Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
The study of electric drive system involves controlling electric motors in the steady state and
in dynamic operations, taking into account the characteristics of mechanical loads and the
behaviors of power electronics converters.
Motivation
1. Use of renewable energy source
2. Free from environmental pollution.
3. Possibility in soft speed control
The area of power electronics and Electrical drives has recently grown as a major and
extremely important discipline in electrical engineering. Power electronics basically, deals
with conversion and control of electrical power for various applications, such as DC- and AC-
regulated power supplies, heating and lighting control, electrical welding, electrochemical
processes, induction heating, active harmonic filtering and static reactive power generation,
control of DC and AC machines, and so on.
Electrical machine drives (often defined as motion control) are particularly a very
fascinating and challenging area in power electronics because of their spectrum of
applications, such as computer peripheral drives, machine tool and robotic drives, pump
and blower drives, textile and paper mill drives, electric vehicle and locomotive propulsion,
ship propulsion, cement mill and rolling mill drives, and so on. With the present trend of
global industrial automation, the application of power electronics and variable frequency
drives is expected to grow enormously in the future.
Very recently, another important role of power electronics is becoming visible, that is,
energy saving that can control the environmental pollution. It has been estimated that
roughly 10-15% of generated electrical energy can be saved by widespread use of power
electronics in applications, such as variable speed drives, high-frequency electronic ballasts
for fluorescent lamps, and so on. In addition, power electronics-intensive environmentally
clean photovoltaic and wind energy resources also show a bright future. The world has a
vast potential for wind energy. A rough estimate indicates that all the electricity needs of
the world can be met even if 10% of the available wind energy is tapped. Photovoltaic
energy is yet very expensive.
An electric motor driving a mechanical load, directly or through a gearbox or a V-belt
transmission, and the associated control equipment such as power converters, switches,
relays, sensors, and microprocessors, constitute an electric drive system. It should be
stressed that, as of today, most motor drives are still basically uncontrolled, the control
functions limited to switching the motor on and off. Occasionally, in drive systems with
difficult start-up due to a high torque and/or inertia of the load, simple means for reducing
the starting current are employed. In applications where the speed, position, or torque must
be controlled, adjustable speed controls with dc motors are common. However, adjustable
speed controls with induction motors have increasing popularity
popularity in industrial practice.
1.1 Basic components of the Electrical Drive System
1. SOURCES: AC, DC or batteries, super caps
2. CONVERTERS: Rectifiers, Choppers, Inverters, Cycloconverters…
3. DRIVING/ ACTUATING MOTORS: Induction Motors, permanent magnet synchronous
sy Motors,
dc Motors…
4. CONTROL UNIT: Convertor Triggering Unit, control:-
control: brushless dc, field oriented control…
5. MEASURMENT / FEEDBACK DEVICES: Current sensor, speed sensor, torque sensor…
6. MECHANICAL LOAD:: Car, conveyer, pump…
A modern electric drive system has five main function blocks (shown in fig 1.1): a
mechanical load, a motor, a converter, a power source, and a controller. The power source
provides the energy the drive system needs. The converter interfaces the motor with the
power source and provides the motor with adjustable voltage, current, and/or frequency.
The controller supervises the operation of the entire system to enhance of the overall
system performance and stability.
Often, design engineers do not select the mechanical loads oror power source. Rather, the
mechanical loads are determined by the nature of the industrial operation, and the power
source is determined by what is available at the site. However, designers usually can select
the other three components of the drive system systems (electric motor, converter, and
controller).
The basic criterion in selecting an electric motor for a given drive application is that it meet
the power level and performance required by the during steady-statesteady state and dynamic
operations. Certain characteristics
aracteristics of the mechanical loads may require a special type of
motor. For example, in the applications for which a starting torque is needed, a dc series
motor might be a better choice than an induction motor. In constant-
constant speed applications,
synchronous
ous motors might be more suitable than induction or dc motors.
1.2 Torque-speed characteristics of industrial units/ Loads
Selection of a drive motor and its control scheme depends on the load. An adjustable speed
control of a fan will certainly differ from that of a winder in a paper mill, the manufacturing
process in the latter case imposing narrow tolerance bands on speed and torque of the
motor. Various classifications can be used with respect to loads. In particular, they can be
classified with respect to: (a) inertia, (b) torque versus speed characteristic, and (c) control
requirements.
