ENG2001
Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering
Tutorial 1
Dr. Xi SHEN
Assistant Professor
Department of Aeronautical and Aviation Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Office: R810
Email: [Link]@[Link]
Tel: 3400 2485
Key points of this tutorial
1. Atomic structure and interatomic bonding
• Electron configuration
• Types of interatomic bonding
2. Metallic crystal structures
• Calculation of lattice properties
• Calculation of density
3. Mechanical properties of materials
• Elastic properties
• Stress-strain behaviors
• Elastic recovery after plastic deformation
2
Fundamental concepts of atoms - Review
Isotopes – atoms of some
elements have two or more
different atomic masses
Atomic weight – the
weighted average of atomic
Atomic number (Z) – number of masses of the atom’s
protons in the nucleus naturally occurring isotopes;
weight of 1 mol substance
Nucleus (6.022 x 1023 molecules or
Atomic Mass (A) – mass of protons
+ mass of neutrons atoms).
𝐴𝐴 ≅ 𝑍𝑍 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 +
𝑁𝑁(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)
Atomic mass unit (amu) = 1/12 mass of 12C
Mole – SI unit to measure the amount of substances.
One mole substance contains 6.022 x 1023 (molecules/atoms), Avogadro’s number
Molar mass – 1 amu/atom = 1 g/mol
3
Electron configuration – Review
4
Electron configuration – Review
Electrons fill up the energy state according to below rules
• Electrons fill up the lowest possible energy states first
• Only two electrons in one energy state
e.g. Electron configuration of
4d Na atoms: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
4p n=4
3d Valence electrons – those in
outer unfilled shells
4s • Filled shells are more stable
3p
– require more energy to
n=3
3s gain or lose electrons
• Valence electrons available
for bonding and tend to
2p n=2
2s determine an atom’s
chemical properties
1s n=1
Electron configuration – Example
• Sodium chloride (NaCl) exhibits predominantly ionic
bonding. The Na+ and Cl- ions have electron configurations
that are identical to which two inert gases?
Solution：
Na+ ion is a sodium atom that has lost one electron; therefore, its electron
configuration is 1s22s22p6, which is the same as neon.
Cl- ion is a chlorine atom that has acquired one electron; therefore, its
electron configuration is 1s22s22p63s23p6, which is the same as argon.
6
Interatomic bonding – review
Primary bonding
1. Ionic bonding
• Occurs between + and – ions (typically metal and non-
metal, e.g., NaCl, MgO)
• Donate electrons – The + ions (cation) atom gives
electron(s) to the – ions (anion) atom
• Non-directional: the magnitude of the bond is equal in all
directions around an ion.
7
Interatomic bonding – review
Primary bonding
2. Covalent bonding
• Occurs between non-metal atoms (e.g., C, H2, SiO2)
• Shared electrons – electron orbitals overlap between the
two atoms
• Directional – only between one atom and another
participating in the electron sharing; bond angle is fixed
Example: H2
shared 1s
electron
H H
shared 1s
electron
Fig. 2.12, Calliser & Rethwisch 10e.
Covalent bonding in CH4
8
Interatomic bonding – review
Primary bonding
3. Metallic bonding
• Occurs between metallic atoms in metals and alloys
• The valence electrons can drift freely within the material
• Non-directional
9
Interatomic bonding – review
Secondary bonding
• Secondary bonds or van der Waals bonds are weaker
than the primary ones
• Secondary bonding exists between virtually all atoms or
molecules – attractive forces between dipoles
• Hydrogen Bonding, a special type of secondary bond, is a
kind of permanent dipole bond occurs between hydrogen
and the most electronegative elements, fluorine, oxygen,
nitrogen (H2O, HF, NH3).
H Cl secondary H Cl
bonding
10
Interatomic bonding – Example
• What type(s) of bonding would be expected for each of the
following materials: brass, carbon dioxide, magnesium
fluoride, nylon, and argon?
Solution:
For brass, the bonding is metallic since it is a metal alloy (composed of
copper and zinc).
For carbon dioxide, the bonding is covalent since it is formed between
non-metals (carbon and oxygen).
For magnesium fluoride, the bonding is ionic because it is formed
between a metal (Mg) and a non-metal (F).
For nylon, the bonding is covalent in the polymer chains with van der
Waals bonding between polymer chains. (Nylon is composed primarily
of carbon and hydrogen.)
For argon, the bonding is van der Waals since Argon is an inert gas.
