ENT10- ENTOMOLOGY

Module No. and Module 4: Insect Reproduction

Title

Learning After learning the lesson, you will be able to:

Outcomes 1. Describe the parts and functions of the male and female reproductive
systems of insects
2. Discuss the different modes of reproduction among insects
3. Discuss the insect reproductive behavior
Time Frame Week 3
Introduction Welcome to Lesson 2 of Module 1. You will be exposed to the reproductive
systems of insects. Here, you will understand the basics and types of
reproduction among insects and explain why insects are numerous despite
their small size. Isn't it amazing? You will also uncover the different modes
of reproduction, notably the unusual reproduction without fertilization
(parthenogenesis and paedogenesis). Finally, you will also learn the
reproductive behavior, that is, from pair location to oviposition. I hope you
find this topic exciting but challenging. Good luck.
Draw and label the parts and provide their roles of both the male and female
reproductive systems of a typical insect.
Activity

(a) Male reproductive system

WRITER: LARRY V. ACERES, PhD.

ENT10- ENTOMOLOGY

(b) Female reproductive system

1. What reproductive part/s that is/are unique to insects that cannot be found
to other groups of animals?
Analysis

2. What are oviparity, viviparity, and ovoviviparity? Which of these three

modes of giving birth is the most advantageous, and why?

3. What is the series of events in the insect reproductive behavior? Provide

some strategies used by insects to find mates.

A. INSECT REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

Abstraction A.1. Female Reproductive System
 The functions of female reproductive systems are producing egg
cells and receiving sperm cells and storing them for a long time!
The female system is composed of a pair of the ovary, with one or
more ovarioles where the egg cell is produced (figure 18). The
process of egg production is called oogenesis.

WRITER: LARRY V. ACERES, PhD.

ENT10- ENTOMOLOGY

 During egg production, the germ cells, also known as oogonia

divide by mitosis to form oocytes (eggs). The oocytes undergo
meiosis and continue to increase in size by absorbing yolk produced
by adjacent cells. As the oocytes grow, they are pushed downward
by the continual cell division in the germarium (referring to the first
region of the ovariole). Thus, the oocytes form chains, with the
youngest/smallest cells at the top and mature/large cells at the
bottom. There are two types of ovariole depending on the source of
yolk to nourish the developing oocyte: the meriostic and the
panoistic type. Meroistic ovariole is when the source of the yolk is
from the follicular epithelium, a common type among
Hymenoptera, while panoistic ovariole is when the source of the
yolk is from the nurse cells, which is the type of ovariole among
Orthoptera as shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18. Types of ovariole (A) Panoistic type; (B) Meroistic type (Adapted from
Imms, Richards and Davies, 1957, In Elzinga, R. J. (1978). Fundamental of
Entomology, Prentice Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

 You may ask what structure is found in the female organ that stores
sperm cells and makes it viable until lifetime by the female insect?
If your answer is spermatheca, you are correct. Yes, most female
insects are only mated once, but that millions of sperm cells
received are stored in the spermatheca. For eusocial insects like
ants, the virgin queen ant will mate once by several drones to

WRITER: LARRY V. ACERES, PhD.

ENT10- ENTOMOLOGY

establish its colony. The sperms are stored in her spermatheca and
will produce millions of progenies for 20 long years! Isn't it
amazing? What makes the sperm cells viable for the longest time?
The answer is because of the structure known as the spermathecal
gland, which provides proteins and essential nutrients to keep the
sperm cells active and viable. Once the egg cell is produced from
the ovarioles, they will pass through the lateral oviduct and then
move down to the median or common oviduct and to the genital
chamber where fertilization takes place.
 Once the eggs are fertilized, the eggs were coated with lubricants,
and glue materials originated from the accessory gland; hence this
organ is also known as the glue gland. The importance of this
material is that once the eggs are oviposited, they will stick to any
substrates, particularly on leaves or parts of plants.

Figure 19. Female reproductive system. Adapted from Snodgrass, In Faculty of

Science (2015). Bugs-101 Insect-Human Interactions, University of Alberta.

Parts of insect egg

The parts of an insect egg (Figure 20) are as follows:
a. Eggs are covered with a tough outer shell called the chorion, and a
thinner membranous inner covering called the vitelline membrane.
c. A minute opening located at the chorion called the micropyle. This
opening is for the sperm cell gateway to the egg.
d. Two membranes that surround the nucleus and cytoplasm.
e. The egg cytoplasm is consists of a large central area of yolk and an
outerthe periplasm, which is located beneath the vitelline membrane.