High-inertia loads, such as electric vehicles, winders, or centrifuges, are more difficult to
accelerate and decelerate, for instance, a pump or a grinder. The total mass moment of
inertia referred to the motor shaft can be computed from the kinetic energy of the drive.
Consider, for example, a motor with the rotor inertia of JM that drives a load with the mass
moment of inertia of JL through a transmission with the gear ratio of N.
The difference, Td, between the torques, TM, developed in the motor and the static torque,
TL, with which the load resists the motion, is called a dynamic torque. According to Newton’s
second law,
A high mass moment of inertia makes a drive sluggish, so that a high dynamic torque is
required for fast acceleration or deceleration of the load.
Where JT denotes the total mass moment of inertia of the system referred to the motor
shaft.
In most loads, the static torque, TL, depends on the load sped, ωL. The TL(ωL) relation,
usually called a mechanical characteristic, is an important feature of the load, because its
intersection with the analogous characteristic of the motor. TM(ωM), determines the steady
state operating point of the drive. Expressing the mechanical characteristic by a general
equation
Where TL0 and are constants, three basic types, illustrated in Figure 1.2 can be
distinguished.
The torque required by the driven machine
machine (load torque) determines the size of the motor
because the continuous rated torque of the motor must always be larger than the torque
required by the driven machine.
The magnitude of the load torque determines the cost of the motor because, as a rule rul of
thumb, the cost of an electric motor is approximately proportional to its rated output
torque (not its rated power!). The load torque is not necessarily a fixed value. It can vary
with respect to speed, position, angle and time as shown in the table of
of Figure 1.3.
Another important aspect of the load torque is that the figure should apply at the shaft of
the motor. When gearboxes, conveyers or hoists are involved, the actual torque at the
machine must be converted to torque at the motor shaft. The conversion
conversion formulae are
given in chapter three to convert the load torque, speed and moment of inertia to motor
shaft values.
1. Constant- torque characteristic:
characteristic: with K = 0, typical for lifts and conveyors and,
generally, for loads whose speed varies in a narrow
narro ranges.
2. Progressive _ torque characteristic:
characteristic: with K > 0, typically for pumps, fans, blowers,
compressors, electric vehicles and, generally, for most loads with a widely varying
speed.
3. Regressive- torque characteristic: with K < 0, typically for winders. There, with a
constant tension and linear speed of the wound tape, an increase in the coil radius is
accompanied by a decreasing speed and an increasing torque.
Fig 1.3 Sample machine load types and its Characteristics
Practical loads are better described by operating areas rather than mechanical
characteristics. An operating area represents a set of all allowable operating points in the
(ωL,TL) plane. Taking a pump as an example, its torque versus speed characteristic strongly
s
depends on the pressure and viscosity of the pumped fluid. Analogously, the mechanical
characteristic of a winder varies with changes in the tape tension and speed. Therefore, a
single mechanical characteristic cannot account for all possible operating
opera points. An
example operating area of a progressive-torque
progressive torque load is shown in Figure 1.4a. Clearly, if a
load is driven directly by a motor, the motor operating area in the (ω
( M,TM) plane is the same
as that of the load. However, if the load is geared to the motor, the operating areas of the
load and motor differ because the gearing acts as a transformer of the mechanical power.
The operating area of a motor driving the load in Figure 1.4a through a frictionless
transmission with a gear ratio of 0.5 is shown
sho in Figure 1.4b.
EXAMPLE 1.1: The coil radius, r, in a textile winder changes from 0.15 m (empty coil) to 0.5
m (full coil). The automatically controlled tension, F, of the wound fabric can be set to any
value between 100N N and 500 N, and the linear speed,
sp u, of the fabric is adjustable within the
2 m/s to 4.8 m/s range. Determine the operating area of the winder.
The constant-force,
force, constant-speed
constant speed operation of the winder makes the exponent k in
torque equation equal to -1.
1. Indeed, because
→
Assuming that the tension and speed of the fabric can be to any allowable value ,
independently from each other, the operating speed of the winder is limited to the 1/0.5 = 2
rad/sec
/sec to 2.4/0.5 = 16rad/sec range. If expressed in rev/min, this speed range is
19.1rev/min to 152.8rev/min. The operating area, shown in Fig1.5 is bound by two
hyperbolic curves corresponding to the minimum and maximum values of force and speed.