11
Metallic crystal structure – review
• Common crystal structures for metals
12
Metallic crystal structure – review
Number Atomic
of atoms Packing
Structure a vs. R Examples
per unit Factor
cell (APF)
SC 𝑅𝑅 = 0.5𝑎𝑎 1 0.52 Polonium (Po),α-Mn
3 Fe,Ti,W,Mo,Nb,Ta,K,
BCC 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑎𝑎 2 0.68
4 Na,V,Zr,Cr
2
FCC 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑎𝑎 4 0.74 Fe,Cu,Au,Pt,Ag,Pb,Ni
4
𝑅𝑅 = 0.5𝑎𝑎
HCP 6 0.74 Ti,Mg,Zn,Be,Co,Zr,Cd
𝑐𝑐 ≈ 1.633𝑎𝑎
FCC and HCP are close-packed crystal structures.
Metallic crystal structure – example
• The atomic radius of aluminum (FCC structure) is 0.143 nm.
Calculate the volume of its unit cell in cubic meters.
Solution:
Aluminum is FCC structure and
the atomic radius R=0.143 nm,
2𝑎𝑎 therefore
4𝑅𝑅 4
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑎𝑎3 =( 𝑅𝑅)3 = 16 2𝑅𝑅3
2
a = 16 2 × 0.143 × 10−9 𝑚𝑚 3
= 6.62 × 10−29 𝑚𝑚3
14
Theoretical density of metals – review
• A knowledge of the crystal structure of a metallic solid
permits computation of its theoretical density ρ through the
relationship:
Weight of one unit cell n × Weight of one atom nA
ρ = =
Volume of one unit cell VC VC N A
Weight of one atom (g)
n = atoms/unit cell
A = atomic weight from periodic table (g/mol)
VC = volume/unit cell (cm3/unit cell)
NA = Avogadro’s number (6.022 × 1023 atoms/mol)
Theoretical density of metals – example
• Calculate the radius of an iridium (Ir) atom, given that Ir has
an FCC crystal structure, a density of 22.4 g/cm3, and an
atomic weight of 192.2 g/mol.
Solution
We are asked to determine the radius of an iridium atom,
given that Ir has an FCC crystal structure. For FCC, n = 4
atoms/unit cell, and 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑎𝑎3 = 16 2𝑅𝑅 3 . Now,
2𝑎𝑎
4𝑅𝑅
And solving for R from the above expression yields
= 1.36 × 10-8 cm = 0.136 nm
16
Elastic properties of materials – review
• Engineering stress
• Tensile stress, σ: • Shear stress, τ:
F
Area, Ao
F
Area, Ao
F
F τ = F
F Ao
σ=
Ao Units for stress:
original cross-sectional MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/m2
17
area before loading
Elastic properties of materials – review
• Engineering strain
• Tensile strain (εz): Δl/2 • Lateral strain (εx):
Δd
εz = Δl do lo εx =
lo d0
If ∆d is negative, reduction in
Δd/2 cross-section
If ∆d is positive, increase in
• Shear strain (γ): cross-section
θ
∆x γ = Δx/y = tan θ
y Both tensile and shear strain
are dimensionless
18
Elastic properties of materials – review
• Elastic properties of materials
E, G, and ν are the elastic constants of a material. They
describe mechanical response of a material when it is elastic.
εx
σ=Eε τ=Gγ ν =-
𝜀𝜀ε𝑥𝑥L εz
ε 𝜀𝜀ε𝑧𝑧
• Elastic constant relationships for isotropic materials:
E
G=
2(1 + ν)
19
Elastic properties of materials – example
A cylindrical specimen of aluminum having a diameter of 20 mm and
length of 210 mm is deformed elastically in tension with a force of 48,800
N. Using the data in the table below, determine the following:
(a) The amount by which this specimen will elongate in the direction of the
applied stress.
(b) The change in diameter of specimen. Will the diameter increase or
decrease?
20
Elastic properties of materials – example
Solution
(a) We are asked to determine the elongation of a cylindrical specimen of aluminum.
Combining the three equations below
𝐹𝐹 Δ𝑙𝑙
𝜎𝜎 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸, 𝜎𝜎 = , 𝜖𝜖 =
𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜
We have
𝐹𝐹 ∆𝑙𝑙
= 𝐸𝐸
𝐴𝐴0 𝑙𝑙0
where
𝑑𝑑02
𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 = 𝜋𝜋
4
Solving for Δ𝑙𝑙 (and realizing that 𝐸𝐸 = 69 GPa), yields
4𝐹𝐹𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜
Δ𝑙𝑙 =
𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑02 𝐸𝐸
(4)(48000𝑁𝑁)(210 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚)
=
(𝜋𝜋)(20 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚)2 (69 × 109 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
= 4.72 × 10−4 𝑚𝑚 = 0.47 mm
21
Elastic properties of materials – example
(b) The change in diameter of specimen. Will the diameter increase or decrease?
Solution
(b)
To determine the change in diameter, Δ𝑑𝑑, using the
below equation
𝜖𝜖 Δ𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑0
𝑣𝑣 = − 𝜖𝜖𝑥𝑥 = −
𝑧𝑧 Δ𝑙𝑙/𝑙𝑙0
From the table, for aluminum, 𝑣𝑣 =0.33. Now, solving
the above expression for Δ𝑑𝑑 yields
𝑣𝑣Δ𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑0 0.33 0.47 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 20 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Δ𝑑𝑑 = − =−
𝑙𝑙0 210 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
= −1.5 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
The diameter will decrease.
