughout the atom in a sea of positive charge that was
distributed across the whole volume of the atom. This model is sometimes
known as the plum pudding model.

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Atom model of J J Thomson

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Discovery of nucleus

Between 1908 and 1913, Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues Hans
Geiger and Ernest Marsden performed a series of experiments in
which they bombarded thin foils of metal with alpha particles.
They did this to measure the scattering patterns of the alpha
particles. They spotted alpha particles being deflected by angles
greater than 90°.
This shouldn’t have been possible according to the Thomson model of
the atom, whose charges were too diffuse to produce a sufficiently
strong electric field.
Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is not
distributed throughout the atom’s volume as Thomson believed, but
is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center.
Only such an intense concentration of charge could produce an
electric field strong enough to deflect the alpha particles as observed.

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Rutherford’s atom model
Rutherford overturned Thomson’s model in 1911 with his well-known gold
foil experiment in which he demonstrated that the atom has a tiny and
heavy nucleus. Rutherford designed an experiment to use the alpha
particles emitted by a radioactive element as probes to the unseen world of
atomic structure. If Thomson was correct, the beam would go straight
through the gold foil. Most of the beams went through the foil, but a few
were deflected.
Rutherford presented his own physical model for subatomic structure, as
an interpretation for the unexpected experimental results. In it, the atom
is made up of a central charge (this is the modern atomic nucleus, though
Rutherford did not use the term "nucleus" in his paper) surrounded by a
cloud of (presumably) orbiting electrons. In this May 1911 paper,
Rutherford only committed himself to a small central region of very high
positive or negative charge in the atom.
The Rutherford model served to concentrate a great deal of the atom’s
charge and mass to a very small core, but did not attribute any structure
to the remaining electrons and remaining atomic mass.
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Rutherford’s atom model

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Bohr’s model
This model was based on the quantum theory of radiation and the
classical law of physics. It gave new idea of atomic structure in order
to explain the stability of the atom and emission of sharp spectral
lines.
Postulates of this theory are:
(i) The atom has a central massive core nucleus where all the protons
and neutrons are present. The size of the nucleus is very small.
(ii) The electron in an atom revolves around the nucleus in certain
discrete orbits. Such orbits are known as stable orbits or non –
radiating or stationary orbits.
(iii) The force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron is
equal to centrifugal force of the moving electron. Force of attraction
towards nucleus = centrifugal force
(iv) An electron can move only in those permissive orbits in which the
angular momentum (mvr) of the electron is an integral multiple of
h
h/2π. Thus mvr = 2π
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Bohr’s model
h 2h 3h nh
The angular momentum can be. 2π , 2π , 2π , ..., 2π This principal is known
as quantization of angular momentum. In the above equation ‘n’ is any
integer which has been called as principal quantum number. It can have
the values n=1,2,3,... (from the nucleus). Various energy levels are
designed as K(n=1), L(n=2), M(n=3)... etc. Since the electron present in
these orbits is associated with some energy, these orbits are called energy
levels.
(vi) The emission or absorption of radiation by the atom takes place when
an electron jumps from one stationary orbit to another. The radiation is
emitted or absorbed as a single quantum (photon) whose energy hν is
equal to the difference in energy ∆E of the electron in the two orbits
involved. Thus, E = hν
Where ‘h’ =Planck’s constant, ν frequency of the radiant energy. Hence
the spectrum of the atom will have certain fixed frequency.
(viii) The lowest energy state (n=1) is called the ground state. When an
electron absorbs energy, it gets excited and jumps to an outer orbit. It has
to fall back to a lower orbit with the release of energy.
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Bohr’s model

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Bohr’s model

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Advantages of Bohr’s model
Bohr’s theory satisfactorily explains the spectra of species having one
electron, viz. hydrogen atom, He + , Li 2+ etc.
Calculation of radius of Bohr’s orbit: According to Bohr, radius of orbit in
which electron moves is
h2
  2
n
r= 2 2
(1)
4π me k Z
Where, n =Orbit number, m =Mass number 9.1 × 10−31 kg, e = Charge on
the electron 1.6 × 10−19 C Z =Atomic number of element, k = Coulombic
constant 9 × 109 Nm2 C −2 . After putting the values, we get
n2
rn = 0.529 × Å (2)
Z
Then for a particular atom
r ∝ n2 ; (Z = constant). (3)
For particular orbit of different species
1
r ∝ ; (n = constant). (4)
Z
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Advantages of Bohr’s model

Calculation of velocity of electron

2πe 2 ZK 2.188 × 108 × Z

Vn = = cm/sec. (5)
nh n
Then for a particular atom
1
V ∝ ; (Z = constant). (6)
n
For particular orbit of different species

V ∝ Z ; (n = constant). (7)

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Advantages of Bohr’s model
Calculation of energy of electron in Bohr’s orbit.
Total energy of electron = Kinetic energy + Potential energy =
kZe 2 kZe 2 kZe 2
2r − r = − 2r . Substituting r, then total energy becomes