In a properly
operly designed drive system, the motor operates safely at every point of its
operating area, that is, neither the voltage, current, nor speed exceeds its allowable values.
The gearing may be needed to provide proper matching of the motor to the load. A gear ge
ratio less than unity is employed when the load is to run slower than the motor, with a
torque greater than that of the motor. Conversely, a high-speed,
high low-torque
torque load requires a
gear ratio greater than unity.
Control requirements depend on the particular
particular application of a drive system. In most
practical drives, such as those of pumps, fans, blowers, conveyors, or centrifuges, the main
controlled variable is the load speed. High control accuracy in such systems is usually not
necessary. Drives with a directly
ectly controlled torque, for instance those of winders or electric
vehicles, are more demanding with regard to the control quality.
quality. Finally, positioning system,
system
such as precision machine tools or elevators drives, must be endowed with the highest level
of dynamic performance. In certain positioning systems,
systems, control requirements are so strict
that induction motors cannot be employed.
Fig 1.6 electric motors speed-torque
speed characteristics
Electric motor exhibit wide variation of speed-torque
speed characteristics, some of which are
shown in Fig 1.6, Synchronous or reluctance motors exhibit a constant speed characteristic
similar to that shown by curve I. At steady state conditions, these motor operate at constant
speed regardless of the value of the load torque. Curve II shows a dc shunt or a separately
excited motor, where the speed is slightly reduced when the load torque increases. Direct
current series motors exhibit the characteristic shown in curve III; the speed is high at light
loading conditions
ions and low at heavy loading. Induction motors have a somewhat complex
speed characteristic similar to the one given by curve IV; during steady state, they operate
at the linear portion of the speed-
speed torque characteristic, which resembles the characteristics
characterist
of a dc shunt or a separately excited motor. The maximum developed torque of induction
motors is limited to Tmax.
1.4 Electric Motors Loadability
The maximum torque allowed at above synchronous speeds depends on the motor
characteristics and frequency as follows:
50
0.6
Where Tp = pull out torque (maximum torque) of the motor in Nm
f = actual frequency in the above synchronous range in Hz
0.6 = Factor of safety
1.5 Power supply and Convector of electric drives.
Two major types of power sources are used in industrial applications: alternating current
(ac) and direct current (dc). Alternating current sources are common in industrial installation
and residences. These sources can either be single phase or multiphase systems. Single
phase power sources are common in residences, where the demand for electric power is
limited.
Fig 1.8 Power sources, converter, actuator and mechanical load with its drive controller
connected together.
Multiphase power sources are used in high power consumption applications. The most
common type of power source is three phases and frequency is either 50Hz or 60Hz. In
Ethiopia Europe, most Middle East, Africa and Asia the power source is either three phase or
single phase of 50Hz frequency; where as in America it is three phase of 60Hz frequency.
Extensive industrial installations usually, have more than one type of power sources at
different voltages and frequencies. Commercial airplanes, for examples, may have a 400Hz
ac source in addition to a 270V Dc source.
To get different power sources, conversion of power from one source to other form may
required. The main function of a converter is to transform the waveform of a power source
to that required by an electric motor in order to achieve the desired performance. Most
converters provide adjustable voltage, current, and/or frequency to control the speed,
torque, or power of the motor. Fig 1.9 shows the four basic types of converters.
1. Dc to Ac. The dc wave form of the source is converted to a single or multi-phase ac
wave form. The out put frequency, current, and /or voltage can be adjusted
according to the application. This type of converter is suitable for ac motors, such as
induction or synchronous motors.
2. DC to DC. This type is also known as a “chopper”. The constant input dc wave form is
converted to a dc wave form with variable magnitude. The typical application of this
converter is in dc motor drives.
3. AC to Dc. The ac wave form is converted to dc with adjustable magnitude. The input
could be a single or multi-phase source. This type of converter is used in dc drives.
4. Ac to Ac. The input wave form is typically ac with fixed magnitude and frequency.
The out pout is an ac with variable frequency, magnitude, or both. The conversion
can be done directly or through a dc link. The dc link system consists of two
converters connected in cascade; the first is an ac/dc, and the second is a dc/ ac.
Typical applications of the dc link converter are in ac motors drive.