How are earthquake produced?
The most common type of earthquake is called tectonic when rocks break suddenly by geological force. Sudden shaking
of the ground is also produced by others, such as collapse of underground caves and mines, landslides, or explosion of
chemical and nuclear power.
What is mechanism for tectonic earthquake?
Rocks are elastic, energy is stored in them deformed by tectonic force. When strain build bigger than the strength of
weak part of the earth’s crust, such as along a geological fault, opposite sides of fault slip, producing elastic waves that
spread out into the earth. This is called the elastic rebound theory.
What is the evidence for the elastic rebound theory?
Some of the first evidence come from the San Andreas fault in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. In this California part,
geodetic surveys in the previous 50 years shown that sites remote from the San Andreas fault had moved several meters
relative to each other. Many geodetic have verified the concept of fault rupture, with opposite sides of the springing back
to an equilibrium position in a matter of seconds. This rebound produces both heat and seismic waves.
Hypocenter, epicenter.
Rupture of the fault begins at a point on the fault surface, called the earthquake focus or hypocenter. Epicenter is the
point on the earth’s surface immediately above the hypocenter.
P-wave and S-wave.
They travel through the body of the earth. The fastest wave is P-wave, it can propagate through both solid and liquid
rock. The slower wave is S-wave, it can travel through solid but not liquid rock.
Earthquake magnitude.
The most common way of measuring the size of an earthquake is to use a magnitude scale first developed for local
earthquake in California by Richter. The magnitude is calculated by taking the common logarithm (base ten) of the
maximum amplitude of the actual ground motion.
Peak expected acceleration
Engineers depend on the acceleration, velocity, displacement of the ground at the site of the structure. The peak
expected acceleration is an important scaling factor, as is the expected duration of the strong ground motion.
What is the amplitude of peak ground acceleration?
Near the rupturing fault, peak acceleration in both vertical and horizontal direction bigger than gravity (1g) have been
recorded at higher frequencies. The usual range in large earthquake at frequencies below 8 Hz is between 0.3g and 0.8g
What is the intensity of an earthquake? | Modified Mercalli intensity
A standard way of measuring the intensity of an earthquake is to use the effect of the shaking on the ground, on people
and on structures. The Modified Mercalli intensity scale runs from I to XII. Relation between intensities and recorded
ground motion provide a way to access the properties of earthquakes in former times.
- I: Not felt. Marginal and long-period effects of large earthquakes.
- XII: Damage nearly total. Large rock masses displaced. Lines of sights and level distorted. Object thrown
into the air.
How to use the travel times of seismic waves, such as P and S waves, to determine the structure of the earth’s interior?
The time that it takes a P or S waves to travel its generation at a fault to a seismographic station at a remove part of the
earth depends on its velocity. By comparing the arrival times of waves of various types at many stations on the earth’s
surface, seismologists can determine the speed at any depth in the earth and the location of reflecting discontinuities in
structure.
Liquefaction
Liquefaction is a phenomenon when the shaking causes water-saturated soil to lose its strength and stiffness. When an
earthquake occurs, the shaking can cause the soil particles to rearrange themselves. This can lead to a loss of support of
structure, resulting in damage or collapse.
Zero-crossing rate
Zero-crossing rate is a measure used to analyze the frequency content of signal. In the context of earthquake, it can be
used to estimate the frequency of the ground motion, from that to calculate the potential damage and intensity of the
earthquake.
Probability density function
The probability density function of earthquake is a mathematical function that describes the probability of occurrence of
difference magnitudes of earthquakes within a given time and location. It is an important tool for earthquake forecasting
and risk assessment.
Base shear force
The total force acting on the support includes the stiffness force and damping force, known as the inertia force. The
inertia force acts on the mass and is transmitted by the system to the ground is base shear force.