2π 2 mZ 2 e 4 k 2
E =− , where n = 1, 2, 3, ... (8)
n2 h2
Putting the value of m, e, k, h, and π we get
Z2
E = −13.6 × eV (9)
n2
For particular system
1
E ∝− ; (Z = constant). (10)
n2
For particular orbit of different species
E ∝ −Z 2 ; (n = constant). (11)
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Advantages of Bohr’s model
Quantisation of energy
In ground state: No energy emission. In ground state energy of atom
is minimum and for 1st orbit of H-atom, n=1. Therefore,
E1 = −13.6eV .
In excited state: Energy levels greater than n1 are excited state. i.e.
for H- atom n1 , n2 , n3 , ... are excited state. For H- atom first
excitation state is n2 .
Excitation potential: Energy required to excite electron from ground
state to any excited state. Ground state → Excited state.
Ionisation energy : The minimum energy required to relieve the
electron from the binding of nucleus.
2
Zeff
Eionization = E∞ − En = +13.6 eV . (12)
n2
Energy released in bringing the electron from infinite to any orbit is
called its binding energy (B.E.).
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Drawbacks of Bohr’s model
Bohr model had several limitations and was replaced by the quantum
mechanic s model.
The model stood strong in explaining spectra of lighter atoms similar
to hydrogen. It could not explain the spectral lines for heavier atoms.
The model could not account for hyperfine structures like doublets
and triplets.
As per the Bohr’s model, the angular momentum of the electron in
the ground state of a hydrogen atom is equal to the reduced Planck
constant h/2π. The modern quantum theory says it is zero.
The model didn’t stand to the advent of the dual nature (wave-
particle duality) of the electron.
The model was in contradiction to the later development of the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle that says that the position and
momentum of a particle cannot be determined simultaneously.
However, Bohr model defined the position (orbits) and momentum of
the electron at the same time.
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Drawbacks of Bohr’s model
Bohr model had several limitations and was replaced by the quantum
mechanic s model.
The model stood strong in explaining spectra of lighter atoms similar
to hydrogen. It could not explain the spectral lines for heavier atoms.
The model could not account for hyperfine structures like doublets
and triplets.
As per the Bohr’s model, the angular momentum of the electron in
the ground state of a hydrogen atom is equal to the reduced Planck
constant h/2π. The modern quantum theory says it is zero.
The model didn’t stand to the advent of the dual nature (wave-
particle duality) of the electron.
The model was in contradiction to the later development of the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle that says that the position and
momentum of a particle cannot be determined simultaneously.
However, Bohr model defined the position (orbits) and momentum of
the electron at the same time.
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Bohr’s theory
We assume the nucleus has positive charge +Ze and is infinitely
massive (as far as the electron is concerned) and therefore undergoes
no motion. We shall discuss corrections for the finite mass of the
nucleus later. We also assume the electron is non- relativistic.
Equating the electric force to the centripetal force gives

kZe 2 mv 2
= (13)
r2 r
or
kZe 2
= mv 2 . (14)
r
In the preceding k = 1/4π0 .
The kinetic energy of the electron is K .E . = 21 mv 2 , then

1 kZe 2
K .E . = mv 2 = (15)
2 2r
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Bohr’s theory
Now, the electric potential energy U of the electron is given by
P.E . = −kZe 2 /r The total mechanical energy E of the electron is then
kZe 2
E = K .E . + P.E . = − . (16)
2r
Note that E is negative because the electron is bound, i.e., energy must be
supplied to remove the electron from the atom. Now to determine E, we
need to find r. To do this, we invoke the second postulate:
nh
L = n~ = . (17)
2π
For an electron in a circular orbit about the nucleus, L = mvr, then
n~ nh
v= = . (18)
mr 2πmr
Substituting the above equation in equation (14) gives the radius r:
n2 h2
r= (19)
4π 2 me 2 kZ
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Energy levels in Bohr’s model
A photon is emitted when an electron jumps from one energy level to a lower
energy level.
The various permitted orbits involve different energies.
The electron energy En is given in terms of the orbit radius rn is
kZe 2
En = − (20)
2r
1
where k = 4π0
.
The expression for energy is
2π 2 mZ 2 e 4 k 2
En = − , where n = 1, 2, 3, ... (21)
n2 h2
The energies specified by the above equation are called the energy levels of an
atom.
These levels are all negative, which signifies that the electron does not have
enough energy to escape from the nucleus.
An atomic electron can have only these energies and no others.
From equation (21), the ground state energy of hydrogen atom is E1 = −13.6eV .
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Energy levels in Bohr’s model

The lowest energy level E1 is called the ground state of the atom, and
higher levels E1 , E2 , E3 , ... are called excited states.
As the quantum number n increases, the corresponding energy En
approaches closer to 0.
In the limit of n = ∞, E∞ = 0 and the electron no longer bound to
the nucleus to form an atom.
Note: A positive energy for a nucleus-electron combination means that the
electron is free and has no quantum conditions to fulfill; such a
combination does not constitute an atom.

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Energy levels in Bohr’s model for hydrogen atom

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Hydrogen spectrum
The presence of discrete energy levels in the hydrogen atom suggests that
when an electron in excited state drops to a lower state, the lost energy is
emitted as a photon.
If the quantum number of the initial (higher energy) state is ni and the
quantum number of the final (lower energy) state is nf , we can write
Initial energy − final energy = photon energy , (22)
Ei − Ef = hν, (23)
where ν is the frequency of the emitted photon. For hydrogen atom, we have
E1
En = 2 . (24)
n
On substitution we get    
1 1 1 1
Ei − Ef = E1 − 2 = −E1 − 2 . (25)
ni2 nf nf2 ni
The frequency of the photon released in this transition is
 
Ei − Ef E1 1 1
ν= =− − 2 . (26)
h h nf2 ni
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Hydrogen spectrum

Since λ = νc , then 1
λ= νc , then the expression for hydrogen spectrum is
obtained as    
1 E1 1 1 1 1
=− − = R − , (27)
λ ch nf2 ni2 nf2 ni2
where R is the Rydberg constant, R = 1.097 × 107 m−1 .
Equation (27) states that the radiation emitted by excited hydrogen atoms
should contain certain wavelengths only. These wavelengths fall into definite
sequences that depend upon the quantum number nf of the final energy
level of the electron.
For Lyman series nf = 1, and ni = 2, 3, 4, ...
For Balmer series nf = 2, and and ni = 3, 4, 5, ...
For Paschen series nf = 3, and and ni = 4, 5, 6, ...
For Brackett series nf = 4, and and ni = 5, 6, 7, ...
For Pfund series nf = 5, and and ni = 6, 7, 8, ...