WRITER: LARRY V. ACERES, PhD.

ENT10- ENTOMOLOGY

f. The egg nucleus located at the center of the cell is embedded in the
cytoplasm.

Figure 20. Parts of an insect egg (Adapted from Dr. R. Ali)

A. 2. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 The male reproductive system's primary functions are to produce,
store, and inseminate sperm cells to the female reproductive organs
and be deposited in the spermatheca. The system is composed of the
following parts and is shown in Figure 21:
(a) pair of testes – houses the sperm tube or follicles
(b) sperm tube or follicles – produces the sperm cells. The number varies
from one in Coleopterans to over 100 in grasshoppers. Figure _ reveals the
close-up view of the sperm tube/follicle.
(c) vas efferens – a structure that holds the individual sperm tube
(d) vas deferens – structure holding the whole testes at the base
(e) Seminal vesicles – a swollen structure bellow the vas deferens where
sperm cells are temporarily stored before mating. The cellular lining of the
seminal vesicle is glandular, providing nutrients for the sperms.
(f) accessory gland – provides additional fluid and nutrients to the sperm
cells for lubrication and active movement to successfully enter the female
reproductive tract. Figure _ depicts the male reproductive system.

WRITER: LARRY V. ACERES, PhD.

ENT10- ENTOMOLOGY

Figure 21. (A) Male reproductive structures; (B) close-up view of the sperm
tube/follicles showing vas efferens and vas deferens. Adapted from Elzinga
(1978).

Figure 22. Structure of the sperm tube/follicles showing the various zones and
the developing sperm cells. Adapted from Elzinga (1978).

WRITER: LARRY V. ACERES, PhD.

ENT10- ENTOMOLOGY

B. MODES OF REPRODUCTION
1. Sexual reproduction - is the type of reproduction wherein both male
and female gametes (sperm and egg cells) are needed for fertilization. This
type of reproduction is a common method of most insects.
2. Asexual reproduction - this type of reproduction happens even without
fertilization or without the union of male and female gametes.
Types of Asexual Reproduction
(a) PARTHENOGENESIS – is the production of offspring from
unfertilized eggs.
Under parthenogenesis, there are two types:
a.1. Obligatory: eggs always develop through parthenogenesis. Example:
Aphids in the tropics. Here, the egg cell develops into a live young even
without fertilization coming from sperm cells.
a.2. Facultative: eggs may develop without fertilization or after fertilization
depending on conditions. A typical example of this type is the aphids in the
temperate regions during the summer season. The insects develop
parthenogenetically, but during autumn, they develop sexually of what is
called alternation of generation, as shown in Figure 23. Eggs are produced
in preparation for the winter season as a form of surviving the hostile

environment.
Figure 23. Alternation of the generation of pea aphid in the temperate region. Photo
courtesy: [Link]. Date accessed: August 12, 2020. Taken from
[Link]

Also, under parthenogenesis, there are 3 classes, these were:

1. Arrhenotoky: males are produced without fertilization, haploid-diploid
situation (common in Hymenoptera-Honey bee, here, unfertilized eggs

WRITER: LARRY V. ACERES, PhD.

ENT10- ENTOMOLOGY

(haploids) are males who become drones, and fertilized eggs (diploids) are
female who becomes workers).

Figure 24. A honeybee. Photo courtesy: Wikipedia. Date accessed: August 12,
2020. Taken from [Link]

2. Thelytoky: only females are produced.

3. Deuterotoky: eggs may be of either sex.
(b) PAEDOGENESIS – is the reproduction by the juvenile (immature)
form. This type of reproduction occurs in a particular family of the fungus
gnats (Cecidomyiidae) and a common flower fly (Syrphidae). Here, the
ovaries become functional in females with larval body form, and eggs
develop parthenogenetically.
Eventually, mother larvae become filled with developing daughter
larvae and emerge from the mother and, under certain conditions, produce
winged males and females and reproduce sexually.

Figure 25. A male fungus gnat. Photo courtesy: University of Wisconsin

Milwaukee. Date accessed: August 12, 2020. Taken from [Link]

WRITER: LARRY V. ACERES, PhD.

ENT10- ENTOMOLOGY

Figure 26. A syrphid fly. Photo courtesy: Wikipedia. Date accesed: August 12,
2020. Taken from [Link]

(c) POLYEMBRYONY – a condition wherein a single egg instead of

cleaving together, separate during mitosis, and give rise to different
individuals with identical genetic makeup. An example of this type is the
parasitic wasp.

