Module 7

Measurement Systems

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LINEAR AND ANGULAR
MEASUREMENTS

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LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

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 TYPES OF LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

• Vernier Caliper
• Micrometer
• Slip Gauges or Gauges blocks
• Comparators

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VERNIER CALIPER

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VERNIER CALIPER

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READING OF VERNIER CALIPER

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VERNIER CALIPER

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B type

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C type

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VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

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VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

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VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE

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VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE

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 MICROMETER
• The micrometer has an accurate screw consist
of 10 to 20 threads per mm.
• The screw rotates inside a fixed nuts.
• The end of the screw acts as one measuring
tip and fixed anvil acts other measuring tip.

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MICROMETER

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MICROMETER

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 Micrometer readings
• Using the first example seen below:
1. Read the scale on the sleeve. The example clearly
shows12 mm divisions.
2. Still reading the scale on the sleeve, a further ½ mm
(0.5) measurement can be seen on the bottom half
of the scale. The measurement now reads 12.5mm.
3. Finally, the thimble scale shows 16 full divisions
(these are hundredths of a mm).
• The final measurement is 12.5mm + 0.16mm =
12.66mm
• Total reading=(MSR+SD+TSRXLC)=(12+0.5+16X0.01)
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 TERMINOLOGY
• BACK LASH: lack of motion of spindle
• MEASURING RANGE: total travel of spindle
• CUMULATIVE ERROR: deviation of
measurement from nominal dimension

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 TYPES OF MICROMETER
• Outside Micromter
• Inside Micrometer

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INSIDE MICROMETER

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INSIDE MICROMETER

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DEPTH MICROMETER

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DEPTH MICROMETER

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STICK MICROMETER

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Stick micrometer

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 SLIP GAUGES
• Slip gauges are used as measuring blocks
• It is also called as precision gauge blocks
• It is made up of hardened alloy steel of
rectangular cross section.

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 SLIP GAUGES
• Most accurate form of representing size by
means of two parallel surfaces.
• Set of blocks with standard length
• They can be joined together by a process
called WRINGING
• Comparators are used to calibrate the slip
gauges

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SLIP GAUGES

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SLIP GAUGES

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Checking of slip gauges for surface quality

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 COMPARATOR
• Comparators are one form of linear
measurement device which is quick and more
convenient for checking large number of
identical dimensions.
• Comparators normally will not show the actual
dimensions of the work piece. They will be
shown only the deviation in size.
• This cannot be used as an absolute measuring
device but can only compare two dimensions.

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 CLASSIFICATION
The comparators are classified according to the
principles used for obtaining magnification. The
common types are:

1) Mechanical comparators
2) Electrical comparators
3) Optical comparators
4) Pneumatic comparators

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Mechanical comparator

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• The dial is graduated into 100 divisions
• A full revolution of the pointer about this scale
corresponds to 1mm travel of the plunger
• a turn of the pointer be one scale division
represents a plunger travel of 0.01mm.

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 PROCEDURE
• Let us assume that the required height of the
component is 32.5mm.
• Initially this height is built up with slip gauges. The
slip gauge blocks are placed under the stem of the
dial gauge.
• The pointer in the dial gauge is adjusted to zero. The
slip gauges are removed.
• Now the component to be checked is introduced
under the stem of the dial gauge. If there is any
deviation in the height of the component, it will be
indicated by the pointer.
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ELECTRICAL TYPE COMPARATOR

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 An electrical comparator consists of
the following three major part such as

1) Transducer

2) Amplifier

3) Display device as meter

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• If the armature is centrally located between the coils,
the inductance of both coils will be equal but in
opposite direction with the sign change.
• Due to this, the bridge circuit of A.C. wheat stone
bridge is balanced. Therefore, the meter will read
zero value.
• But practically, it is not possible. In real cases, the
armature may be lifted up or lowered down by the
plunger during the measurement. This would upset
the balance of the wheat stone bridge circuit.

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• Due to this effect, the change in current or potential
will be induced correspondingly. On that time, the
meter will indicate some value as displacement.
• This indicated value may be either for larger or
smaller components. As this induced current is too
small, it should be suitably amplified before being
displayed in the meter.

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Electronic comparator

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Optical comparator

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Pneumatic comparator

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 ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
• Angle is defined as the operating between two
lines which meet a point.
• If a circle is divided in to 360 parts, then each
pat is called as degree θ .