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Hydrogen spectrum

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Hydrogen spectrum - numerical problem

Find the longest wavelength present in the Balmer series of hydrogen

atom, corresponding to Hα line.

Ans. λ = 656nm.

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Franck-Hertz experiment
Atomic spectra are not only the way to investigate energy levels inside
atoms.
A series of experiments based on excitation by collision was performed
by James Franck and Gustav Hertz in 1914.
These experiments demonstrated that atomic energy levels indeed
exist and furthermore, that the ones found in this way are the same as
those suggested by line spectra.

Figure: Apparatus for the Franck-Hertz experiment

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Franck-Hertz experiment

Franck and Hertz bombarded the vapours of various elements with

electrons of known energy.
A small potential difference V0 between the grid and collecting plate
prevents electrons having energies less than a certain minimum from
contributing to the current I through the ammeter.
As the accelerating potential V is increased, more and more electrons
arrive at the plate and I rises.
The critical electron energy equals the energy needed to raise the
atom to its lowest excited state.
After a certain critical energy is reached, the plate current drops
abruptly. This suggests that an electron colliding with one of the
atoms gives up some or all of its kinetic energy to excite the atom to
an energy level above its ground state. Such a collision is called
inelastic.

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Franck-Hertz experiment

As the accelerating potential V is raised further, the plate current

again increases, since the electrons now have enough energy left to
reach the plate after undergoing an inelastic collision on the way.
Eventually another sharp drop in plate current occurs, which arises
from the excitation of the same energy level in other atoms by the
electrons.
A series of critical potentials for a given atomic vapour is obtained.
In the case of mercury vapour, Frank and Hertz found that 4.9 eV
was required to excite 253.6 nm spectral line of mercury - and a
photon of 253.6 nm light has an energy of just 4.9eV.
A video of Franck-Hertz experiment
[Link]

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Franck-Hertz experiment

Figure: Results of Franck-Hertz experiment showing critical potentials in mercury

vapour
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Stern-Gerlach experiment
Experiments in the early 1920s discovered a new aspect of nature, and at
the same time found the simplest quantum system in existence. In the
Stern-Gerlach experiment, a beam of hot atoms is passed through a
nonuniform magnetic field. This field would interact with the magnetic
dipole moment of the atom, if any, and deflect it.

BSC-MN-204: Module 1 Figure: Stern-Gerlach

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Stern-Gerlach experiment
Stern-Gerlach experiment illustrate the fact that electrons have spin.
The experimental arrangement took the form of collimated beam of
silver atoms heading in the y direction and passes through a
non-uniform magnetic field in the z direction.
Assume that the silver atoms posses a non-zero magnetic moment µ.
The external magnetic field will exert a torque on the magnetic
dipole, it will not affect the z component of µ, but x and y
components of µ will change with time.
The atoms experience a sideways force.
Based on classical physics, it is expected that the magnetic dipole
moment vectors will be randomly oriented in space, so there should
be a continuous spread in the z component of magnetic moments.
Instead, it was found that the silver atoms arrived on the screen at
only two points corresponds to magnetic moments of µz = ±µB ;
e~
where µB = 2m e
, µB is known as the Bohr magneton, e is the charge
of an electron, h is Planck’s constant, and me is the mass of an
electron.
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Stern-Gerlach experiment

Thus space quantization was clearly confirmed by this experiment.

Spin is purely a quantum mechanical phenomenon.
There are two possible values of spin corresponding to the two spots
on the spin of the electron, this component being determined by the
direction of the magnetic filed in the z direction.
The allowed values for the z component of spin are Sz = ± 12 ~.
There is nothing special about the z direction, therefore any
component of the spin of an electron will have only two values,
Sx = ± 21 ~, Sy = ± 12 ~.
The positive sign is usually referred to as spin up and the negative
sign as spin down.
A video of Stern-Gerlach experiment
[Link]

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Quantum numbers
Each electron in an atom is described by four different quantum
numbers.
The quantum numbers are principal quantum number (n), angular
momentum quantum number or azimuthal quantum number (`),
magnetic quantum number (m` ) and spin quantum number s.
The first three (n, `, m` ) specify the particular orbital of interest, and
the fourth (s) specifies how many electrons can occupy that orbital.
1. Principal quantum number (n): n = 1,2,3, ...
It was proposed by Bohr’s and denoted by ‘n’ and it gives the
information of orbit K, L, M, N, ...
Specifies the energy of an electron and the size of the orbital.
All orbitals that have the same value of n are said to be in the same
shell (level).
For a hydrogen atom with n=1, the electron is in its ground state; if
the electron is in the n=2 orbital, it is in an excited state.
The value of energy increases with the increasing value of n.
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Quantum numbers
2. Angular momentum quantum number or azimuthal quantum
number (`): ` = 0, ...(n − 1).
Azimuthal quantum number is also known as angular quantum
number. Proposed by Sommerfield and denoted by ‘`’.
Specifies the shape of an orbital with a particular principal quantum
number.
The secondary quantum number divides the shells into smaller groups
of orbitals called subshells (sublevels).
` = 0 represents s, ` = 1 represents p, ` = 2 represents d, ` = 3
represents f, and so on.
The subshell with n=2 and `=1 is the 2p subshell; if n=3 and `=0, it
is the 3s subshell, and so on.
The value of ` also has a slight effect on the energy of the subshell;
the energy of the subshell increases with `. Thus energies of subshells
s < p < d < f (increasing energy ).
h
p
The orbital angular momentum is given by 2π `(` + 1).
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Quantum numbers

3. Magnetic quantum number (m` ): m` = −`, ..., 0, ... + `

It was proposed by Zeeman and denoted by (m` ).
Specifies the orientation in space of an orbital of a given energy (n)
and shape (`).
Magnetic quantum number divides the subshell into individual orbitals
which hold the electrons; there are (2` + 1) orbitals in each subshell.
Thus the s subshell has only one orbital, the p subshell has three
orbitals, and so on.
Degenerate orbitals: Orbitals having the same energy are known as
degenerate orbitals. e.g. for p subshell px , py , pz .

