Chapter 1: Atomic Structure
IIT Foundation Class 8 Chemistry
Comprehensive Notes
1 Introduction and Historical Aspects of the Atom
The study of matter dates back to 600 BCE. Ancient Indians and Greeks were pioneers in this
field.
• Maharishi Kannada propounded that matter is made up of small indestructible particles
called Paramanu.
• Ancient Greek Philosophers (Democritus, Epicurus, and Leucippus) theorized that matter
consists of small particles called atoms.
• The word ‘atom’ comes from a Greek word meaning ‘incapability of being cut’ (indestruc-
tible).
2 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Proposed by John Dalton in 1808 based on the laws of chemical combination (conservation of
mass, definite proportions, multiple proportions).
Main Postulates
1. Matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms. They can neither be created,
destroyed, nor transformed into atoms of another element.
2. Atoms of a given element are identical in all respects.
3. Atoms of different elements are different from each other.
4. Atoms of different elements take part in chemical reactions and combine in a simple inte-
gral ratio to form compounds.
5. When elements react, atoms may combine in more than one simple whole number ratio.
Modifications/Drawbacks
Dalton’s theory was modified based on further discoveries:
• Discovery of subatomic particles (electrons, protons, neutrons) proved atoms are divis-
ible.
• Discovery of isotopes proved atoms of the same element may have different atomic
weights (not identical in all respects).
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• Discovery of isobars showed atoms of different elements can have the same mass num-
ber (e.g., Calcium and Argon).
3 Discovery of Fundamental Particles
3.1 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
In 1878, Sir William Crooke used a partially evacuated glass tube (discharge tube) with two metal
electrodes connected to a high voltage. He found visible rays travelling from the cathode (neg-
ative) to the anode (positive), named Cathode Rays.
3.2 Discovery of Electron (J.J. Thomson)
J.J. Thomson applied 10,000 V across the electrodes in a CRT and studied cathode rays. He
concluded they consist of negatively charged particles called electrons. Properties of Cathode
Rays:
• Originate from cathode and travel towards anode in straight lines.
• Consist of a stream of material particles having mass and kinetic energy (proved by rotat-
ing a light paddle wheel).
• Negatively charged (deflect towards the positive plate in an electric field).
• Deflect perpendicularly in a magnetic field.
• Nature of cathode rays is independent of the gas in the tube or the material of the elec-
trodes.
3.3 Discovery of Protons (Goldstein)
Goldstein repeated the CRT experiment using a perforated cathode. He observed rays travelling
from the anode to the cathode, called Anode Rays or Canal Rays. These are positively charged.
Properties of Anode Rays:
• Travel in straight lines.
• Deflect towards the negative electrode in an electric field and on an arc in a magnetic field.
• Positively charged.
• The mass and specific charge (e/m) vary depending on the nature of the gas taken in the
tube. The lightest positive particle was from hydrogen, named the proton.
3.4 Discovery of Neutrons (James Chadwick)
The mass of an atom (except hydrogen) was always greater than the mass of its protons. In
1932, James Chadwick proved the existence of electrically neutral particles by bombarding a
beryllium nucleus with alpha (α) particles. These neutral particles were named neutrons.
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Particle Charge Mass Relative Charge
Electron (e) −1.6 × 10−19 C 9.1 × 10−31 kg (or 0.00055 amu) -1
Proton (p) +1.6 × 10−19 C 1.67 × 10−27 kg (or 1.0078 amu) +1
Neutron (n) 0 1.72 × 10−27 kg (or 1.0083 amu) 0
Table: Characteristics of Fundamental Particles
4 Atomic Models
4.1 Thomson’s Atomic Model (1903)
Also known as the watermelon model or plum pudding model.
• Postulate: An atom contains negatively charged electrons uniformly spread inside a sphere
of thinly spread mass of positive charge. Total positive charge equals total negative charge
(atom is electrically neutral).
• Drawback: Could not explain how positively charged particles are shielded from nega-
tively charged ones without getting neutralized.
4.2 Rutherford’s α-Particle Scattering Experiment (1911)
Ernest Rutherford bombarded a thin gold foil with α-particles, surrounded by a zinc sulphide
fluorescent screen.
• Observations:
1. Most α-particles passed straight through without deflection.
2. Few deflected through small and large angles.
3. Very few (1 in 20,000) completely rebounded.
• Conclusions:
1. Most of the atom is empty space.
2. The entire positive charge is concentrated at the center, called the nucleus.
3. Large deflections were due to the close encounter with the positive nucleus.
4.3 Rutherford’s Atomic Model (Planetary Model)
• Atom consists mostly of empty space.
• Concentrated positive mass at the center is the nucleus (size is 105 times smaller than the
atom).
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus at very high speeds in circular paths to counterbal-
ance electrostatic forces.
• Drawback: Could not explain the stability of an atom. According to classical electrody-
namics, a revolving charged particle should continuously radiate energy, spiraling into
the nucleus and causing the atom to collapse.
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4.4 Bohr’s Atomic Model (1913)
Proposed by Niels Bohr to explain atomic stability.
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus only in certain permissible circular paths called or-
bits or shells (K, L, M, N...).
• Each orbit has a definite, constant energy (stationary orbits).
• An electron does not lose energy while in its stationary orbit.
• Electrons move to a higher energy level by absorbing energy and jump to a lower energy
level by emitting energy.
5 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Related Terms
• Atomic Number (Z): Total number of protons present in the nucleus.
• Mass Number (A): Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus (A = p + n).
• Representation: Z XA (e.g., 17 Cl35 ).
• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass
numbers (different number of neutrons). E.g., Protium (1 H1 ), Deuterium (1 H2 ), Tritium
(1 H3 ).
• Isobars: Atoms of different elements having the same mass number but different atomic
numbers. E.g., 20 Ca40 and 18 Ar40 .
• Isotones: Atoms of elements having the same number of neutrons.
6 Electronic Configuration
The arrangement of electrons in different orbits based on the Bohr-Bury scheme:
• Maximum number of electrons in a shell is given by 2n2 (where n is the shell number).
– K-shell (n = 1): 2(1)2 = 2
– L-shell (n = 2): 2(2)2 = 8
– M-shell (n = 3): 2(3)2 = 18
– N-shell (n = 4): 2(4)2 = 32
• The maximum number of electrons in the outermost (valence) shell is 8.
• The maximum number in the penultimate shell is 18.
• Valence Shell & Electrons: The outermost shell is the valence shell, and electrons present
in it are called valence electrons.