ELECTRIC DRIVES

UNIT-1

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC DRIVES

Electric Drive and its Components

Definition: Electric Drives are electromechanical systems designed to control the motion of electrical
machines. It is considered an important component of various industrial processes equipment as it helps
in easy optimization of motion controlling. It is regarded as a complicated control system that controls
the rotation shaft of the motor.

A typical drive system has single or multiple electric motors along with a controlling system by which
the rotation of the motor shaft is controlled. The major components that constitute the electric drives are
electric motor, energy transmitting device, working (or driven) machine.

Concept of Electric Drives

The concept of electric drive was introduced in the year 1838 in Russia by B.S. Iakobi. Industrially,
electric drives were adopted in the year 1870, however, it is now everywhere adopted in a wide range of
applications.

We know that motion controlling is quite prominent in various domestic and industrial applications. In
order to generate the desired motion and maintain smooth controlling a specific system is incorporated
which is given the name drives.

We have already discussed that the components of electric drives are an electric motor, energy
transmitting device, and working machine. The power required for the desired motion to take place is
supplied by the electric motor. While in order to deliver the supplied power to the driven machine for the
operation to take place an energy transmitting device is used. The driven or working machine is
responsible for the desired production process that is required to occur within the system.

Examples of working machines are pumps, food mixers, pumps, etc.

Thus, we can say that an arrangement that contains an electric motor along with controlling and energy
transmitting elements is regarded as an electric drive. Mainly electric drives provide a motion control
mechanism as it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy so that motion can be imparted to
different machines.
Block Diagram of Electric Drives

The figure given below shows the typical block diagram representation of an electric drive system:

The crucial components that are incorporated here are the power source, power electronic converter,
motor, load, control unit, and a sensing unit.

Let us now discuss each block individually.

1. Power Source: This unit is responsible for providing the power which is needed by the system to do
the desired operation.

2. Power Controller or Converter: Following are the functions that are performed by this unit:

 This unit is responsible for the conversion of supplied input electrical energy into a form that can
drive the motor (generally mechanical energy).
 The power controller controls the power input provided to the motor that can be handled by the
same. Basically, this control is necessary because power flowing through the system decides the
torque-speed characteristics which the load requires.
 When transient operations like starting, braking, etc. within the system take place, this unit helps in
limiting the current to specific levels so that voltage overloads or dips can be avoided.
There are several types of power converters and we have made a separate content on the same.
3. Control Unit and Sensor Unit: This unit performs the action of controlling the power converter
according to the provided input as well as the feedback signal obtained from the load under the closed-
loop operation. Basically, the control unit works in conjunction with the sensor unit which actually
senses the voltage or current signal as feedback to have the proper operating conditions. The sensing unit
is responsible for sensing the current or speed of the motor. It protects as well as provides closed-loop
operation.
4. Electric Motor: This mainly converters the applied energy into mechanical motion. Mostly DC
motors used in the electric drive systems are in series, shunt, or compound form while AC motors used
are slip ring induction motors. Sometimes stepper motors or brushless DC motors are also used in special
cases.

5. Load: The load which is the part of the system is specified according to the torque/speed
characteristics of the system such as pumps, machines, etc. The electric motor and load operate in
compatibility with each other in terms of torque-speed characteristics.

Classification of Electric Drives

There are various parameters on which the classification of electric drives exists however, majorly
electric drives are classified into two categories namely,

 DC Drives: The DC drives are the ones that where the motive power that excites the system is DC
in nature. Their main applications are involved in adjustable speed drives and position control.
Here dc motors are used along with the power electronic converters.
 AC Drives: The operation of AC drives is based on the AC type of supply input. These are
lightweight than dc drives. AC drives can be of two namely induction motor drives and
synchronous motor drives.
Advantages of Electric Drives