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Quantum numbers

4. Spin quantum number (s): s = ± 12 .

It was proposed by Goldshmidt and Ulen Backand denoted by the
symbol of ‘s’.
Specifies the orientation of the spin axis of an electron. An electron
can spin in only one of two directions (sometimes called up and
down).
The value of +1/2, and −1/2 is signifies the spin or rotation or
direction of electron on it’s axis during movement.
The spin may be clockwise or anticlockwise.
h
p
The spin angular momentum is given by 2π s(s + 1).
1
Maximum spin of an atom = 2× number of unpaired electron.

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Shapes of orbitals

Figure: s orbital

Figure: p orbitals

Figure: d orbitals
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Shapes of orbitals

Figure: Probability clouds for the electron in the ground state and several excited
states of hydrogen. The probability of finding the electron is indicated by the
shade of colour; the lighter the colouring, the greater the chance of finding the
electron.
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Pauli’s exclusion principle

The Pauli’s exclusion principle states that no two electrons in the

same atom can have identical values for all four of their
quantum numbers.
This means that no more than two electrons can occupy the same
orbital, and that two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite
spins.
Because an electron spins, it creates a magnetic field, which can be
oriented in one of two directions. For two electrons in the same
orbital, the spins must be opposite to each other; the spins are said to
be paired.
Since this principle excludes certain possible combinations of quantum
numbers for any two electrons in an atom, it was given the name
exclusion principle. Its results are as follows: (i) The maximum
capacity of a main energy shell is equal to 2n2 electron.
(ii) The maximum capacity of a subshell is equal to 2(2` + 1) electron.
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Orbital magnetic dipole moment

Figure: An electron that orbits a proton in a hydrogen atom.

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Orbital magnetic dipole moment
The orbital magnetic dipole moment is a measure of the strength of the
magnetic field produced by the orbital angular momentum of an electron.
he current I associated with an electron in orbit about a proton in a
hydrogen atom is
e
I= , (28)
T
where e is the magnitude of the electron charge and T is its orbital period.
If we assume that the electron travels in a perfectly circular orbit, the orbital
period is
2πr
T = , (29)
v
where r is the radius of the orbit and v is the velocity of electron in its orbit.
The area of the circle is A = πr 2 .
The absolute magnetic moment is
e 2 evr
µ = IA = πr = . (30)
( 2πr
v )
2

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Orbital magnetic dipole moment
It is helpful to express the magnetic momentum µ in terms of the orbital
angular momentum L.
L=r×p, r is the position vector and p=mv is the momentum vector; r and p
form a right angle (900 ). Then
L = |L| = |r × p| = rp sin θ = rp sin 900 = rp = rmv . (31)

Combining equations (30) and (31) we get

 
e
µ= L. (32)
2me

In vector form it can be represented as

 
e
µ=− L. (33)
2me
The negative sign appears because the electron has a negative charge.
Notice that the direction of the magnetic moment of the electron is
antiparallel to the orbital angular momentum.
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Orbital, spin and total angular momentum
The quantum number ‘s’ describes the spin angular momentum of electron.
The only value s can have is s = 12 .
The magnitude of ‘S’ of the angular momentum due to electron spin is given
in terms of spin quantum number s is given by, √
h p 3
Spin angular momentum S = s(s + 1) = ~ (34)
2π 2
The orbital angular momentum in terms of the orbital quantum number ` is
h p
Orbital angular momentum L = `(` + 1) (35)
2π
The total angular momentum is the sum of the spin and orbital angular
momenta for the electrons in an atom.
h p
Total angular momentum J = L + S = j(j + 1) (36)
2π
where j is the total angular momentum quantum number.
The total angular momentum quantum number ‘j’ can take any positive
value from ` + s to |` − s| in integer steps; i.e., if ` = 1 and s = 3/2, j can
be 5/2, 3/2, or 1/2.
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Vector atom model

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Vector atom model

The main contributors for the vector atom model are Bohr, Sommerfeld,
Uhlenbeck, Goudsmith, Pauli, Stern and Gerlach. The two main features of
vector atom model are (1) spatial quantization and (2) electron spin.
Spatial quantization:
According to spatial quantization, the orientation of the electron
orbits in space is quantized.
The plane of the orbit in space or the direction of orbital angular
momentum can take only certain selected orientations with respect to
a preferred direction which could be an external magnetic field.
Based on quantum theory, the vector atomic model consider orbits to
be quantised both in magnitude (i.e., size and form) as well as in the
directions (i.e., orientation of orbits in space), making only certain
discrete orientation of electron allowed. Hence, space quantisation
forms the orbits vector quantities.