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TYPES OF ANGULAR MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS

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 BEVEL PROTRACTOR
• OBJECTIVE
It is used for measurement of angles between
two faces of component

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TYPES OF BEVEL PROTRACTOR

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 CONSTRUCTION
• A vernier bevel protractor is attached with acute angle attachment.
The body is designed its back is flat and no projections beyond its
back.
• The base plate is attached to the main body and an adjustable
blade is attached to the circular plate containing Vernier scale.
• The main scale is graduated in degrees from 0° to 90° in both the
directions. The adjustable can be made to rotate freely about the
center of the main scale and it can be locked at any position.
• For measuring acute angle, a special attachment is provided. The
base plate is made flat for measuring angles and can be moved
throughout its length.
• The ends of the blade are beveled at angles of 45° and 60°. The
main scale is graduated as one main scale division is 1° and Vernier
is graduated into 12 divisions on each side of zero.

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UNIVERSAL BEVEL PROTRACTOR

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OPTICAL BEVEL PROTRACTOR

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 SINEBAR
OBJECTIVE
• Used to measure angle very accruately
• Locate the work piece to a given angle with very
high precision.
• Sine bar is high precision and accurate
instrument.
• It uses sine principle
• Sine angle = Perpendicular/Hypotenuse
= h/l

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 CONSTRUTION
• Generally, sine bars are made from high
carbon, high chromium, and corrosion
resistant steel.

• These materials are highly hardened and

stabilized.

• In sine bars, two cylinders of equal diameter

are attached at lie ends with its axes are
mutually parallel to each other.
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• They are also at equal distance from the
upper surface of the sine bar mostly the
distance between the axes of two cylinders is
100mm, 200mm or 300mm.

• The cylindrical holes are provided to reduce

the weight of the sine bar.

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 WORKING PRINCIPLE
• The working of sine bar is based on
trigonometry principle. To measure the angle
of a given specimen, one roller of the sine bar
is placed on the surface plate and another
one roller is placed over the surface of slip
gauges.

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• I. To set at a given
angle 0, first h’ of slip
gauge is calculated by the
formula Sin 0= h/L
• ii. After calculating the
height ‘h’. the required
height h’ is made by
using suitable slip gauge
combinations.
• iii. After this, one of the
rollers is placed on the
top of the sine bar and
the other one is placed
on the top of the slip
gauge combination.

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WORKING

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SINE CENTER

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 LIMITATIONS OF SINE BAR
1) Sine bars are fairly reliable for angles than

2) It is physically difficult to hold in position.

3) Slight errors in sine bar cause larger angular errors.

4) A difference of deformation occurs at the point of

roller contact with the surface plate and to the gauge
blocks.
5) The size of parts to be inspected by sine bar is limited

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 SOURCES OF ERRORS IN SINE BAR
) Error in distance between roller centers.

2) Error in slip gauge combination.

3) Error in checking of parallelism.

4) Error in parallelism of roller axes with each other.

5) Error in flatness of the upper surface of sine bar.

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Taper Measurements

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GEAR TESTING
 Coordinate measuring machines[CMM]
• Coordinate measuring machines are relatively recent developments in
measurement technology.
• Basically, they consist of a platform on which the workpiece being
measured is placed and moved linearly or rotated.
• A probe attached to a head capable of lateral and vertical movements
records all measurements.
• Coordinate measuring machines are also called measuring machines.
They are versatile in their capability to record measurement of
complex profiles with high sensitivity (0.25m) and speed.
• In the forth coming slides, we will discuss the principle and the
working of a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM).
 Important features of theCMMs
• To give maximum rigidity to machines without excessive weight, all
the moving members, the bridge structure, Z-axis carriage, and Z-
column are made of hollow box construction.
• A map of systematic errors in machine is built up and fed into the
computer system so that the error compensation is built up into the
software
• All machines are provided with their own computers with interactive
dialogue facility and friendly software
• Thermocouples are incorporated throughout the machine and
interfaced with the computer to be used for compensation of
temperature gradients and thus provide increased accuracy and
repeatability.
 Four main elements of a CMM
• Main Structure

