Mechanical Behaviour of Materials (Course No MME 222)

Lecture 3: Tensile Testing

Department of Materials & Metallurgical Engineering

1
Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal (M.P)
Subject Coordinator
Dr. C. Sasikumar, Assistant Professor, MANIT Bhopal
csasimv@[Link]
 Load (vs) Extension & Stress (vs) Strain

A1< A2 < A3

ΔL1> ΔL2> ΔL3

L L
L Dimensionality normalization

A3 Stress (S) = Force/Area = F/A

ΔL2 A2 ΔL3
ΔL1 A1
Strain (e) = Change in length/original length
P P =ΔL/L
P

Stress
Load

Displacement Strain
 Units
Applied force
S = Engineering Stress =
Initial crosssecti onal area
Change in length
e = Engineering Stress =
Original Length

Load or force : N Stress = 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa

Displacement : m Stress = 1 N/mm2 = 1 MPa

Area : m2
Stress = Force /Area = N/m2
Strain = ΔL/L = m/m = Dimensionless
 Uniaxial Tensile Test
 Tensile test gives various mechanical
properties of materials.
 Sample geometry

Test Specimen India (BIS) US Great Britain Germany

(ASTM) (BS) (DIN)

Sheet 5.65 4.5 5.65 11.3

Rod 5.65 4.0 5.0 10.0

Table 1: Typical tensile specimen dimensions in different countries.

Uniaxial Tensile Test

 There is linear relationship between square

root of frequency and atomic number.
 Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

Uniform deformation D Non-Uniform deformation

Engineering Stress, ( F/A0) (MPa)

UTS
t ic

Elastic Deformation
C as 0.2% Proof Stress/Offset yield strength
Pl

Plastic Deformation
Permanent change in dimension even after removing load
B Elastic Limit
Material regain its original shape if load is removed

Necking
A Non-Linear region
Proportional Limit
Linear region
E Fracture Stress
Elastic

Slope = Stress/Strain = Young’s Modulus, E

Proof strain limit

Elastic strain limit Ultimate tensile strain

Proportional strain 0.002 i.e. 0.2%

f gh i j
Engineering Strain (ΔL/L0) Fracture Strain
Elastic and Plastic Deformation at Atomic Scale
Elastic and Plastic Deformation at Atomic Scale

Plastic
•Irreversible
• for larger degrees ofPlastic
stain
• stress beyond the YS •Irreversible
• for larger degrees of stain
• stress beyond the YS
Plastic Deformation

Dislocation motion produces plastic strain.

Figure shows how the atoms rearrange as the

dislocation moves through the crystal.

when one dislocation moves entirely through a crystal,

the lower part is displaced under the upper by the
distance b (called the Burgers vector)
Macroscopic Elastic and Plastic Deformation
 Hooke’s Law
� Hooke’s Law, which is merely a description of the experimental observation that,
when strains are small, the strain is very nearly proportional to the stress; that is,
they are linear-elastic.
� most solids are elastic only to very small strains: up to about 0.001
� The nominal tensile strain, for example, is proportional to the tensile stress; for
simple tension

where E is called Young’s modulus.

The same relationship also holds for stresses and strains in simple
compression, where K is called the bulk modulus

where G is the shear modulus.

 Elastic Constants of Materials

� we have four elastic constants: E, G, K and v

For many materials it is useful to know that

although for some the relationship can be more complicated

Elastic modulus

� The modulus measures the resistance of a material to elastic (or 'springy')

deformation

The modulus is reflected, too, in the

natural frequency of vibration of a
structure.