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Vector atom model
Electron spin:
The electron in an atom is endowed with two angular momenta, one
due to orbital motion and other due to spin.
In consequence, the total angular momentum of an atom was due to
orbital and spin of the electron.
According to quantum theory, the spin motion, like the orbital
motion, is to be quantised which will therefore introduce spin
quantum number.
As both the orbital and spin motions are to be quantised not only in
magnitude but also in direction according to spatial quantisation, they
are quantised vectors.
The elctron is endowed with two magnetic moments: orbital and spin
magnetic moments.
The orbital and spin orbit motions which determine the state of the
atom are quantised vectors, the resutant model is called vector atom
model to which vector laws apply.
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Quantum numbers associated with vector atom model

Principal quantum number, n

Angular momentum quantum number or Azimuthal quantum number,
`
Magnetic quantum number
Spin quantum number, s
Total angular momentum quantum number, j
Magnetic spin quantum number, ms : This is the numerical value of
the projection of the spin vector ‘s’ on field direction.
Magnetic total angular momentum quantum number, mj : This is the
numerical value of the projection of the total angular momentum
vector ‘j’ on the field direction.

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Vector atom model - coupling schemes
There are several ways in which the different vectors of the electron
may combine to give the vectors representing the atom as a whole.
There are two types of combinationn known as
1. The L-S coupling or Russell-Saunders coupling
2. j-j coupling.
L-S coupling: The several spin vectors of the electron combine to
form a resultant vector S; the several orbital vectors combine to form
a resultant vector L, the S and L combine to make the vector J,
which represents total angular momentum of the atom.
j-j coupling: Under certain conditions, the interaction between the
spin and orbital vectors in each electron may be stronger than that
between either the spin vectors or the orbital vectors of different
electrons. Then each electron is considered separately and its
contribution to the total angular momentum of the atom is obtained
by combining first its individual spin and orbital vector using the
relation j = ` + s. The vector sum of all the individual j vectors of the
different electrons gives the total angular momentum J of the atom.
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 Nuclear Physics

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Introduction

We have been able to regard the nucleus of an atom merely as a tiny,

positively charged object whose only roles are provide the atom with
most of its mass and to hold its electrons.
The properties of atoms, molecules, solids, and liquids can all be
traced to the behaviour of atomic electrons, not to the behaviour of
nuclei.
The very existence of the various elements is due to the ability of
nuclei to possess multiple electric charges.
Furthermore, the energy involved in almost all natural processes can
be traced to nuclear reactions and transformations.

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Composition and size of nucleus

Atomic nuclei of the same element have the same number of protons
but can have different numbers of neutrons.
The forces that hold the nucleus together are vastly stronger than the
electric forces that hold the electrons to the nucleus.
The changes in electronic structure of an atom involve energies of
only a few electronvolts. On the other hand, changes in nuclear
structure involve energies in the mega electron volt (MeV).
Atomic number of an element is the number of protons in each of its
atomic nuclei, which is the same as the number of electrons in a
neural atom of the element.
The conventional symbols for nuclear species follow the pattern A
ZX,
where X is the chemical symbol of the element, Z is the atomic
number of the element - it is equatl to the number of protons in the
nucleus, and A is the mass number of the nuclide or the number of
nucleons in the nucleus.
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Composition and size of nucleus
For example, the nucleus of gold is denoted by 197
79 Au, it contains 197
nucleons, of which 79 are protons and the rest 118 are neutrons.
By performing scattering experiments in which fast electrons, instead
of α particles, are projectiles that bombard targets made up of various
elements, the size of nuclei of various elements have been accurately
measured.
It has been found that a nucleus of mass number A has radius

R = R0 A1/3 , (37)

where R0 = 1.2 × 10−15 m.

This means the volume of the nucleus is proportional to R 3 is
proportional to A. Thus density of the nucleus is a constant,
independent of A, for all nuclei.
Different nuclei are like drop of liquid of constant density.
The density of nuclear matter is approximately 2.3 × 1017 kgm−3 .
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Numerical problem 1

Given the mass of iron nucleus as 55.85 u and A =56, finde nuclear
density. ( 1u = 1.660539 × 10−27 kg. )

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Atomic masses

The mass of an atom is very small, compared to a kilogram; for example,

the mass of a carbon atom, 12 C is 1.992647 × 10−26 kg.
Kilogram is not a very convenient unit to measure such small quantities.
Therefore atomic mass unit (u) is used to represent the mass of atom.
One atomic unit (u) is defined as

mass of one 12 C atom 1.992647 × 10−26

1u = = = 1.660539 × 10−27 kg.
12 12

The atomic masses of various elements expressed in atomic mass unit (u)
are close to being integral multiples of the mass of a hydrogen atom. There
are, however, many striking exceptions to this rule. For example, the atomic
mass of chlorine atom is 35.46 u.

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Atomic masses

The lightest element, hydrogen has three isotopes (same atomic number,
different mass number) having masses 1.00783 u, 2.0141u and 3.0160u. The
nucleus of the lightest atom of hydrogen which has relative abundance of
99.985% is called proton. The mass of proton is

mp = 1.00727u = 1.67262 × 10−27 kg. (38)

This is equal to the mass of hydrogen atom minus the mass of a single
electron (me = 0.00055u)

