Data and Computer
Communications
Chapter 6 – Digital Data
Communications Techniques
Digital Data Communications
Techniques
➢ A conversation forms a two-way communication link;
there is a measure of symmetry between the two
parties, and messages pass to and fro. There is a
continual stimulus-response, cyclic action; remarks
call up other remarks, and the behavior of the two
individuals becomes concerted, co-operative, and
directed toward some goal. This is true
communication.
—On Human Communication, Colin Cherry
Asynchronous and
Synchronous Transmission
➢ timing
problems require a mechanism to
synchronize the transmitter and receiver
⚫ receiver samples stream at bit intervals
⚫ if clocks not aligned and drifting will sample at
wrong time after sufficient bits are sent
➢ two solutions to synchronizing clocks
⚫ asynchronous transmission
⚫ synchronous transmission
Asynchronous Transmission
Asynchronous - Behavior
➢ simple
➢ cheap
➢ overhead of 2 or 3 bits per char (~20%)
➢ good for data with large gaps (keyboard)
Synchronous Transmission
➢ block of data transmitted sent as a frame
➢ clocks must be synchronized
⚫ can use separate clock line
⚫ or embed clock signal in data
➢ need to indicate start and end of block
⚫ use preamble and postamble
➢ more efficient (lower overhead) than async
Types of Error
➢ an error occurs when a bit is altered between
transmission and reception
➢ single bit errors
⚫ only one bit altered
⚫ caused by white noise
➢ burst errors
⚫ contiguous sequence of B bits in which the first, last
and any number of intermediate bits in error
⚫ caused by impulse noise or by fading in wireless
⚫ effect greater at higher data rates
Error Detection
➢ Transmission systems will have errors
➢ detect using error-detecting code
➢ added by transmitter
➢ recalculated and checked by receiver
➢ still chance of undetected error
➢ parity
⚫ parity bit set so character has even (even
parity) or odd (odd parity) number of ones
⚫ even number of bit errors goes undetected
Error Detection Process
Cyclic Redundancy Check
➢ one of most common and powerful checks
➢ for block of k bits transmitter generates an
n bit frame check sequence (FCS)
➢ transmits k+n bits which is exactly divisible
by some number
➢ receiver divides frame by that number
⚫ if no remainder, assume no error
⚫ for math, see Stallings chapter 6
Error Correction
➢ correction of detected errors usually requires
data block to be retransmitted
➢ not appropriate for wireless applications
⚫ bit error rate is high causing lots of retransmissions
⚫ when propagation delay is long (satellite) compared
with frame transmission time, resulting in
retransmission of frame in error plus many
subsequent frames
➢ instead need to correct errors on basis of bits
received
➢ error correction provides this
Error Correction Process
How Error Correction Works
➢ adds redundancy to transmitted message
➢ can deduce original despite some errors
➢ eg. block error correction code
⚫ map k bit input onto an n bit codeword
⚫ each distinctly different
⚫ if get error assume codeword sent was
closest to that received
➢ for
math, see Stallings chapter 6
➢ means have reduced effective data rate
Line Configuration - Topology
➢ physical arrangement of stations on
medium
⚫ point to point - two stations
• such as between two routers / computers
⚫ multi point - multiple stations
• traditionally mainframe computer and terminals
• now typically a local area network (LAN)
Line Configuration - Topology
Line Configuration - Duplex
➢ classify data exchange as half or full duplex
➢ half duplex (two-way alternate)
⚫ only one station may transmit at a time
⚫ requires one data path
➢ full duplex (two-way simultaneous)
⚫ simultaneous transmission and reception between
two stations
⚫ requires two data paths
• separate media or frequencies used for each direction
⚫ or echo canceling
Summary
➢ asynchronous verses synchronous
transmission
➢ error detection and correction
➢ line configuration issues