22
Stress-strain behaviors and tensile properties – review
Stress-strain curves
σy - Yield strength:
𝝈𝝈 The stress level at which noticeable plastic deformation has occurred
Stress at the maximum load point
σuts- Tensile Strength (TS)
σuts
σy M
Yielding
F
σf - Fracture strength
𝑬𝑬
offset line
23 0.2% 𝜺𝜺
Stress-strain behaviors and tensile properties –
example
From the tensile stress–strain
behavior for the brass
specimen shown in Figure,
determine the following:
(a) The modulus of elasticity
(b) The yield strength at a
strain offset of 0.002
(c) The maximum load that
can be sustained by a
cylindrical specimen having
an original diameter of 12.8
mm
(d) The change in length of a
specimen originally 250 mm
long that is subjected to a
tensile stress of 345 MPa
24
Solution
(a) The modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the elastic or initial linear portion of the stress–
strain curve. The strain axis has been expanded in the inset of Figure to facilitate this
computation. The slope of this linear region is the rise over the run, or the change in
stress divided by the corresponding change in strain; in mathematical terms,
Inasmuch as the line segment passes through the origin, it is convenient to take both σ1
and ε1 as zero. If σ2 is arbitrarily taken as 150 MPa, then ε2 will have a value of 0.0018.
Therefore,
150 − 0 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝐸𝐸 = = 83.3 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
0.0018 − 0
25
Solution
(b) The yield strength at a
strain offset of 0.002
The 0.002 strain offset line is
constructed as shown in the
inset; its inter-section with the
stress–strain curve is at
approximately 250 MPa,
which is the yield strength of
the brass.
26
Solution
(c) The maximum load that can
be sustained by a cylindrical
specimen having an original
diameter of 12.8 mm
The maximum load that can be
sustained by the specimen is
calculated by using the tensile
strength, from Figure, 450 MPa
27
Solution
(d) The change in length of a
specimen originally 250 mm long
that is subjected to a tensile stress
of 345 MPa
To compute the change in length,
∆l, it is first necessary to
determine the strain that is
produced by a stress of 345 MPa.
This is accomplished by locating
the stress point on the stress–
strain curve, point A, and reading
the corresponding strain from the
strain axis, which is
approximately 0.06. Inasmuch as
l0 = 250 mm, we have
∆l = ε l0 = (0.06)(250 mm) = 15
mm
28
Elastic Recovery After Plastic Deformation – review
Elastic strain recovery
yield strength for 2nd
D
deformation = σyi
initial yield strength = σyo
2. Unload
Stress
A ductile metal becomes
harder and stronger as it is
plastically deformed!
This phenomenon is called
strain Hardening. it is also 3. Reapply
called work hardening or
1. Load
load
cold working. Plastic Strain
strain
Fig. 6.17, Callister & Elastic strain
29 Rethwisch 10e. recovery
Elastic Recovery After Plastic Deformation – Example
A cylindrical specimen of a brass alloy 7.5 mm in diameter and 90.0 mm long is pulled in
tension with a force of 6000 N; the force is subsequently released.
(a) Compute the final length of the specimen at this time. The tensile stress–strain behavior
for this alloy is shown in Figure below.
(b) Compute the elastic and plastic strains when the load is increased to 16,500 N assuming
a Young’s modulus of 83.3 GPa. What is the final specimen length when the load is
released?
30
Solution
(a) In order to determine the final length of the brass specimen when the load is released, it
first becomes necessary to compute the applied stress; thus
Upon locating this point on the stress-strain curve, we note that it is in the linear elastic
region; therefore, when the load is released the specimen will return to its original length of
90 mm.
31
(b) Compute the elastic and plastic strains when the load is increased to 16,500 N assuming a
Young’s modulus of 83.3 GPa. What is the final specimen length when the load is released?
Solution
(b) In this portion of the problem we are asked to calculate the elastic/plastic strains and
final length after load release, when the load is increased to 16,500 N. Again, computing
the stress
The point on the stress-strain curve corresponding to
this stress is in the plastic region. The total strain at this
point, εt, is about 0.09. We are able to estimate the
amount of permanent strain recovery εe from Hooke's
law, as
𝜎𝜎 373 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝜀𝜀𝑒𝑒 = 𝐸𝐸 = 83.3 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 0.00447
The value of the plastic strain, εp is just the difference
between the total and elastic strains; that is
εp = εt – εe = 0.09 – 0.00447 = 0.0855
The final specimen length lf may be determined as
lf = l0(1 + εp) = (90 mm)(1 + 0.0855) = 97.695 mm
32