Module 3: Operational Amplifier

Op- Amp: 1. Conventional Op-Amp analysis.

This studies is on the manipulations of the basic concepts of current, Defn:
voltage, and power to achieve a given task using Op-Amp. - An Op-Amp is a voltage amplifying Integrated Circuit (IC) with a
differential inputs and a single-end output. They are made with different
- The Op-Amp is an electronic unit that behave like a voltage – internal configurations in linear ICs.
controlled voltage-source devise. It can also be used to design or
convert a voltage source into current-controlled current-source Note: The Op-Amp unit is a complex electronic devise consisting of an
devise. arrangement of resistors, transistors, capacitors, diodes, and others
- It is a very high gain, high 𝑹𝒊𝒏 , direct-coupled negative feedback embedded together. As such, we will not delve into the in-depth analysis
amplifier which can amplify signals having frequency ranging form 0 of its inbuilt component, rather we shall work on how to manipulate its
Hz to a little beyond 1 MHz. external sources using its inbuilt characteristics to achieve a desired task.
- An Op-Amp is also an active circuit element designed to perform
mathematical operations (addition, multiplication, division, ➢ Scope:
subtraction, differentiation, and integration) using external Our focus shall be on the Op-Amp as:
components, such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors, which are i. Circuit building block
connected to it terminals..Electrical ii. The interconnection of element used to alter its inputs/output at its
terminals.
➢ Additional functions of an Op-Amp:
- Scale changing (Comparator) ➢ Commercial representation of an OP-Amp:
- Analog computer operations - They are commercially available in integrated circuit packages of
- Instrumentation several forms
- Control systems - They consist of eigth pins or terminals as presented in Fig. 3.1, with;
- Phase-shift analysis pin 8 – unused
- Oscillator circuit. pins 1 & 5 – are of little concern (offset null)
…pins of concern are:
➢ Op-Amp Advantages: pin 2 – the inverting input
- Very versatile pin 3 – noninverting input
- Easy to use pin 6 – the output
- Fun to work with pin 7 – The positive power supply
- Inexpensive pin 4 – the negative power supply

Eng. Dr. Z. Augustine TEE 501 - Advanced Circuit Design 1

 Module 3: Operational Amplifier Cont’d
Note:
Figure 3.1, present the commercial imagery of an Op-Amp
- An input applied to a noninverting terminal will appear with the same
polarity at the output, while an input applied with an inverting
Balance Not used terminal with appear inverted at the output.
- An Op-Amp is powered by a voltage supply to make it active.
Inverting input Positive power - For simplicity, the Op-Amp power supply (pin, 4 and 7) are ignored in
V+ most designs but its power supply currents must not be overlooked
Noninverting input Output
ἰ1 ἰ+

Negetive power Balance 2 - 7

ἰ0 V+

V-
6 V-
3 + 4
ἰ2
Fig. 3.1. commercial imagery of an Op-Amp ἰ-

Fig. 3.3. Powering an Op-Amp

Electrical
➢ Schematic representation of an Op-Amp
By applying KCL on Fig. 3.3 circuit, gives:
- The circuit symbol of an Op-Amp is in triangle, illustrated in Fig. 3.2.
𝑖0 − 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 − 𝑖3 − 𝑖4 = 0 (3.1)
7 + 𝑖0 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 (3.2)
V
Inverting input
The differential input voltage of Fig. 3.4 is given by:
2 - 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 (3.3)
where 𝑣1 is the voltage between the inverting terminal and ground and 𝑣2
Non-inverting input 6
3 + Output is the voltage between the noninverting terminal and ground. The Op-Amp
senses the difference between the two inputs, multiplies it by a gain A,
and causes the resulting voltage 𝑣0 to appear at the output. Thus:
𝑣0 = 𝐴𝑣𝑑 = 𝐴(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) (3.4)
V- 1 5
4 𝐴 is called the open-loop voltage gain (transfer function) of the Op-Amp
Balance without any external feedback from output to input.
Fig. 3.2. Schematic imagery of an Op-Amp

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 Module 3: Operational Amplifier Cont’d
The concept of feedback is very crucial for our understanding of Op-Amp Amplitude A(V2 - V1 )
circuit. A negative feedback is achieved when the output is fed back to the
inverting terminal of the Op-Amp. (V2 - V1 )
- Op-Amp are designed to use external component (mostly passive
circuit) to change its external characteristics to meet a particular Time
task/applications.
- An Op-Amp can contain two-dozens of transistor, one dozen resistors,
and one or two capacitors/inductors.

