What is research?

• “Scientific research is systematic, controlled,

empirical, and critical investigation of natural
phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses
about the presumed relations among such
phenomena.”
– Kerlinger, 1986

• Research is an organized and systematic way of

finding answers to questions

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Important Components of Empirical Research

 Problem statement, research questions, purposes,

benefits
 Theory, assumptions, background literature
 Variables and hypotheses
 Operational definitions and measurement
 Research design and methodology
 Instrumentation, sampling
 Data analysis
 Conclusions, interpretations, recommendations

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Important statistical terms
Population:
a set which includes all
measurements of interest
to the researcher
(The collection of all
responses, measurements, or
counts that are of interest)

Sample:
A subset of the population
Why sampling?
Get information about large populations
 Less costs

 Less field time

 More accuracy i.e. Can Do A Better Job of Data

Collection
 When it’s impossible to study the whole population
 SAMPLING

 A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully

representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)
 Why sample?
 Resources (time, money) and workload
 Gives results with known accuracy that can be
calculated mathematically
 The sampling frame is the list from which the
potential respondents are drawn
 rosters
 Must assess sampling frame errors

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 3 factors that influence sample representative-
ness
 Sampling procedure
 Sample size
 Participation (response)

 When might you sample the entire population?

 When your population is very small
 When you have extensive resources
 When you don’t expect a very high response

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Target Population:
The population to be studied/ to which the investigator wants to
generalize his results
Sampling Unit:
smallest unit from which sample can be selected
Sampling frame
List of all the sampling units from which sample is drawn
Sampling scheme
Method of selecting sampling units from sampling frame
 STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

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Types of sampling

 Non-probability samples

 Probability samples
 Non probability samples
➢ Convenience samples (ease of access)
sample is selected from elements of a population that are
easily accessible
➢ Snowball sampling (friend of friend….etc.)
➢ Purposive sampling (judgemental)
 You chose who you think should be in the study
➢ Quota sample
 Non probability samples

Probability of being chosen is unknown

Cheaper- but unable to generalise
potential for bias
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 Any sampling method where some elements of population
have no chance of selection (these are sometimes
referred to as 'out of coverage'/'undercovered'), or
where the probability of selection can't be accurately
determined. It involves the selection of elements based
on assumptions regarding the population of interest, which
forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the
selection of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability
sampling not allows the estimation of sampling errors..

 Example: We visit every household in a given street, and

interview the first person to answer the door. In any
household with more than one occupant, this is a
nonprobability sample, because some people are more
likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed person who
spends most of their time at home is more likely to
answer than an employed housemate who might be at work
when the interviewer calls) and it's not practical to
calculate these probabilities.

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Probability samples

 Random sampling
 Each subject has a known probability of being selected
 Allows application of statistical sampling theory to results to:
 Generalise
 Test hypotheses
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 A probability sampling scheme is one in which every

unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero)
of being selected in the sample, and this probability
can be accurately determined.

 . When every element in the population does have the

same probability of selection, this is known as an
'equal probability of selection' (EPS) design. Such
designs are also referred to as 'self-weighting'
because all sampled units are given the same weight.

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 Types of Samples
 Probability (Random) Samples
 Simple random sample
 Systematic random sample
 Stratified random sample
 Multistage sample
 Multiphase sample
 Cluster sample
 Non-Probability Samples
 Convenience sample
 Purposive sample
 Quota

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 Process
 The sampling process comprises several stages:
 Defining the population of concern
 Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or
events possible to measure
 Specifying a sampling method for selecting
items or events from the frame
 Determining the sample size
 Implementing the sampling plan
 Sampling and data collecting
 Reviewing the sampling process

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 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous
& readily available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal
probability. Each element of the frame thus has
an equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of possible
samples. This is done by assigning a number to
each unit in the sampling frame.
• A table of random number or lottery system is
used to determine which units are to be selected.

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  Estimates are easy to calculate.
 Simple random sampling is always an EPS design, but not all
EPS designs are simple random sampling.

 Disadvantages
 If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.
 Minority subgroups of interest in population may not be
present in sample in sufficient numbers for study.

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Simple random sampling
Table of random numbers
684257954125632140
582032154785962024
362333254789120325
985263017424503686
 Systematic sampling
Sampling fraction
Ratio between sample size and population size
Systematic sampling
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
 Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target
population according to some ordering scheme and then
selecting elements at regular intervals through that
ordered list.
 Systematic sampling involves a random start and then
proceeds with the selection of every kth element from
then onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample
size).
 It is important that the starting point is not
automatically the first in the list, but is instead
randomly chosen from within the first to the kth
element in the list.
 A simple example would be to select every 10th name
from the telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample,
also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').
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 STRATIFIED SAMPLING
Where population embraces a number of distinct
categories, the frame can be organized into separate
"strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an
independent sub-population, out of which individual
elements can be randomly selected.
 Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being
selected.
 Using same sampling fraction for all strata ensures
proportionate representation in the sample.
 Adequate representation of minority subgroups of
interest can be ensured by stratification & varying
sampling fraction between strata as required.
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 STRATIFIED SAMPLING……
 Finally, since each stratum is treated as an
independent population, different sampling
approaches can be applied to different strata.

