Language Analysis Study Guide
I. Defining a Text and its Structure
What is a Text?
• A text is more than just written words. Linguists define "text" more broadly—it
can be spoken, written, or visual.
• Examples: A conversation, a song, a TikTok video, a news story.
• Words alone don't make a text. Random words like "spaghetti," "rocket," "milk,"
or "lightbulb" aren't a text.
• A text needs structure that shows how words and ideas are connected.
Importance of Structure
• Structure helps words make sense together.
• Example: In a conversation like, "What do we need to get at the shops?", the
answer gives meaning to the random words.
• Structure gives meaning through patterns like: Question and Answer, Storyline,
Argument, Headlines and supporting paragraphs.
II. Cohesion, Coherence, and Texture
Cohesion
• The grammatical and lexical links that hold a text together (e.g., conjunctions,
pronouns, referencing).
• Examples: "However", "Therefore", "This", "It", "They".
Coherence
• The logical sense of a text — how understandable and meaningful it is to a
reader/listener.
Texture
• The quality that makes a text function as a unified whole.
• A text with both cohesion and coherence has “texture.”
III. Context and Meaning
• Context shapes how we understand words and sentences.
• Context includes the situation, the relationship between speakers, and the wider
social or cultural background.
Pragmatics
• How meaning depends on context, not just literal words.
• Example: "Can you pass the salt?" is a request, not a question about ability.
• Conversational implicature: what’s implied rather than said directly.
• Grice’s Maxims: quantity, quality, relation, and manner — rules we follow for
cooperative communication.
IV. Grammar and Representation
Grammar and Meaning
• Grammar shapes how ideas and relationships are represented.
• Example: Active vs Passive voice: “The police arrested the protester” vs “The
protester was arrested by the police.”
• The choice of structure affects ideology and perspective.
Participants, Processes, Circumstances
• Key elements in transitivity analysis (from Halliday’s functional grammar):
- Participants = people/things involved in the action.
- Process = the action or state (verb).
- Circumstance = details like time, place, manner.
V. Ideology and Language
• Language reflects and constructs ideology — the values and beliefs of
individuals or societies.
• Example: “Freedom fighter” vs “terrorist” — shows different ideological
perspectives.
Intertextuality
• How texts refer to or echo other texts.
• Creates layers of meaning and context.
• Example: A newspaper headline referencing a famous quote or film title.
VI. Additional Notes from Massolit Videos
Euphemisms
• Euphemisms avoid taboo topics like illness or negativity.
• Examples: “Poor mental health,” “serious mental health,” “mental health
problems.”
• Shift in meaning — “mental health” now used for negative states too.
Markedness
• The phrase “positive mental health” shows change — should be redundant if
“mental health” already meant positive states.
• Similar to “male nurse” or “lady mayor.”
• Marking reveals what society treats as the “norm.”
Language Change
• Started as pragmatic avoidance (avoiding “mental illness”).
• Created semantic change — meaning of “mental health” expanded.
• A case of pragmatically-led semantic change (social motivation).
• Evidence: “Prevent mental health” or “He died from mental health.”
VII. Example Analysis — The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time
• Shows how grammar, structure, and representation affect reader perspective.
• The protagonist’s language is literal and direct — reflects differences in
cognition and perception.
• Creates empathy and challenges stereotypes about neurodiversity.
VIII. Summary
• A text = structured communication with cohesion and coherence.
• Meaning shaped by semantics, pragmatics, and grammar.
• Representation reveals ideology.
• Intertextuality adds depth.
• Language change often begins with social motivation and pragmatic avoidance.