Fig. 3.4 presents a cascaded workflow of an Op-Amp, while Fig.3.4 and 3.6
demonstrate an analogy and a characteristic responses of an Op-Amp gain, Fig. 3.6. Op-Amp response to inputs
respectively.

➢ Block diagram of an Op-Amp (cascaded)

Inverting
Table 3.1 shows the typical values of voltage gain 𝑨, input resistance 𝑅𝑖𝑛 ,
input - Input Electrical
Intermediate Level
Output Output output resistance 𝑅𝑜 , and the Voltage Common Collector (𝑉𝐶𝐶 ) supply
stage shifting
Non-inverting stage stage voltage.
input + (gain stage) stage

Dual input Dual input Emitter follower Complementary

balanced output unbalanced output using constant symmetry push-pull
differential amplifier differential amplifier current source amplifier
Table 3.1: Typical ranges for Op-Amp parameters
Fig. 3.4. Workflow diagram of an Op-Amp

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.5. Op-Amp output gain analogy using human procreation

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 Module 3: Operational Amplifier Cont’d
Example of Op-Amp When there is a feedback path from output to input, the ratio of the
1. 𝜇𝐴 709 output voltage to the input voltage (transfer function) is the closed-loop
Used in: gain. As a result of the negative feedback, it can be shown that the closed-
- In dc servo system loop gain, A is almost insensitive to the open–loop gain, 𝑨𝒗 of the Op-
- In high impedance analog circuit. Amp. For this reason, Op-amp are used in circuit with feedback paths.
- In low-level instrumentation applications
2. [LM 108 – LM 208]. One of the practical limitation of the Op-Amp is that,
Used in: - the magnitude of its output cannot exceed |𝑽𝑪𝑪 |, which meant, the
- Precision rectification output voltage is dependent on and is limited by the power supply
- Hogh-gain DC amplification voltage.
- Long-time integration and delay lines
- High-impedance circuit. Fig. 3.7 illustrates that the Op-Amp can operate in three modes,
3. CA 741 CT and CA 741 T depending on the differential input voltage 𝑣𝑑 .
Used in:
- Comparators, integrators, differentiator, summer, dc amplifier, Vo
Electrical
multivibrators, bandpass filters. Type equation here.
VCC Positive Saturation
➢ Op-Amp Polarity Conventions
- Inverting terminal: It simply means that a signal applied at negative
terminal will appear amplified but phase–inverting at the output
terminal. Vd
- Non-inverting terminal: Signal applied at the positive pin will appear -VCC
amplified and in-phase at the output. Negative Saturation
- The phase reversal are represented by (-VE) and (+VE), does not
meant voltages.
- Also, it does not imply that (-) voltages or (+ ) voltages be connected
to a (-VE) or (+VE) inverting/noninverting terminals, respectively. Fig. 3.7. Op-Amp output voltage, 𝑣0 as a function of the differential
voltage, 𝑣𝑑

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 Module 3: Operational Amplifier Cont’d
Deducing from Fig. 3.8, we have: Note:
i. Positive saturation, 𝑣0 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 - Although, these aforementioned characteristics cannot be achieved in
ii. Linear region, −𝑉𝐶𝐶 ≤ 𝑣0 = 𝐴𝑣𝑑 ≤ 𝑉𝐶𝐶 practice, yet an ideal Op-Amp serves as a convenient reference against
iii. Negative saturation, 𝑣0 = −𝑉𝐶𝐶 which real Op-Amp may be evaluated.
- 𝑅𝑖 = ∞ means that the current 𝑖 = 0, which mean that an ideal Op-
If we attempt to increase 𝑣0 beyond the linear range, the Op-Amp Amp is a voltage-control device.
becomes saturated and yields 𝑣0 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 , or 𝑣0 = −𝑉𝐶𝐶 . At the course of - 𝑅0 = 0 means that 𝑣0 is not dependent on the load resistance
this study, we will assume that our Op-Amp operate is in the linear mode. connected across the output.
This means that the output voltage is restricted by the threshold: - Although, an ideal Op-Amp gain, 𝐴𝑣 = ∞, but for an actual one it is
−𝑉𝐶𝐶 ≤ 𝑣0 ≤ 𝑉𝐶𝐶 (3.5) extremely high, i.e, about 106 . However , it does not mean that 1 𝑉
Although we shall always operate the Op-Amp in the linear region, the signal will be amplified to 106 V. The maximum value of 𝑣𝑜 limited by
possibility of saturation must be borne in mind when one design an Op- the supply voltage is typically 1:15 (+ or -) V. Having an 𝐴𝑣 = 106 and
Amp, to avoid designing an Op-Amp circuit that will not work in the 𝑣0 = 15 𝑉, the maximum value of input voltage is limited to 15ൗ106 =
laboratory. 15 𝜇𝑉. By implication, 1 𝜇𝑉 in an Op-Amp can certainly become 1 𝑉.