 Drawbacks to using stratified sampling.

 First, sampling frame of entire population has to
be prepared separately for each stratum
 Second, when examining multiple criteria,
stratifying variables may be related to some, but
not to others, further complicating the design,
and potentially reducing the utility of the strata.
 Finally, in some cases (such as designs with a
large number of strata, or those with a specified
minimum sample size per group), stratified
sampling can potentially require a larger sample
than would other methods
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 POSTSTRATIFICATION
 Stratification is sometimes introduced after the
sampling phase in a process called "poststratification“.
 This approach is typically implemented due to a lack of
prior knowledge of an appropriate stratifying variable
or when the experimenter lacks the necessary
information to create a stratifying variable during the
sampling phase. Although the method is susceptible to
the pitfalls of post hoc approaches, it can provide
several benefits in the right situation. Implementation
usually follows a simple random sample. In addition to
allowing for stratification on an ancillary variable,
poststratification can be used to implement weighting,
which can improve the precision of a sample's
estimates.
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 OVERSAMPLING
 Choice-based sampling is one of the stratified
sampling strategies. In this, data are
stratified on the target and a sample is taken
from each strata so that the rare target class
will be more represented in the sample. The
model is then built on this biased sample. The
effects of the input variables on the target
are often estimated with more precision with
the choice-based sample even when a smaller
overall sample size is taken, compared to a
random sample. The results usually must be
adjusted to correct for the oversampling.

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 Cluster sampling
Cluster: a group of sampling units close to each
other i.e. crowding together in the same area or
neighborhood
 Cluster sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
 Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage
sampling' .
 First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
 Second stage a sample of respondents within
those areas is selected.
 Population divided into clusters of homogeneous
units, usually based on geographical contiguity.
 Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
 A sample of such clusters is then selected.
 All units from the selected clusters are studied.

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  Advantages :
 Cuts down on the cost of preparing a sampling
frame.
 This can reduce travel and other
administrative costs.
 Disadvantages: sampling error is higher for a
simple random sample of same size.
 Often used to evaluate vaccination coverage in
EPI

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• Identification of clusters
– List all cities, towns, villages & wards of cities with
their population falling in target area under study.
– Calculate cumulative population & divide by 30, this
gives sampling interval.
– Select a random no. less than or equal to sampling
interval having same no. of digits. This forms 1st cluster.
– Random no.+ sampling interval = population of 2nd
cluster.
– Second cluster + sampling interval = 4th cluster.
– Last or 30th cluster = 29th cluster + sampling interval

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 Two types of cluster sampling methods.
One-stage sampling. All of the elements within
selected clusters are included in the sample.
Two-stage sampling. A subset of elements
within selected clusters are randomly selected
for inclusion in the sample.

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 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
• Freq cf cluster • XVI 3500 52500 17
• I 2000 2000 1 • XVII 4000 56500 18,19
• II 3000 5000 2 • XVIII 4500 61000 20
• III 1500 6500 • XIX 4000 65000 21,22
• IV 4000 10500 3
• XX 4000 69000 23
• V 5000 15500 4, 5
• XXI 2000 71000 24
• VI 2500 18000 6
• VII 2000 20000 7 • XXII 2000 73000
• VIII 3000 23000 8 • XXIII 3000 76000 25
• IX 3500 26500 9 • XXIV 3000 79000 26
• X 4500 31000 10 • XXV 5000 84000 27,28
• XI 4000 35000 11, 12 • XXVI 2000 86000 29
• XII 4000 39000 13 • XXVII 1000 87000
• XIII 3500 44000 14,15 • XXVIII 1000 88000
• XIV 2000 46000 • XXIX 1000 89000 30
• XV 3000 49000 16
• XXX 1000 90000
• 90000/30 = 3000 sampling interval

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 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING

 Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of

units are embedded one in the other.

 First stage, random number of districts chosen in all

states.

 Followed by random number of talukas, villages.

 Then third stage units will be houses.

 All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are
surveyed.

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 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING……..
 This technique, is essentially the process of taking random
samples of preceding random samples.
 Not as effective as true random sampling, but probably
solves more of the problems inherent to random sampling.
 An effective strategy because it banks on multiple
randomizations. As such, extremely useful.
 Multistage sampling used frequently when a complete list
of all members of the population not exists and is
inappropriate.
 Moreover, by avoiding the use of all sample units in all
selected clusters, multistage sampling avoids the large,
and perhaps unnecessary, costs associated with traditional
cluster sampling.