Types of Reproductive system of insects based on

manner of giving birth

1. Oviparous type – eggs are produced, fertilized, and oviposited by the

female insect. The mother insect deposits eggs in precise microhabitat where
hosts are located. For this purpose, when the egg hatches, the newly hatched
young are already given sufficient food for growth and development.
However, during the egg stage, they are exposed to the environment's natural
forces, such as the action of parasitoids and predators. Most common insects
have this type of giving birth.

Figure 27. An eggmass of a Vapourer Moth. Photo courtesy: Beentree licensed

under Creative Commons. Date accessed: August 12, 2020. Taken from
[Link]

2. Ovoviviparous type – eggs are typically developed and fertilized, but

are retained and hatched within the body of the mother insect, usually in the

WRITER: LARRY V. ACERES, PhD.

ENT10- ENTOMOLOGY

ovipositor. This is of more significant advantage because the laid live young
are already feeding and are less exposed to the action of predators and
parasitoids. An example of this type is the flesh flies deposited directly on
fresh carcass without competition from another larva.

Figure 28. A tsetse fly laying live larva. Photo courtesy: Ray Wilson. Date
accessed: August 12, 2020. Taken from: [Link]

3. Viviparous type – development occurs within the female body but is

nourished continuously by the mother even after being laid. An example of
this type is aphids and tsetse flies in Africa.

Figure 29. An aphid giving birth via ovoviviparous reproduction of giving birth.
Photo courtesy: Wikipedia. Date accessed: August 12, 2020. Taken from:
[Link]

C. INSECT REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR

It is broadly defined to include all of the events surrounding the
insemination of the female by the male and the production of offspring. To
an extent, all behavior is molded by its influence on an animal's ability to
transfer its genepool to the next generation. The success of the species is
dependent on its reproductive potential.

Six chronological steps in insect reproductive behavior:

1. Mate Location and Pair Formation

WRITER: LARRY V. ACERES, PhD.

ENT10- ENTOMOLOGY

Systems which have evolved to bring the sexes together, such as:
 Use of specific cues – pheromones (most common among insects
such as moths and weevils), acoustic signals (common among
cicadas, orthopetrans such as grasshoppers, crickets),
bioluminescence (fireflies)
 Use of visual cues (common among butterflies)
 Swarming behaviors (mayflies)
2. Courtship – common by offering a nuptial gift such as in hanging flies
and seed bugs where food is provided by the male insect to court or attract
female counterparts.

Figure 30. Hanging flies while mating. Note the nuptial gift given by the male
fly (left) to the female fly (right, black swollen abdomen) to allow male to mate
with her. Photo Courtesy: Thornhil and Gwynee, 1986. Date accessed: August 12,
2020. Taken from [Link]

3. Copulation – the union of male and female copulatory organs.

Copulatory organ in males is called aedeagus while for females is known as
bursa.

Figure 31. Copulating dragonflies. Photo courtesy: Wikipedia. Date accessed:

August 12, 2020. Taken from: [Link]

4. Insemination – is the transfer of sperm cell from male to female

reproductive tract particularly stored in the spermatheca.
5. Fertilization – is the union of male and female gametes to produce a
diploid chromosome number
6. Oviposition – is the act of laying eggs in insects.

WRITER: LARRY V. ACERES, PhD.

ENT10- ENTOMOLOGY

Concerning your exercise in insect rearing from Module 1, lesson 1 (Insect

growth and development), continue to observe your tortoise beetle until they
Application
oviposit or lay eggs. Try to find any courtship behavior before mating. Also,
see the mating behavior and record the time that mating lasted. This is for
the sexual mode of reproduction activity. For the asexual method of
reproduction, collect adult bean aphid, Aphis craccivora, banana aphid, and
Pentalonia nigronervosa. Provide fresh food and observe for their
viviparous behavior, a method of delivery wherein live young are laid by the
female insect. Make documentation of all activities conducted. Good luck.
Congratulations! You've finally made it! You now have a full understanding
of the structures and functions of the reproductive systems of insects. You
Closure
know that there is an asexual mode of reproduction occurring among insects,
which explains their success for the struggle for existence. You have also
determined the insect reproductive behavior and uncovered how they locate
mates until they oviposit. The activity you have performed and completed
in this lesson prepared you for the succeeding lessons. Keep going!

WRITER: LARRY V. ACERES, PhD.