2. Ideal and Non-ideal Op-Amp Electrical Assuming an ideal Op-Amp provides only an approximate analysis, most
➢ When an Op-Amp is operated without connecting to any resistor, modern amplifiers have such large gains and input impedance that the
capacitor, or inductor from its inputs to output (without feedback), it is approximate analysis is a good one. Unless stated otherwise, we will
said to be an open-loop condition. assume from now on that every Op-Amp is ideal. The ideal Op-amp is
illustrated in Fig. 3.8.
An ideal Op-Amp is an amplifier with infinite open-loop gain, infinite
input resistance and zero output resistance. ἰ 1 =0

+ -
To facilitate the understanding of Op-Amp circuit theory, we will assume an ἰ 2 =0 Vd
ideal Op-Amp. An Op-Amp is ideal if it has the following characteristics. V0 + +
i. Infinite open-loop gain, 𝐴 ≅ ∞ V0

- -
ii. Infinite input resistance, 𝑅𝑖 = ∞ V2= V1
iii. Zero output resistance, 𝑅0 = 0
iv. Infinite Bandwidth, 𝐵𝑊 = ∞
v. Output resistance, 𝑅0 = 0,
Fig. 3.8. Ideal Op-Amp model
Eng. Dr. Z. Augustine TEE 501 - Advanced Circuit Design 5
 Module 3: Operational Amplifier Cont’d
There are two important characteristics of an ideal Op-Amp, these are: - Finite bandwidth: Real op-amps have a limited frequency response.
i. The current into both input terminals are zero: They cannot amplify signals at all frequencies down to DC (0 Hz), unlike
- 𝑖0 = 0, 𝑖2 = 0, (3.6) the ideal model.
- This is due to internal input resistance. An infinite resistance between - Finite input resistance, 𝑹𝒊𝒏 : The input resistance is not infinite,
the input terminals that an open circuit exists there and current cannot meaning a small amount of current flows into the input terminals.
enter the Op-Amp. But the output current is not necessary zero While it's still very high (mega-ohm or giga-ohm range), this current can
according to Eqn. (3.1). be significant in some applications.
ii. The voltage across the input terminals is negligibly small: i.e. - Slew rate: This is the maximum rate at which the output voltage can
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ≅ 0 (3.7) change. The slew rate limits the maximum operating frequency and the
or, amplitude of the output signal.
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 (3.8)
- The ideal Op-Amp has zero current into its two input terminals and These limitations means that the op-amp's actual performance differs
negligibly small voltage between the two input terminals. Equations from the idealized case, and its behavior can be more complex in circuit
(3.6) via (3.8) are extremely important and should be regarded as the analysis. An example of a non-ideal Op-Amp is the individual equivalent
key handles to analyzing Op-Amp circuit. circuit mentioned in Fig. 3.9.
Electrical
➢ A non-ideal Op-Amp is a real-world operational amplifier that deviates The equivalent circuit of an Op-Amp is shown in Fig. 3.9. The output
from the ideal model due to several imperfections. section consist of a voltage-controlled source in series with the output
resistance 𝑅0 .
A non-ideal Op-Amp is an amplifier with finite open-loop gain, non-zero
output resistance, and finite input resistance.
V1
Key non-ideal characteristics: - R0 V0
- Finite open-loop gain, 𝑨: Unlike the ideal op-amp, a real op-amp has a Vd Ri
+
high but finite open-loop gain. This can lead to gain error in a circuit, - Avd
+
- Non-zero output resistance, 𝑹𝟎 : A non-ideal op-amp has an output V2
resistance, typically in the range of a few tens of ohms. This causes a
voltage drop when the op-amp is driving a load.
- Input offset voltage: This is a small voltage that appears at the output Fig. 3.9. The equivalent circuit of a non-ideal Op-Amp
even when the input voltage difference is zero.