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Discovery of proton
In 1909, Rutherford discovered protons in his famous gold foil experiment. He
bombarded alpha particles on an ultrathin gold foil.
Rutherford thought that a hydrogen nucleus must be the fundamental building
block of all nuclei, and also possibly a new fundamental particle as well since
nothing was known from the nucleus that was lighter.
Based on Wilhelm Wien’s theory, who in 1898 discovered the proton in streams of
ionized gas, Rutherford postulated the hydrogen nucleus to be a new particle in
1920, which he called proton.
Rutherford named it the proton, from the Greek word "protos," meaning "first."
In a gold foil experiment, Rutherford bombarded alpha particles on an ultrathin
gold foil and then detected the scattered alpha particles on a zinc sulphide (ZnS)
screen. According to Rutherford’s observation,
Most of the alpha particles were not deflected; they passed through the foil. Some
alpha particles get deflected at a small angle. Very few particles bounced back (1
in 20,000).
During 1917 - 1919, Rutherford comes back to H - particles: he uses αparticles to
bombard B, F, Na, Al, P, and N and sees H - particles kicked off from all of them.
The H - particles, protons, must be constituents of all element
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Discovery of neutron
Since the nuclei of deuterium and tritium are isotopes of hydrogen, they
must contain only one proton each. But the masses of the nuclei of
hydrogen, deuterium and tritium are in the ratio of 1:2:3.
Therefore, the nuclei of deuterium and tritium must contain, in addition to a
proton, some neutral matter.
The amount of neutral matter present in the nuclei of these isotopes,
expressed in units of mass of a proton, is approximately equal to one and
two, respectively.
This fact indicates that the nuclei of atoms contain, in addition to protons,
neutral matter in multiples of a basic unit.
This hypothesis was verified in 1932 by James Chadwick who observed
emission of neutral radiation when beryllium nuclei were bombarded with
alpha-particles.
From conservation of energy and momentum, James Chadwick was able to
determine the mass of new particle ‘as very nearly the same as mass of
proton’.
mn = 1.00866u = 1.6749 × 10−27 kg. (39)
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Discovery of neutron
Chadwick bombarded beryllium with alpha particles from the radioactive
decay of Polonium.
The radiation penetrated a lead shield more than expected, which couldn’t
be explained by the particle models of the time.
Chadwick concluded that there was a neutral particle with a similar mass to
a proton, but without an electric charge.

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Isotopes

Atoms of a given element which have same atomic number (nuclear charge)
but different mass number are called isotopes.
In other words, isotopes are the atoms of the same element differing in mass
number.
Thus isotopes have same number of protons and electrons but different
number of neutrons.
They have same position in the periodic table, same chemical properties and
same atomic charge.
The term was first coined by Soddy.
Examples: Hydrogen isotopes 11 H, 21 H, 31 H, Carbon isotopes 12
6 C,
13 14
6 C, 6 C,
Oxygen isotopes 16 17 18 35 37
8 O, 8 O, 8 O, Chlorine isotopes 17 Cl, 17 Cl.

Of all the elements, tin has maximum number of stable isotopes (ten).
The percentage of a given isotope in the naturally occurring sample of an
element is called isotopic abundance.

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Isotopes

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Isobars

Isobars are the atoms of different elements with the same mass
number but different atomic numbers.
In other words, isobars have different number of protons, neutrons
and electrons but the sum of protons and neutrons (i.e., number of
nucleons) is same.
Examples: 40 40 40
18 Ar , 19 K ,20 Ca
130 Te, 130 Xe,130 Ba.
52 54 56
Since isobars are the atoms of different elements, they will have
different physical and chemical properties.

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Isotones

Isotones are the atoms of different elements with the same number of
neutrons but different mass numbers.
Since the variable factor in isotones is the number of protons (atomic
number), they must have different physical and chemical properties.
Examples: 30 Si, 31 P,32 S; number of neutrons is 16,
14 15 16

39 K , 40 Ca; number of neutrons is 20,

19 20

3 H,4 He; number of neutrons is 2,

1 2

13 C ,14 N; number of neutrons is 7.

6 7

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Alpha, beta, gamma decay

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Alpha decay

When a nucleus undergoes alpha-decay, it transforms to a different nucleus

by emitting an alpha-particle (a helium nucleus, 42 He).
238 234
For example, when 92 U undergoes alpha-decay, it transforms to 90 Th.

238 234
92 U → 90 Th + 42 He.

In this process, it is observed that since 42 He contains two protons and two
neutrons, the mass number and the atomic number of the daughter nucleus
decreases by four and two, respectively.
A−4
Thus, the transformation of a nucleus AZ X into a nucleus Z −2 X can be
expressed as
A
ZX → A−4 4
Z −2 X + 2 He,
A−4
where AZ X is known as parent nucleus and Z −2 X known as daughter nucleus.
238
The alpha decay of 92 U can occur spontaneously.

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Properties of alpha particles

Alpha particles range in energy from 4 to 8 MeV and have a relatively high
atomic mass of 4. For these reasons, alpha particles travel in straight lines
through matter and deposit their energy over short distances.
This means that they do a lot of damage in that short distance. Their main
mode of interaction is ionization, knocking electrons out of atoms. However,
as Rutherford showed, in rare cases they can collide and react with the
nucleus of an atom, undergoing nuclear reactions.
It is easy to protect against alpha particles because they can be stopped
with thin materials such as paper. However, if they are ingested or get into
open wounds they are very dangerous because they deposit a lot of energy in
a small volume.
In living tissue this results in the destruction of cells. The range of a 4 MeV
alpha particle in air is about 2.5 cm and about 14 µm in tissue, whereas an
8 MeV alpha particle would have a range of 7 cm in air and 42 µm in tissue.
The speed of alpha rays goes from 5% to 7% of the light speed.

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Beta decay

A nucleus that decays spontaneously by emitting an electron or a positron is said

to undergo beta decay. Like alpha decay, this is a spontaneous process, with a
definite disintegration energy and half-life.
In beta minus (β − ) decay, an electron is emitted by the nucleus, as in the decay of
32 32 −
15 P → 16 S + e + ν̄.
In beta plus (β + ) decay, a positron is emitted by the nucleus, as in the decay of
22 22 +
11 Na → 10 Ne + e + ν.
The symbols ν̄ and ν represent antineutrino and neutrino, respectively; both are
neutral particles, with very little or no mass.
In beta-minus decay, a neutron transforms into a proton within the nucleus
according to
n → p + e − + ν̄,
whereas in beta-plus decay, a proton transforms into neutron (inside the nucleus)
via
p → n + e + + ν.
These processes show why the mass number A of a nuclide undergoing beta decay
does not change.