1. The operation offers flexibility in managing the characteristics of the system.

2. This offers easy (instant) starting or loading.
3. Electrical energy is used to power the system and it can easily be transferred, stored, and handled.
4. The electric motors which constitute the drive system exhibit high efficiency with low losses and
considerable overloading capability. Thus, provides more life span as the noise factor is less and
the need for maintenance is also low.
5. It is easy to get the dynamic load characteristics up to a large range of speed and torque from the
steady-state and dynamic performance of the system.
6. The control unit functionality can be easily performed using a software approach, making use of
microcontrollers thereby making the approach easy.
7. It can perform the four-quadrant operation in the Torque/Speed plane. Here regenerative braking
takes place thereby offering considerable energy saving.
8. With the advent of power electronics devices like SCRs, efficient power converters can be formed
and so the power feeding to the drives can become easy.
Disadvantages of Electric Drives

1. It does not operate without a power supply.

2. The value of the obtained drive output power is low.
3. It offers a poor dynamic response.
4. In the case of power breakout, the whole system operation gets failed.
 5. It is expensive.
Applications of Electric Drives

Electric Drives has an enormous number of industrial as well as domestic applications including pumps,
fans, motors, transportation systems, turbines, engines, etc. Not only this, it is useful in various electric
tractions such as trains, buses, trolleys, and vehicles powered with solar energy. Some other applications
are in Lathe machines, shears, frequency converters, air compressors, refrigeration, and air conditioning,
belt conveyors, etc.

Fundamental torque equation:

When an electric motor rotates, it is usually connected to a load which has a rotational or translational
motion. The speed of the motor may be different from that of the load. To analyze the relation among the
drives and loads, the concept of dynamics of electrical drives is introduced.

We can describe the dynamics of electrical drive easily by the following instant.
Here,
J = Polar moment of inertia of motor load
Wm = Instantaneous angular velocity
T = Instantaneous value of developed motor torque
T1 = Instantaneous value of load torque referred to motor shaft
Now, from the fundamental torque equation –

For drives with constant inertia,

So, the above equation states that the motor torque is balanced by load torque and a dynamic torque
J(dωm/dt). This torque component is termed as dynamic torque as it is only present during the transient
operations.
From this equation, we can determine whether the drive is accelerating or decelerating. Such as during
accelerating motor supplies load torque and additional torque component essentially. So, the torque,
balancing the Dynamics of electrical braking is very helpful.

Components of Load Torques: Classification of load torque

Components of Load Torques Tl can be further divided into following components:

(i) Friction torque TF :

Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various parts of the load. T F is equivalent value of
various friction torques referred to the motor shaft.

(ii) Windage torque, Tw :

When a motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the motion. This is known as windage torque.

(iii) Torque required to do the useful mechanical work, TL:

Nature of this Components of Load Torques depends on particular application. It may be constant and
independent of speed; it may be some function of speed; it may depend on the position or path followed
by load; it may be time invariant or time-variant; it may vary cyclically and its nature may also change
with the load’s mode of operation.

Variation of friction torque with speed is shown in Fig. 2.6(a). Its value at standstill is much higher than
its value slightly above zero speed. Friction at zero speed is called stiction or static friction. In order for
drive to start, the motor torque should at least exceed stiction. Friction torque can be resolved into three
components (see Fig. 2.6(b)). Component T v which varies linearly with speed is called viscous friction
and is given by:
where B is the viscous friction coefficient.

Another component Tc, which is independent of speed, is known as Coulomb friction. Third component
Ts accounts for additional torque present at standstill. Since T s is present only at standstill it is not taken
into account in the dynamic analysis.

Windage torque Tw, which is proportional to speed squared, is given by

where C is a constant.

From the above discussion, for finite speeds,

In many applications (Tc + Cω2m) is very small compared to Bωm and negligible compared to TL. In order
to simplify the analysis, term (Tc + Cω2m) is approximately accounted by updating the value of viscous
friction coefficient, B. With this approximation, from Eq. (2.2)

If there is a torsional elasticity in shaft coupling the load to the motor, an additional Components of Load
Torques, known as Coupling Torque, will be present. Coupling torque (Te) is given by

where θe is the torsion angle of coupling (radians) and Ke the rotational stiffness of the shaft (Nm/rad).