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 Module 3: Operational Amplifier Cont’d
Analogical comparison of an ideal and non-ideal Op-Amp are presented Work Example 3.1:
in Fig. 3.10. A 742 Op-Amp shown in Fig. 3.11 has an open-loop voltage gain of
2K 2K 2𝑥105 , input resistance of 2 𝑀Ω and output resistance of 50 Ω. The Op-
0 V1 Amp is used in the circuit. Find the closed closed-loop gain 𝑣0 /𝑣𝑠 .
I1 I1 Determine current 𝑖 when 𝑣𝑠 = 2𝑉
1K 1K
1 - V0
1 - V0

I1 I1 20 kΩ
I in I in
1v + 1v + ἰ
10 kΩ ἰ 1
(a) (b) -
741
Fig. 3.10. Ideal versus non-ideal Op-Amp +
0 +
Vs
V0
a. Ideal Op-Amp
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 (3.1.1) 𝑣0 = 𝐴 0 − 𝑣1 (3.1.10)
-
𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 0 Electrical
(3.1.2)
1 − 𝑣0 𝑣1 − 𝑣0 Fig. 3.11. Conventional Circuit
= (3.1.11)
1− 0 0 − 𝑣0 1𝐾 2𝐾
𝑖1 = . 𝑖1 = (3.1.3) Soln:
1𝐾 2𝐾 We start by obtaining the equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.11 as presented in Fig.
2+ 𝑣
⇒ 𝑣1 = 3 0 (3.1.11) 3.12(a). We now remodel and solve the circuit as in Fig. 3.12(b).
1 − 𝑣0
= (3.1.4) By Eqn. (3.1.11) into Eqn. (3.1.10),
1𝐾 2𝐾
gives:
2+ 𝑣0
⇒ 𝑣0 = 2 𝑉 (3.1.5) 𝑣0 = −𝐴 ( ) (3.1.12)
3
V1
b. Non-Ideal Op-Amp 𝐴 2
- R0 = 50 kΩ V0
𝑣0 = 𝐴 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = 𝐴𝑣𝑑 (3.1.7) ⇒ 𝑣0 1 + 3 = − 3 𝐴 (3.2.13) Vd RI = 2 MΩ
+
- Avd
2 +
𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 0 (3.1.8) 3
𝐴 V2
𝑣0 = − 𝐴 = −2 𝑉 (3.1.14)
1+
3
𝑖1 =
1 − 𝑣0
. 𝑖1 =
𝑣1 − 𝑣0
(3.1.9) (a)
1𝐾 2𝐾

Eng. Dr. Z. Augustine TEE 501 - Advanced Circuit Design

 Module 3: Operational Amplifier Cont’d
R f = 20 kΩ
Since 𝑣𝑑 = −𝑣1 , and 𝐴 = 200,000, then:
ἰ
𝑣1 − 𝑣0 = 400(𝑣0 − 200,000𝑣1 ) (3.2.7)
R 1 = 10 kΩ R0 = 50 kΩ
V1 V0
Substituting 𝑣1 from Eqn. (3.2.5) into Eqn. (3.2.9), gives:
1 0
- 0 ≅ 26.667𝑣0 + 53,333.333𝑣𝑠 (3.2.8)
Vs Vd R I = 2 MΩ + Avd
- Therefore;
+
𝑣0
(b) = −1.9999699 (3.2.9)
𝑣𝑠

Fig. 3.112. The equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.6 This a closed loop gain, because the 20 𝑘Ω feedback resistor closes the

Parameters: 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 (3.2.1) loop between the output and input terminals.

𝐴 = 2 𝑥 105 𝑣𝑑 = 0 − 𝑣1 When 𝑣𝑠 = 2V, 𝑣𝑖 = −3.9999398 𝑉. From Eqn. (3.2.5), we obtain 𝑣𝑖 =
𝑅𝑖 = 2 𝑀Ω 𝑣𝑑 = −𝑣1 (3.2.2)
𝑅𝑖 = 50 Ω Electrical 20.066667 𝜇𝑉. Thus:
𝑣𝑠 = 2𝑉 𝑣 =𝑣
𝑖 = 201𝑥 1003 = 0.1999 𝑚𝐴 (3.2.10)
By applying nodal analysis. At node 1, KCL gives: Finally, it is evident that working with a non-ideal Op-Amp is tedious, as
𝑣𝑠 −𝑣1 𝑣 −0 𝑣 −𝑣
= 2000𝑠 𝑥 103 + 201𝑥 1003 (3.2.3) we are dealing with very large numbers.
10 𝑥 103

Multiplying through by 2000 𝑥 103 , we obtain:

200𝑣𝑠 = 301𝑣1 − 100𝑣𝑜 (3.2.4)
Or,
2𝑣 +𝑣
2𝑣𝑠 ≅ 3𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑜 ⇒ 𝑣1 = 𝑖3 0 (3.2.5)
At node 0,
𝑣1 −𝑣0 𝑣 −𝐴𝑣
= 0 50 𝑑 (3.2.6)
20 𝑥 103

Eng. Dr. Z. Augustine TEE 501 - Advanced Circuit Design