• Probing System

• Machine Control and Computer Hardware

• Software for Three-dimensional Geometry Analysis

Main Structure

• The machine incorporates the basic concept of three coordinate axes

so that precise movement in x, y, and z directions is possible. Each axis
is fitted with a linear measurement transducer. The transducers
sense the direction of movement and gives digital display.
Accordingly, there may be four types of arrangement :
• Cantilever
• Bridge Type
• Column Type
• Gantry
Cantilever type CMM
The cantilever construction combines easy access and
relatively small floor space requirements. It is typically
limited to small and medium sized machines. Parts larger
than the machine table can be inserted into the open side
without inhibiting full machine travel. Figure 8.1 shows a
cantilever structure.
Bridge Type CMM
The bridge arrangement over the table carries the
quill (z-axis) along the x-axis and is sometimes
referred to as a travelling bridge. It is claimed that the
bridge construction provides better accuracy,
although it may be offset by difficulty in making two
members track in perfect alignment. This is by far the
most popular CMM construction. Figure shows a
bridge structure.
Column Type CMM
The column type machine is commonly
referred to as a universal measuring
machine rather than a CMM. These
machines are usually considered gage
room instruments rather than
production floor machine.
The direction of movements of the
arms are as shown in Figure. The
constructional difference in column
type with the cantilever type is with x
and y- axes movements.
Gantry type CMM
In a gantry type arrangement, arms are held by two
fixed supports as shown in Figure. Other two arms
are capable of sliding over the supports. Movements
of the x, y and z-axes are also as shown. The gantry
type construction is particularly suited for very large
components and allows the operator to remain close
to the area of inspection.
Horizontal type CMM
Figure shows the construction of a horizontal
structure. The open structure of this arrangement
provides optimum accessibility for large objects such
as dies, models, and car bodies. Some horizontal arm
machines are referred to as layout machines. There
are some horizontal machines where the probe arm
can rotate like a spindle to perform tramming
operations. Tramming refers to accurate mechanical
adjustment of instrument or machine with the help
of tram.
 Probing System
• It is the part of a CMM that sense the different parameters required
for the calculation.
• Appropriate probes have to be selected and placed in the spindle of
the CMM.
• Originally, the probes were solid or hard, such as tapered plugs for
locating holes.
• These probes required manual manipulation to establish contact with
the workpiece, at which time the digital display was read.
• Nowadays, transmission trigger-probes, optical transmission probes,
multiple or cluster probes, and motorized probes are available.
Inductive Probe System and Automatic Probe Changing
Inductive and optical transmission probes have been
developed for automatic tool changing. Power is
transmitted using inductive linking between modules
fitted to the machine structure and attached to the
probe. Figure shows a schematic of the inductive
transmission probe. The hard-wired transmission
probe shown is primarily for tool setting and is
mounted in a fixed position on the machine
structure.
Optical Tool Maker’s Microscope
A toolmaker’s microscope is designed for
measurements of parts of complex forms, e.g. profile
of external threads, tools, templates and gauges. It
can also be used for measuring center-to-center
distance of holes in any planes, as well as the co-
ordinate of the outline of a complex template gauge.
Optical Tool Maker’s Microscope
A general view of the toolmaker’s
microscope is shown in Figure. A heavy,
hollow base accommodates the
illuminating unit. On the top surface of
the base, the worktable is carried,
supported on the balls and controlled
by micrometer screws. Projection from
the rear of the base is done through a
column, which carries the microscope
unit and various interchangeable
eyepieces. A longitudinal section is
given in Figure 7.4, which also shows the
projection attachment in position.
Inspections are made by eye in the
normal way, magnification given depends on the microscope
or the projection
attachment mayobjective. However,
be fitted which turns additional magnifying
attachments
the beam by mirrors to bringareup
commonly
the supplied which facilitate
image on the backthe magnification from 10X to 100X on the projection
of the translucent
screen. The screen.
 Profile Projector Definition (cont.)

The idea of using profile projector, which is created by

James Hartness and Russell W. Porter, came from mixing
optics and measurement in a device.
The use of the term comparator for metrological
equipment, had existed in other forms prior to Hartness's
work; but they had remained in realms of pure science
(such as telescopy and microscopy) and highly
specialized applied science (such as comparing master
measuring standards).
 Profile Projector Applications

Hartness's comparator, intended for the routine

inspection of machined parts, was a natural next step
in the era during which applied science became
widely integrated into industrial production.

It’s also employed for inspecting and comparing very

small and complex parts, which play very significant
role in system’s structure, as an application of quality.
 Profile Projector Advantages

Profile Projector can reveal imperfections such as

burrs, scratches, indentations or undesirable chamfers
which both micrometers or calipers can’t reveal.

They’re able to measure in 2-D space. Unlike

micrometers and calipers, which measure one
dimension at a time, where comparators measure
length and width simultaneously.
 Profile Projector Advantages (cont.)

Measuring Length and Width

 Profile Projector Advantages (cont.)

"Points in Space" Measurement