In most applications, shaft can be assumed to be perfectly stiff and coupling torque Te can be neglected.
Its presence in appreciable magnitude has adverse effects on motor. There is potential energy associated
with coupling torque and kinetic energy with the dynamic torque. Exchange of energy between these two
energy storage’s tends to produce oscillations which are damped by viscous friction torque Bω m. When B
is small, oscillations occur producing noise. Further, shaft may also break when the drive is started.
Steady State Stability:

Equilibrium speed of motor-load system can be obtained when motor torque equals the load torque.
Electric drive system will operate in steady state at this speed, provided it is the speed of stable state
equilibrium.

Concept of steady state stability has been developed to readily evaluate the stability of an equilibrium
point from the steady state speed torque curves of the motor and load system. In most of the electrical
drives, the electrical time constant of the motor is negligible compared with the mechanical time
constant. During transient condition, electrical motor can be assumed to be in electrical equilibrium
implying that steady state speed torque curves are also applicable to the transient state operation.

Now, consider the steady state equilibrium point A shown in figure below
Now consider equilibrium point B which is obtained when the same motor drives another load as shown
in the figure.

A decrease in speed causes the load torque to become greater than the motor torque, electric drive
decelerates and operating point moves away from point B.

Similarly when working at point B and increase in speed will make motor torque greater than the load
torque, which will move the operating point away from point B.

Basics of Regenerative Braking

In the regenerative braking operation, the motor operates as generator, while it is still connected to the
supply. Here, the motor speed is greater than the synchronous speed.

Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy, part of which is returned to the supply and rest of
the energy is last as heat in the winding and bearings of electrical machines pass smoothly from motoring
region to generating region, when over driven by the load.

An example of regenerative braking is shown in the figure below. Here an electric motor is driving a
trolley bus in the uphill and downhill direction. The gravity force can be resolved into two components in
the uphill direction.
One is perpendicular to the load surface (F) and another one is parallel to the road surface Fl. The parallel
force pulls the motor towards bottom of the hill.

If we neglect the rotational losses, the motor must produce force Fm opposite to Fl to move the bus in the
uphill direction.

Here the motor is still in the same direction on both sides of the hill. This is known as regenerative
braking. The energy is exchange under regenerative braking operation is power

flows from mechanical load to source.

This operation is indicated as shown in the figure below in the first quadrant. Here the power flow is
from the motor to load.

Now we consider that the same bus is traveling in downhill, the gravitational force doesn’t change its
direction but the load torque pushes the motor towards the bottom of the hill. The motor produces a
torque in the reverse direction because the direction of the motor torque is always opposite to the

direction of the load torque.

re the motor is still in the same direction on both sides of the hill. This is known as regenerative braking.
The energy is exchange under regenerative braking operation is power flows from mechanical load to
source. Hence, the load is driving the machine and the machine is generating electric power that is
returned to the supply.

Regenerative braking of Induction motor:

An induction motor is subjected to regenerative braking, if the motor rotates in the same direction as that
of the stator magnetic field, but with a speed greater than the synchronous speed. Such a state occurs
during any one of the following process.

 Downward motion of a loaded hoisting mechanism

 During flux weakening mode of operation of IM.

Under regenerative braking mode, the machine acts as an induction generator. The induction generator
generates electric power and this power is fed back to the supply. This machine takes only the reactive
power for excitation.

The speed torque characteristic of the motor for regenerative braking is shown in the

figure.

Regenerative Braking for DC motor:

In regenerative braking of dc motor, generated energy is supplied to the source. For this the following
condition is to be satisfied.

E > V and Ia should be negative

Modes of Operation:

An electrical drive operates in three modes

 Steady state

 Acceleration including Starting

 Deceleration including Stopping We know that

T=T1 +J d/dt (ωm)

According to the above expression the steady state operation takes place when motor torque equals the
load torque. The steady state operation for a given speed is realized by adjustment of steady state motor
speed torque curve such that the motor and load torques are equal at this speed. Change in speed is
achieved by varying the steady state motor speed torque curve so that motor torque equals the load
torque at the new desired speed. In the figure shown below when the motor parameters are adjusted to
provide speed torque curve 1, drive runs at the desired speedω m 1 .