A beam of low modulus has a lower

natural frequency than one of higher
modulus

Low modulus materials deflect a lot

-Sometimes this is desirable, of course: springs, cushions, vaulting poles – these structures
are designed to deflect

Majority of mechanical applications, deflection is undesirable, and the

engineer seeks a material with a high modulus.
 Measure of Yielding – Transition from Elastic to Plastic
Measuring yield stress is difficult It is tempting to define an elastic limit as the
Accepted procedure : Deform the stress that causes the first plastic deformation
Offset yield sample to 0.2% than before the and to define a proportional limit as the first
strength test departure from linearity.
Engineering Stress, ( F/A0) (MPa)

Stress corresponding to 0.002 strain offset

ro o f
p 0.2% P is called proof stress.
YS stre ss Yielding of materials. Measurable plastic However, neither definition is very useful
Elastic Limit deformation on the sample because they both depend on accuracy of
B Elastic Limit No measurable strain in the sample measurement.
Permanent or plastic deformation starts
A Proportionality Limit
 To avoid this problem, the onset of plasticity is
There is no permanent
usually described by an offset yield strength that
Hooke’s law (S ∝ e) is
change in dimension
can be measured with more reproducibility.
strictly valid
It is found by constructing a straight line
parallel to the initial linear portion of the stress–
strain curve, but offset from it by e = 0.002
(0.2%.). The yield strength is taken as the stress
0.002 i.e. 0.2% level atwhich this straight line intersects the
stress–strain curve
Engineering Strain (ΔL/L0)
 Measure of Ductility
L0
Ductility is a qualitative term: Extend to which materials deform without fracture Lf
• Elongation, L f  L0
ef 
L0
Af ΔL
AO  A f
• Reduction in area, q 
AO
• During plastic deformation (before necking) – “Constancy of volume” P
• i.e. AL = A0.L0 q
ef 
1 q
 Percent elongation, as a measure of ductility, has the disadvantage that it combines the uniform elongation that occurs before
necking and the localized elongation that occurs during necking.
 The uniform elongation depends on the plastic behavior rather than the fracture behavior.
 The necking elongation is sensitive to the specimen shape. If the gauge section is very long compared to the diameter, the
contribution of necking to the total elongation is very small. On the other hand, if the gauge section is very short, the necking
elongation accounts for most of the elongation.
 For round bars, this problem has been remedied by standardizing the ratio of the gauge length to the diameter at 4:1.
 Percent reduction of area, as a measure of ductility, does not depend on the ratio of the gauge length to the diameter. However, for
very ductile materials, it is difficult to measure the final cross-sectional area, especially with sheet specimens
 Measuring other parameters

Parameters : from uniaxial tensile test

• Ductility : Strain till fracture (e f)

• Strength : YS and UTS

• Ability of a material to resisist plastic deformation

• Stiffness = Slope of S-e curve in linear elastic regime

• i.e. Young’s modulus , S = Ee
•Ability to resist elastic deformation

• Toughness : Energy absorbed per unit volume of material till fracture = area
under stress strain curves
• Toughness = stress x strain = N/m2 = J/m3

• Resilience : Energy absorbed per unit volume when deformed elastically.

Useful for applications, such as mechanical springs.
UTS and Necking

Elastic deformation

Plastic deformation

Initial necking

Void formation Instability :

No need to increase load to
develop further strain
Void •Cross section area decreases
coalescence • Deformation gets concentrated in
the neck region leading to fracture
Crack
propagation

Fracture
 Typical S-e curves
A: Ductile materials, Al, Cu
D: Brittle: No B: High strength and low ductility
B: High strength steel, e.g. spring steels
plastic strain C: Low C Steels
D: Ceramics
UYP C: Two Yield Points
Strain to fracture (ef)
LYP
Stress

ef <0.1 % Brittle Materials

A: Low strength and
high ductility
ef ≈ 10-60% for ductile materials

ef > 1000% super plastic materials

Strain
 Typical S-e curves: Inhomogeneous yielding of low carbon steel
 For steels this deforming region is called a Lüder’s
band.
 Continued elongation occurs by propagation of the
Upper yield point (UYP)
Lüder’s band along the gauge section, rather than by
continued deformation within it.
Lower yield point  Only after the band has traversed the entire gauge
(LYP) section does the stress rise again.
Lüder’s band  For steels, the subsequent lower yield strength is
Stress

used to describe yielding.

 The initial maximum stress is too sensitive to
Unyielded specimen alignment. The lower yield strength is
metal sensitive to the strain rate.
 The stress level during Lüder’s band propagation
fluctuates. Some laboratories report the minimum
level as the yield strength and other use the average
level.