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Properties of beta particles

Beta particles are the fast electrons sent from the centre of an atom.
But the beta-atom and the cathode ray are both fast electrons. In
any case, they differ in their beginning stage. Beta-particles are given
out from the centre of the atom, while cathode rays radiate out from
its orbital electrons.
The speed of Beta particles is in the range of 108 m/s.
Beta particles ionise the gas through which they pass.
Entering power of Beta-particles is more than that of alpha particles.
Beta particles impact a visual plate.

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Gamma decay

There are energy levels in a nucleus, just like there are energy levels in
atoms.
When a nucleus is in an excited state, it can make a transition to a
lower energy state by the emission of electromagnetic radiation.
As the energy differences between levels in a nucleus are of the order
of MeV, the photons emitted by the nuclei have MeV energies and are
called gamma rays.
Most radionuclides after an alpha decay or a beta decay leave the
daughter nucleus in an excited state.
The daughter nucleus reaches the ground state by a single transition
or sometimes by successive transitions by emitting one or more
gamma rays.

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Gamma decay

A well-known example of such a process is that of 60 27 Co . By beta

emission, the 60
27 Co nucleus transforms into 60 Ni nucleus in its excited
28
state. The excited 60
28 Ni nucleus so formed then de-excites to its
ground state by successive emission of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV
gamma rays.

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Properties of gamma particles
Gamma rays contain 10−12 m frequency electromagnetic waves.
Gamma radiation is an exceptionally incredible photon with an extremely
short frequency (0.0005 to 0.1 nm).
Gamma discharges frequently go with alpha and beta emanations as an
energised core falls into a lower and more steady energy condition.
Gamma rays are high recurrence electromagnetic waves without mass and
charge. This radioactive outflow has the minimal force of ionisation.
These are transmitted because of the change from a higher energy state to
bring down the energy condition of the energised core.
Gamma rays transmit energy when an electron moves to a lower energy state
by producing a photon to an infrared reach someplace in the bright reach.
The entrancing power is the most noteworthy for gamma rays. They have
minimal ability to ionise any material. However, they are the riskiest.
Gamma rays have the most extraordinary infiltrating power, and a couple of
centimetres of lead sheet or a couple of metres of cement can stop them. In
specific cases, they might even go through them.
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Comparison of alpha, beta, and gamma particles

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Comparison of alpha, beta, and gamma particles

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Comparison of alpha, beta, and gamma particles

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Numerical problem

The half-life of 238 9

92 U undergoing α-decay is 4.5 × 10 years. What is
238
the activity of 1g sample of 92 U ?
Sol. T1/2 = 4.5 × 109 years = 1.42 × 1017 years.
λ= 0.693
T1/2 = 0.693
1.42×1017
= 4.883 × 10−18 s −1 .
Number of atoms in 1 g:
number × mass 6.023×1023 ×1
N = Avegadro
Mass number = 238 = 2.53 × 1021 .
Therefore, activity = R = λN
R = 2.53 × 1021 × 4.883 × 10−18 = 1.235 × 104 Bq.

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Mass defect
The nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons. Therefore it may be
expected that the mass of the nucleus is equal to the total mass of its
individual protons and neutrons.
However, the nuclear mass M is found to be always less than this.
We have
Mass of 8 neutrons = 8 × 1.00866 u
Mass of 8 protons = 8 × 1.00727 u
Mass of 8 electrons = 8 × 0.00055 u
Therefore the expected mass of 16
8 O nucleus = 8 × 2.01593 u = 16.12744 u.

The atomic mass of 168 O found from mass spectroscopy experiments is seen
to be 15.99493 u. Substracting the mass of 8 electrons (8 × 0.00055 u)
from this, we get the experimental mass of 16
8 O nucleus to be 15.99053 u.
16
Thus, we find that the mass of the 8 O nucleus is less than the total mass of
its constituents by 0.13691u.
The difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents, ∆M, is called the
mass defect.
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Mass defect

The mass defect ∆M can be expressed as

∆M = [Z mp + (A − Z )mn ] − M, (40)

where Z is the atomic number, A is the mass number, mp mass of protons,

mn mass of neutrons and M is the actual mass of atom.
What is the meaning of mass defect?
It is here that Einstein’s equivalence of mass and energy plays a role. Since
the mass of the oxygen nucleus is less that the sum of the masses of its
constituents (8 protons and 8 neutrons, in the unbound state), the
equivalent energy of the oxygen nucleus is less than that of the sum of the
equivalent energies of its constituents. If one wants to break the oxygen
nucleus into 8 protons and 8 neutrons, this extra energy ∆Mc 2 , has to
supplied. This energy required Eb is related to the mass defect by

Eb = ∆Mc 2 , (41)

Eb is termed as binding energy.