Speed is changed to ωm 2 when the motor parameters are adjusted to provide speed torque curve

1. When load torque opposes motion, the motor works as a motor operating in quadrant I or III
depending on the direction of rotation. When the load is active it can reverse its sign and act to
assist the motion. Steady state operation for such a case can be obtained by adding a mechanical
brake which will produce a torque in a direction to oppose the motion. The steady state
operation is obtained at a speed for which braking torque equal the load torque. Drive operates
in quadrant II or IV depending upon the rotation.
Acceleration and Deceleration modes are transient modes. Drive operates in acceleration mode whenever
an increase in its speed is required. For this motor speed torque curve must be changed so that motor
torque exceeds the load torque. Time taken for a given change in speed depends on inertia of motor load
system and the amount by which motor torque exceeds the load torque.

Increase in motor torque is accompanied by an increase in motor current. Care must be taken to restrict the
motor current with in a value which is safe for both motor and power modulator. In applications involving
acceleration periods of long duration, current must not be allowed to exceed the rated value. When
acceleration periods are of short duration a current higher than the rated value is allowed during
acceleration.

In closed loop drives requiring fast response, motor current may be intentionally forced to the maximum
value in order to achieve high acceleration. Figure shown below shows the transition from operating point
A at speed.

Point B at a higher speedω m 2, when the motor torque is held constant during acceleration. The path
consists of AD1E1B. In the figure below, 1 to 5 are motor speed torque curves. Starting is a special case of
acceleration where a speed change from 0 to a desired speed takes place. All points mentioned in relation
to acceleration are applicable to starting.

The maximum current allowed should not only be safe for motor and power modulator but drop in source
voltage caused due to it should also be in acceptable limits. In some applications the motor should
accelerate smoothly, without any jerk. This is achieved when the starting torque can be increased step
lessly from its zero value. Such a start is known as soft start.
Electric Motor Power Rating:

Power rating for electrical machines indicates the required supply voltage for smooth running of that
machine, it also shows the permissible maximum amount of current which can easily flows through the
machine and there will be a chance of breakdown in the machine if those parameters goes beyond this
limit. Similarly when we discuss about motor power rating, we are looking for the suitable conditions
where maximum efficiency is obtained from the electric motor. When the motor have insufficient rating,
there will be frequent damages and shut downs due to over loading, and this is not intended.

On the other hand, if the power rating of a motor is decided liberally, the extra initial cost and then loss of
energy due to operation below rated power makes this choice totally uneconomical. Another essential
criteria of electrical motor power rating is that, during operation of motor, heat is produced and it is
inevitable due to I2R loss in the circuit and friction within the motor. So, the ventilation system of the
motor should be designed very carefully, to dissipate the generated heat as quickly as possible. The output
power of the motor is directly related with the temperature rise, that's why it is also called thermal loading.
The thermal dissipation will be ideal when the ventilation system is designed in such a way that the heat
generated during the operation is equal to or less then heat dissipated by the motor to the surrounding.
Now, due to the design of motors, temperature is not same everywhere inside the motor. There is a high
amount of heat produced in the windings because, windings cause higher heat generation. The insulating
materials used in the winding are also chosen depending on the amount of heat generated inside the motor
during operation. So in the end it can be said that the main objectives of selecting and finding out motor
power rating are

 To obtain the suitable thermal model of motor and design the machine properly.

 Finding out motor duty class.

 Calculating motor ratings for various classes of duty.

Load Equalisation in Electrical Drives:

Definition: Load equalisation is the process of smoothing the fluctuating load. The fluctuate load draws
heavy current from the supply during the peak interval and also cause a large voltage drop in the system
due to which the equipment may get damage. In load equalisation, the energy is stored at light load, and
this energy is utilised when the peak load occurs. Thus, the electrical power from the supply remains
constant.

The load fluctuation mostly occurs in some of the drives. For example, in a pressing machine, a large
torque is required for a short duration. Otherwise, the torque is zero. Some of the other examples are a
rolling mill, reciprocating pump, planning machines, electrical hammer, etc.