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MULTI PHASE SAMPLING

 Part of the information collected from whole sample & part from
subsample.

 In Tb survey MT in all cases – Phase I

 X –Ray chest in MT +ve cases – Phase II
 Sputum examination in X – Ray +ve cases - Phase III

 Survey by such procedure is less costly, less laborious & more

purposeful

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 MATCHED RANDOM SAMPLING
A method of assigning participants to groups in which
pairs of participants are first matched on some
characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to
groups.
 The Procedure for Matched random sampling can be
briefed with the following contexts,
 Two samples in which the members are clearly paired, or
are matched explicitly by the researcher. For example,
IQ measurements or pairs of identical twins.
 Those samples in which the same attribute, or variable, is
measured twice on each subject, under different
circumstances. Commonly called repeated measures.
 Examples include the times of a group of athletes for
1500m before and after a week of special training; the
milk yields of cows before and after being fed a
particular diet.
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 QUOTA SAMPLING
 The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive
sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling.
 Then judgment used to select subjects or units from
each segment based on a specified proportion.
 For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200
females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.
 It is this second step which makes the technique one of
non-probability sampling.
 In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-
random.
 For example interviewers might be tempted to interview
those who look most helpful. The problem is that these
samples may be biased because not everyone gets a
chance of selection. This random element is its greatest
weakness and quota versus probability has been a matter
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of controversy for many years
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental
or haphazard sampling.
 A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being
drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand.
That is, readily available and convenient.
 The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make
generalizations about the total population from this sample
because it would not be representative enough.
 For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a
shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people
that he/she could interview would be limited to those given there
at that given time, which would not represent the views of other
members of society in such an area, if the survey was to be
conducted at different times of day and several times per week.
 This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
 In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique,
where existing study subjects are used to recruit more subjects
into the sample.

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CONVENIENCE SAMPLING…….

 Use results that are easy to get

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 Judgmental sampling or Purposive
sampling
 - The researcher chooses the sample based on
who they think would be appropriate for the
study. This is used primarily when there is a
limited number of people that have expertise
in the area being researched

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 PANEL SAMPLING
 Method of first selecting a group of participants through a
random sampling method and then asking that group for the same
information again several times over a period of time.
 Therefore, each participant is given same survey or interview at
two or more time points; each period of data collection called a
"wave".
 This sampling methodology often chosen for large scale or nation-
wide studies in order to gauge changes in the population with
regard to any number of variables from chronic illness to job
stress to weekly food expenditures.
 Panel sampling can also be used to inform researchers about
within-person health changes due to age or help explain changes in
continuous dependent variables such as spousal interaction.
 There have been several proposed methods of analyzing panel
sample data, including growth curves.

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Sample size determination in
qualitative study
 Probability sampling not appropriate as sample
not intended to be statistically representative
 But, sample should have ability to represent
salient characteristics in population.
 Sample size taken until point of theoretical
saturation
 …….
 Sample size is usually small to allow in-depth
exploration and understanding of phenomena under
investigation
 Ultimately a matter of judgement and expertise in
evaluating the quality of information against final use,
research methodology , sampling strategy and results is
necessary.
 In practice, qualitative sampling usually requires a
flexible, pragmatic approach.
 …..
 The researcher actively selects the most productive sample to
answer the research question.
 This can involve developing a framework of the
variables that might influence an individual's contribution and will be
based on the researcher's practical knowledge of the research area,
the available literature and evidence from the study itself.
• This is a more intellectual strategy than the simple demographic
stratification of epidemiological studies, though age, gender and
social class might be important variables.
 …….
 If the subjects are known to the researcher, they may
be stratified according to known public attitudes or
beliefs
 It may be advantageous to study a broad range of
subjects :
• (maximum variation sample)
• outliers (deviant sample)
• subjects who have specific experiences (critical case
sample)
• subjects with special expertise (key informant sample).
…….
 The iterative process of qualitative study design means that samples
are usually theory driven ( theoretical sampling) to a greater or
lesser extent
 Theoretical sampling necessitates building interpretative theories
from the emerging data and selecting a new sample to examine and
elaborate on this theory.
 It is the principal strategy for the grounded theoretical
approach .
 Some suggestions of sample size in
qualitative studies
 The smallest number of participants should be 15
 Should lie under 50
 6-8 participants for FGDs AND at least 2 FGDs per population group
IMPORTANT
 Attainment of saturation
 Justification of choice of number
Sample size determination in
quantitative study
Several criteria will need to be specified to
determine the appropriate sample size:
 Level of precision,
 Level of confidence or risk,
 Degree of variability in the attributes being
measured ( prevalence)
 External validity
…….