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Binding energy

If a certain number of neutrons and protons are brought together to form a

nucleus of a certain charge and mass, an energy Eb will be released in the
process. The energy Eb is called the binding energy of the nucleus.
If we separate a nucleus into its nucleons, we would have to supply a total
energy equal to Eb , to those particles.
Although we cannot tear apart a nucleus in this way, the nuclear binding
energy is still a convenient measure of how well a nucleus is held together.
A more useful measure of the binding between the constituents of the
nucleus is the binding energy per nucleon, Ebn , which is the ratio of the
binding energy Eb of a nucleus to the number of the nucleons, A, in that
nucleus:
Eb
Ebn = . (42)
A

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Binding energy per nucleon

We can think of binding energy per nucleon as the average energy per
nucleon needed to separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons.
A plot of the binding energy per nucleon E bn versus the mass number A for
a large number of nuclei is shown:

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Binding energy per nucleon

From the binding energy per nucleon curve, we can get the following
features:
The binding energy per nucleon, E bn , is practically constant, i.e.
practically independent of the atomic number for nuclei of middle mass
number (30 < A < 170). The curve has a maximum of about 8.75 MeV for
A = 56 and has a value of 7.6 MeV for A = 238.
Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A<30) and heavy nuclei (A>170).
From the above two observations some conclusions can be drawn:
1. The force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a binding energy
of a few MeV per nucleon.
2. The constancy of the binding energy in the range 30 < A < 170 is a
consequence of the fact that the nuclear force is short-ranged.

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Binding energy per nucleon

3. A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per
nucleon compared to that of a nucleus with A = 120. Thus if a
nucleus A = 240 breaks into two A = 120 nuclei, nucleons get more
tightly bound. This implies energy would be released in the process. It
has very important implications for energy production through fission.
4. Consider two very light nuclei (A ≤ 10) joining to form a heavier
nucleus. The binding energy per nucleon of the fused heavier nuclei is
more than the binding energy per nucleon of the lighter nuclei. This
means that the final system is more tightly bound than the initial
system. Again energy would be released in such a process of fusion.

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Nuclear fission

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Nuclear fission
Energy can be released if less tightly bound nuclei are transmuted
into more tightly bound nuclei. Two such processes, referred to as
fission and fusion.
Nuclear fission, subdivision of a heavy atomic nucleus, such as that of
uranium or plutonium, into two fragments of roughly equal mass. The
process is accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy.
In nuclear fission the nucleus of an atom breaks up into two lighter
nuclei. The process may take place spontaneously in some cases or
may be induced by the excitation of the nucleus with a variety of
particles (e.g., neutrons, protons, deuterons, or alpha particles).
An example of nuclear fission reaction is:
1 235 236 144 89
0n + 92 U → 92 U → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 10 n

Very large nuclei (mass number greater than 230) tend to be unstable
and can split into two or more parts.
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Nuclear fission
The fragment nuclei produced in fission are highly neutron-rich and
unstable. They are radioactive and emit beta particles in succession
until each reaches a stable end product.
The energy released (the Q value) in the fission reaction of nuclei like
uranium is of the order of 200 MeV per fissioning nucleus.
Consider a nucleus with A = 240 breaking into two fragments each of
A = 120. Then Ebn for A = 240 nucleus is about 7.6 MeV,
Ebn for the two A = 120 fragment nuclei is about 8.5 MeV.
Hence, gain in binding energy for nucleon is about 0.9 MeV. Hence
the total gain in binding energy is 240 × 0.9 or 216 MeV.
The disintegration energy in fission events first appears as the kinetic
energy of the fragments and neutrons. Eventually it is transferred to
the surrounding matter appearing as heat. The source of energy in
nuclear reactors, which produce electricity, is nuclear fission.
Fission is not a spontaneous process. It can only occur when a slow
moving neutron strikes an unstable nucleus.
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Nuclear fission
In this decay process, the nucleus will split into two nearly equal
nuclei and release several free neutrons and huge amounts of energy.
These nuclei are isotopes of more stable elements. If left alone, they
decay radioactively by emitting alpha or beta particles.
On average, three neutrons are released. These can go on to be
absorbed by other nuclei if they are slowed down by a moderator (a
medium, such as graphite, heavy water, and beryllium that causes the
neutrons to travel more slowly).
If these neutrons are absorbed by other nuclei, this causes a chain
reaction.
For the chain reaction to occur, there has to be a critical mass.
For uranium, this is about the size of a tennis ball. The critical mass
has a mass of about 15 kg (uranium has a very high density, 19 g/cm
3 ). Anything less, the neutrons escape without setting off a chain
reaction.
If the chain reaction is not controlled, a nuclear explosion will occur.
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Nuclear fission - chain reaction

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Nuclear fission

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Nuclear fission

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Nuclear fusion

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Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion, process by which nuclear reactions between light

elements form heavier elements.
In cases where the interacting nuclei belong to elements with low
atomic numbers (e.g., hydrogen or its isotopes deuterium and
tritium), substantial amounts of energy are released.
Fusion reactions constitute the fundamental energy source of stars,
including the Sun.
Fusion reactions are of two basic types: (1) those that preserve the
number of protons and neutrons and (2) those that involve a
conversion between protons and neutrons. Reactions of the first type
are most important for practical fusion energy production, whereas
those of the second type are crucial to the initiation of star burning.

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Nuclear fusion

Examples of nuclear fusion reactions are:

1
1H + 11 H → 21 H + e + + ν + 0.42MeV .

2
1H + 21 H → 32 He + n + 3.27MeV .
In first reaction, two protons combine to form a deuteron and a
positron with a release of 0.42 MeV energy. In second reaction , two
deuterons combine to form the light isotope of helium.
Actually nuclear fusion produces more energy per gram of products
than fission and produces no by-products

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Nuclear fusion

Why nuclear fusion it used yet then for energy production?

It currently requires more energy to initiate the reaction than it
produces.
Heat produced is so intense that containment vessels melt.
Why does fusion require energy?
To combine, two nuclei must be close enough for the strong nuclear
force to join them. But when the positive nuclei approach, the
electrostatic force of repulsion is greater than the nuclear force.
This means that the nuclei must be highly energetic to overcome the
repulsion force.
This means high temperatures (millions of degrees Celsius), which is
difficult to achieve while containing the atoms.

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Nuclear fission and fusion

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 Thank you

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