In electrical drives, the load fluctuation occurs in the wide range. For supplying the peak torque demand to
electrical drives the motor should have high ratings, and also the motor will draw pulse current from the
supply. The amplitude of pulse current gives rise to a line voltage fluctuation which affected the other load
connected to the line.

Method of Load Equalisation

The problem of load fluctuation can be overcome by using the [Link] flying wheel is mounted on a
motor shaft in non-reversible drives. In variable speed and reversible drive, a flywheel cannot be mounted
on the motor shaft as it will increase the transient time of the drive. If the motor is fed from the motor
generator set, then flywheel mounted on the motor generator shaft and hence equalises the load on the
source but not load on the motor.

When the load is light, the flywheel accelerated and stored the excess energy drawn from the supply.
During the peak load, the flying wheel decelerates and supply the stored energy to the load along with the
supply energy. Hence the power remains constant, and the load demand is reduced.

Moment of inertia of the flying wheel required for load equalisation is calculated as follows. Consider the
linear motor speed torque curve as shown in the figure below.

Assumed the response of the motor is slow due to large inertia and hence applicable for transient
operation. Differentiate the equation (1) and multiply both sides by J (moment of inertia).
Where Τm is the mechanical time constant of the motor. It is the time required for the motor speed to
change by (ωm0 – ωm) when motor torque is maintained constant at rated value ᴛr. From equation(2) and (3)

Consider a periodic load torque a cycle which consists of one high load period with torque T lh and duration
the, and one light load period with torque T ll and duration tl

Where Tmin is the motor torque at t = 0 which is also the instant when heavy load T lh is applied. If motor
torque at the end of heavy load period is T max, then from the equation (6)

Solution of equation (5) for the light load period with the initial motor torque equal to Tmax is

where t‘ = t – th

When operating at steady state the motor torque at the end of a cycle will be the same as at the beginning
of a [Link] at t ’ = tl, T = tmin. Substituting in equation (8) give
From equation (7)

From equation (4) and (10)

Also from equation (9)

From equation (4) and (11)

Moment of inertia of the flywheel required can be calculated either from equation(11) and (12)

Where W is the weight of the wheel (Kg), and R is the radius (m).

Note: The moment of inertia is the angular obstruction of the rotating body. It is the product of the mass
and a square of a distance from the axis of rotation.
Introduction to Four quadrant operation of electric drives:

An electrical drive has to operate in three modes. i.e. starting, steady state and braking. To achieve this in
both directions (forward and reverse) four quadrant operation as shown in the figure below is required
which shows the torque and speed coordinates for forward and reverse motions. Power developed by a
motor is given by the product of speed and torque.

Fig: Four Quadrant operations of Electrical motors Sign Conventions:

Positive speed is FORWARD and negative speed is REVERSE.

Sign of Power is the product of the signs of Torque and Speed. When it is positive it is
MOTORING and when it is negative it is BRAKING.

With this convention the four quadrant operation of Motors is explained below. First with reference to the
figure above and then with a practical example of Hoist (Lift)

In Q-1 both power & speed are positive (forward). Motor works as a motor delivering
mechanical energy to the load. Hence Q-1 operation is designated as forward Motoring.

In Q-2 power is negative but speed is positive (forward). Motor works as a brake opposing the
motion. Hence Q-2 operation is designated as Forward Braking.

In Q-3 power is positive but speed is negative (reverse). Motor works as a motor delivering
mechanical energy to the load. Hence Q-3 operation is designated as Reverse Motoring

In Q-4 both power and speed are negative (reverse). Motor works as a brake opposing the
motion. Hence Q-4 operation is designated as Reverse Braking.
For a better understanding of the four quadrant operation of the drives and the related notations a practical
example of a Hoist (Lift) operating in four quadrants is considered here as shown in the figure below.
Directions of motor and load torques and direction of speed are marked with arrows.

Fig: Typical Example of Four Quadrant operation of a Motor Driving a Hoist (Lift) load.

A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft. One end of the rope is connected to
the carriage which carries men and/or material from one level to another level. Other end of the rope is
connected to a counterweight to balance the carriage so as to distribute the load on the motor in both
directions. Weight of the counterweight is chosen such that it is higher than the empty carriage but lesser
than the fully loaded carriage.