Strain
Stress-Strain Behavior of Different Materials

Non-Ferrous Metal Ferrous Metal Brittle Polymers Polymer

Plastic polymers

m e rs
la s t ic poly
ye
Highl

Composite
Ceramic materials
The behavior of composites varies
with type of matrix and the
reinforcement

Composite with ductile matrix

and brittle fibers has higher ductility
 True Stress vs True Strain

As sample deforms, cross sectional area decreases

c urve σ vs ε
Stress experienced by sample increases F lo w
Need of instantaneous measurement of stress and   ln 1  e 
strain   S .1  e 
dL
d  S-e
LInst .
LdL L  L  L 
True strain =    ln   ln o 

Stress
Lo L L L
 o  o 
  ln 1  e 
P •Before necking, a point on the true stress–strain curve
True Stress =   (σ–ε) can be constructed from a point on the [Link]–
AInst
strain curve (s–e) with these Equations .
 P  A  for..cons tan cy..of ..volume •After necking, the cross-sectional area at the neck must
    o  AL  Ao Lo
 Ao  A  be measured to find the true stress and strain.
 L
  S.    S .1  e  Strain
 Lo 
 Example problem

In a tensile test, a material fractured before necking. The true stress and strain
at fracture were 630 MPa and 0.18 respectively. What is the tensile strength of
the material?
Solution:
The engineering strain at fracture was e = exp(0.18) − 1 = 0.197.
Engineering stress, s = σ / (1 + e),
tensile strength = 630/1.197 = 526 MPa
 Flow Curve (σ vs ε)

n: the strain hardening exponent σ = Kε

σ vs ε
K : the strength co-efficient
n=1
n and K are materials constant Plastic region
σ σ = Kεn
n varies 0.1 to 0.5 for metals
n =0
K is the true stress at ε=1

Rate of strain hardening rate , θ = dσ/dε

σ =K.εn Elastic region

ln (σ) = ln K + n ln (ε) σ = K |ε=1| σ = Eε

dσ/dε = n. (σ/ε)

ε
 Necking: Considere’s Criterion
Necking begins when the increase in stress due to dσ/dε
decrease in the cross-sectional area is greater than the σ vs ε
increase in load bearing capacity of the specimen due
to work hardening Plastic region
Instability: σ σ = Kεn
No need to increase load to develop further strain
dσ/dε = σ
F= σ.A
dF = A.dσ + σ.dA
At necking, dF = A.dσ + σ.dA = 0
(dσ/σ) = -(dA/A) ( -dA/A = dL/L =dε ) Elastic region
dσ/dε = σ
σ = Eε
Rate of strain hardening rate , θ = dσ/dε
εu
σ =K.εn
ln (σ) = ln K + n ln (ε) σ = K |ε=1|
ε
dσ/dε = n. (σ/ε)
 True Strain
There are several reasons that true strains are more convenient than engineering
strains.

[Link] strains for equivalent amounts of deformation in tension and compression are
equal except for sign.

2. True strains are additive. For a deformation consisting of several steps, the overall
strain is the sum of the strains in each step.

3. The volume change is related to the sum of the three normal strains. For constant
volume, εx + εy + εz = 0.

These statements are not true for engineering strains, as illustrated in the following
examples.
Cumulative Loading and Unloading

εT = εe + εp
Elastic + plastic

εp εe
 Poisson’s
. Ratio
� Materials respond to force by straining

u/2
The amount by which it shrinks inwards is described by
Poisson’s ratio, v,

L Lateral strain
Poison Ratio,   
Linear strain

u/2
v/2 v/2
L
u
Nominal tensile/ Linear strain ,  t 
L
v
Nominal lateral strain ,  l  
L
Engineering
. Shear Strain
w
w

θ L
w
Engineerin g shear strain   
L
w
  tan 
L
L   tan    (for small strains)
Volume
. Strain (Dilation)
ΔV

V
Volume strain   
V
V-ΔV
L

L
 Thank You
For your attention