 The Level of Precision-sometimes called sampling error

 range in which the true value of the population is
estimated to be.
 This range is often expressed in percentage points
(e.g., ±5 percent).
 The Confidence Level
 based on ideas encompassed under the Central
Limit Theorem.
 E.g a 95% confidence level is selected, 95 out of
100 samples will have the true population value
within the range of precision
…….
Degree of Variability
 refers to the distribution of attributes in
the population.
 The more heterogeneous a population,
the larger the sample size required to
obtain a given level of precision.
 The less variable (more homogeneous) a
population, the smaller the sample size.
 ……
 A proportion of 50 % indicates a greater level of
variability than either 20% or 80%. This is because
20% and 80% indicate that a large majority do not or
do, respectively, have the attribute of interest.
 Because a proportion of 0.5 indicates the maximum
variability in a population, it is often used in determining
a more conservative sample size, that is, the sample
size may be larger than if the true variability of the
population attribute were used.
……
 Sample size affects accuracy of representation; Larger sample
means less chance of error
 Minimum suggested sample is 30 and upper limit is 1,000
External validity – how well sample generalizes to the
population, a representative sample is required (not the same
thing as variety in a sample)
Strategies for Determining Sample
Size

There are several approaches to determining the

sample size.
 Using a census for small populations
 Imitating a sample size of similar studies
 Using published tables
 Applying formulas to calculate a sample size
 Use computer soft ware e.g EPI-info series
Using a Census for Small Populations
….
 One approach is to use the entire population as
the sample.
 Although cost considerations make this impossible
for large populations.
 Attractive for small populations (e.g., 200 or less).
 Eliminates sampling error and provides data on all
the individuals in the population.
 Some costs such as questionnaire design and
developing the sampling frame are “fixed,” that is,
they will be the same for samples of 50 or 200.
 Finally, virtually the entire population would have
to be sampled in small populations to achieve a
desirable level of precision
Using a Sample Size of a Similar Study
 Use the same sample size as those of studies similar to the one
you plan( Cite reference).
 Without reviewing the procedures employed in these studies you
may run the risk of repeating errors that were made in
determining the sample size for another study.
 However, a review of the literature in your discipline can provide
guidance about “typical” sample sizes that are used.
Using Published Tables

 Published tables provide the sample size for

a given set of criteria.
 Necessary for given combinations of
precision, confidence levels and variability.
 The sample sizes presume that the
attributes being measured are distributed
normally or nearly so.
 Although tables can provide a useful guide
for determining the sample size, you may
need to calculate the necessary sample size
for a different combination of levels of
precision, confidence, and variability.
Sample Size for ±5%, ±7% and ±10% Precision Levels
where Confidence Level Is 95% and P=.5.

Size of Sample Size (n) for Precision (e) of:

Population

±5% ±7% ±10%

100 81 67 51
125 96 78 56
150 110 86 61
175 122 94 64
200 134 101 67
225 144 107 70
250 154 112 72
275 163 117 74
300 172 121 76
325 180 125 77
350 187 129 78
375 194 132 80
400 201 135 81
425 207 138 82
450 212 140 82
Using Formulas to Calculate a Sample Size
 Sample size can be determined by the application of
one of several mathematical formulae.
 Formula mostly used for calculating a sample for
proportions.
For example:
 For populations that are large, the Cochran
(1963:75) equation yields a representative sample
for proportions.
 Fisher equation, Mugenda etc
Cochran equation
Where n0 is the sample size,

Z2 is the abscissa of the normal curve that cuts off an

area α at the tails;

(1 – α) equals the desired confidence level, e.g., 95%);

e is the desired level of precision,

p is the estimated proportion of an attribute that is

present in the population,and q is 1-p.

The value for Z is found in statistical tables which

contain the area under the normal curve. e.g Z = 1.96
for 95 % level of confidence
…..
A Simplified Formula For Proportions
 Yamane (1967:886) provides a simplified formula to
calculate sample sizes.
 ASSUMPTION:
 95% confidence level
 P = .5 ;
……..

Where n is the sample size,

N is the population size,
e
is the level of precision.
Finite population correction for proportions

 With finite populations, correction for proportions is necessary

 If the population is small then the sample size can be reduced
slightly.
 This is because a given sample size provides proportionately more
information for a small population than for a large population.
 The sample size (n0) can thus be adjusted using the corrected
formulae
…..

Where n is the sample size

N is the population size.
no is calculated sample size
for infinite population
Use of software in sample size determination
Depending on type of study and specific software Some
information will be required:
 Population sample size, population standard deviation,
population sampling error, confidence level, z –value, power
of study etc …
 80% power in a clinical trial means that the study has a
80% chance of ending up with a p value of less than 5% in a
statistical test (i.e. a statistically significant treatment effect) if
there really was an important difference (e.g. 10% versus 5%
mortality) between treatments.