Speed and Torque Sign Conventions: Are explained again with reference to the directions of Speed and
Torque shown in the figure above.

Forward direction of motion or forward Speed is considered to be the one which gives Upward
motion to the carriage which is a result of Anticlockwise movement of the pulley (looking into
the page)

Similarly Reverse direction of motion or Reverse Speed is considered to be the one which gives
Downward ward motion to the carriage which is a result of Clockwise movement of the pulley (
looking into the page)

Similarly the Torque is considered to be Positive when acting

Anticlockwise and Negative when acting Clockwise.

 The sign of the Power becomes the product of the sign of Torque and Speed.

Load torque characteristics are also shown in the diagram and are assumed to be constant. Tl1 in quadrants
1 and 4 represents the speed torque characteristic of the loaded carriage. This torque is the difference of
torques between loaded hoist and the counter weight and is positive since loaded carriage weight is higher
than the counter weight. Tl2 in quadrants 2 and 3 represents the speed torque characteristic of the empty
carriage. This torque is the difference of torques between empty hoist and the counter weight and is
negative since empty carriage weight is lesser than the counter weight.

In Quadrant -1 operation the loaded cage moves upwards corresponding to positive motor speed which in
this case is anticlockwise movement of the pulley (looking into the page) This motion will be obtained if
the motor produces positive torque in anti clock wise direction equal to the magnitude of the load torque
Tl1. Since both Torque and Speed are Positive Power is also positive and this operation is Forward
Motoring.

In Quadrant-4 operation the loaded cage moves downwards corresponding to a negative motor speed
which in this case is clock wise movement of the pulley (looking into the page) Since the weight of a
loaded cage is higher than the counterweight, it will come down due to the gravity itself. In order to limit
the speed of the cage to a safe value, motor must produce a positive torque T equal to the load torque Tl1
in anticlockwise direction. Since Torque is positive and Speed is Negative Power is Negative
corresponding to Reverse Braking.

In Quadrant -2 operation the empty cage moves upwards corresponding to a positive motor speed which in
this case is anticlockwise movement of the pulley. (Looking into the page) Since the weight of
counterweight is higher than the weight of an empty cage, it will automatically move upwards. In order to
limit the speed of the cage to a safe value, motor must produce a braking torque T equal to the load torque
Tl2 in clockwise (negative) direction. Since Torque is negative and Speed is positive the Power is
Negative corresponding to Forward Braking.

In Quadrant -3 operation, empty cage is lowered. Since an empty cage weight is lesser than the counter
weight, the motor must produce a negative torque

i.e. in clockwise direction. Since both Speed and Torque both are negative, Power is positive and this
operation becomes Reverse Motoring.
Starting:

Maximum current that a DC motor can safely carry is mainly limited by the maximum current that can be
commutated without sparking. For normally designed machines twice the rated current can be allowed and
in specially designed machines it can be up to 3.5 times the rated current.

During starting when the motor is standstill, the motor back emf will be zero and the only resistance that
can limit the current is the armature resistance, which is quite small for almost all DC motors. Hence if a
DC motor is started with full rated voltage applied to its terminals then a very large current will flow and
damage the motor due to heavy sparking in the commutator and heating of the winding. Hence the current
is to be limited to a safe value during starting.

In closed loop speed controllers where Speed and current controllers are used the current can be limited to
a safe value during starting. But in systems without such controllers a variable resistance controller such as
the one shown in figure below is used during starting to limit the current. As the back emf increases with
gradual increase in speed, section by section resistances will be removed either manually or remotely with
the help of contactors so as to keep the current within the maximum and minimum limits.

Fig: Starting of a DC Shunt motor

Breaking:

An electrical drive has to operate in three modes i.e. steady state, starting and braking during both forward
and reverse directions. Braking operation is required in two cases.

 For reducing the speed (deceleration) while the drive is operating in Forward (Quadrant-1) or
Reverse (Quadrant-3) motoring modes. Steady state is reached when the motoring torque is
equal to the load torque

 While driving an Active load. That means when the load assists the drive motion [for e.g.
moving a loaded hoist in the down ward direction (Reverse braking: quadrant-4) or moving an
unloaded hoist in the upward direction (Forward braking: quadrant -2)]. Steady state is reached
when the braking torque is equal to the load torque.

In both the cases braking can be achieved by mechanical braking. But it has lot of disadvantages: Frequent
maintenance like replacement of brake shoes/lining, lower life, wastage of braking power as heat et.. These
disadvantages are overcome by Electrical braking but many a times mechanical braking also supplements
the electrical braking for reliable and safe operation of the drive.

During electric braking the motor works as a generator developing a torque which opposes the rotational
motion. There are three types of electrical braking.

1. Regenerative braking

2. Dynamic or Rheostatic braking and

3. Plugging or Reverse voltage braking.

1. Regenerative Braking:

In this, the generated energy is supplied to the source. For this to happen, the following conditions should
be satisfied:

ǀEbǀ > ǀEaǀ and negative Ia

The concept of regenerative braking can be explained by considering a fully controlled Rectifier connected
to a DC separately excited motor as shown in the figure (a) below.
Fig: Two quadrant operation of a Fully Controlled rectifier feeding a DC separately excited motor

The polarities of output voltage, back emf and armature current are shown in the figure (a) above for the
motoring operation in the forward direction. The converter output is positive with firing angle in the range
0° ≤ α ≤ 90°. With these polarities the converter supplies power to the motor which is converted to
mechanical energy. Direction of power flow can be reversed if the direction of current flow is reversed.
But this is not possible because the converter can carry current in only one direction. Then the only method
available for reversal of power flow is by the following steps.

1. Reverse the Converter output voltage Ea

2. Also reverse the Back emf Eb with respect to the converter terminals

3. And make lEbl > lEal

as shown in fig (b). Out of these three steps

 Step 1. i.e. the rectifier voltage Ea can be reversed by making α> 90 0

 Step.3.i.e. the condition lEbl > lEal can be satisfied by choosing a value of α in the range 90 0 >
α < 1800

 Step2. The reversal of motor emf with respect to rectifier terminals can be done by any of the
following changes.
 a. The motor armature terminals can be reversed [Link] the converter terminals using a
reversing switch with the motor still running in the forward direction. (with contactors or
thyristors as shown in the figure below) This gives forward regeneration.

b. The field current may be reversed with the motor running in the forward direction and this
also gives forward regeneration without any changes in the armature connections.

Fig: Four quadrant operation with a single converter and a reversing switch

Regenerative braking cannot be obtained

 If the drive runs in the forward direction only and there is no arrangement for the reversal of
either the armature or the field.

 If the converter shown above is a Semi converter.

Fig: Regenerative Braking Characteristics of a Separately excited Motor

Dynamic Braking:

In dynamic braking, the motor armature is disconnected from the source voltage and connected across a
high wattage resistance RB .The generated energy is dissipated in the Braking and armature resistances.
The braking connections are shown below for DC separately excited motor and DC series motor.

Fig: Connections during Dynamic Braking

In the case of a series motor, it can be seen that the field terminal connections are reversed such that the
field current continues to flow in the same direction so that the field assists the residual magnetism. Figure
below shows the Speed- Torque curves for both type of motors and the transition from Motoring to
Braking.

Fig: Speed-Torque curves during Dynamic Braking

Plugging:

In a DC separately excited motor Supply voltage is reversed so that it assists the Back EMF in forcing the
Armature current in the reverse direction. In a Series motor Instead of supply voltage, armature alone is
reversed so that the field current direction is not changed. In addition, like in dynamic braking, a Braking
resistor RB is also connected in series with the Armature to limit the current as shown in the figure below.

Fig: Plugging operation of DC motors

Speed torque curves can be obtained from the same basic equations by replacing Ea with –Ea and are
shown in the figure below.

Plugging is highly inefficient because in addition to the generated power additional power from a supply
source is also wasted in the Braking resistance.

Fig: Torque speed Characteristics of DC motors during Plugging