Engineer On a Disk

Overview: This note set is part of a larger collection of materials available at [Link]
[Link]. You are welcome to use the material under the license provided at [Link]
[Link]/eod/global/[Link]. As always any feedback you can provide
will be welcomed.

Copyright © 1993-2001, Hugh Jack

email: jackh@[Link]
phone: (616) 771-6755
fax: (616) 336-7215

Copyright © 1993-2001, Hugh Jack

 page 1

1. TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................................................... 1
COMPUTER HARDWARE..................................................................................................... 3
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER HARDWARE ........................................................ 4
BASIC COMPONENTS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
AN EXAMPLE OF A COMPUTER IN MANUFACTURING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6
COMMERCIAL COMPUTERS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6
ARCHITECTURE AND BUSES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8
SOFTWARE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10
COMPUTER INTERFACING ............................................................................................... 12
DIGITAL SIGNALS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12
ANALOG SIGNALS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14
TIMING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21
DISPLAYS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23
COMPUTER INTERFACE BOARDS .................................................................................. 23
OVERVIEW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23
REGISTER LEVEL PROGRAMMING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23
EXAMPLES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23
COMPUTER CONTROL OF PROCESSES.......................................................................... 23
TEMPERTURE CONTROL - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 26
BATCH PROCESSING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 26
COMPUTER PROCESS MONITORING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 28
IMPLEMENTING A COMPUTER CONTROL SYSTEM - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 29
PRACTICE PROBLEMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 29
COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS..................................................................................... 30
COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS CATEGORIES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30
THE HISTORY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 31
SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 31
RS-422 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 34
RS-485 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 34
GPIB/IEEE-488 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 35
PARALLEL COMMUNICATIONS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 35
INTERFACING COMPUTERS FOR DATA TRANSFER .................................................. 36
SERIAL DATA TRANSFER - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 36
PARALLEL DATA TRANSFER - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 37
COMPUTER NETWORKING............................................................................................... 39
OSI NETWORK MODEL - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 43
OPEN SYSTEMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 48
NETWORKING HARDWARE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 49
MANUFACTURING AUTOMATION PROTOCOL (MAP)............................................... 52
OVERVIEW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 52
DETAILS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 52
DETAILS FOR TOP - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 56
MAP & TOP - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 56
MAP AND OTHER STANDARDS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 58
 page 2

AN EXAMPLE OF A MAP IMPLEMENTATION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 59

ETHERNET - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 62
DATA HIGHWAY+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 62
REMOTE PLC I/O - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 62
DEVICENET - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 62
OTHER STUFF - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 62
Network Facts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 62
DATABASE TECHNOLOGY............................................................................................... 64
DISTRIBUTED DATABASE SYSTEMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 64
 page 3

2. COMPUTER HARDWARE

This section focuses on elements of computer hardware that are important to a designer/engineer.
 page 4

3. A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER HARDWARE

3.1 BASIC COMPONENTS

• A computer has the basic properties,

- stores data
- processing data
- Inputs and outputs data

3.1.1 The components of a computer are,

• The Central Processing Unit (CPU),

- Control Unit - processes machine language instructions
- Arithmetic Logic Unit - performs mathematical operations faster by using specialized
hardware
- Cache - most new computers incorporate a local block of memory which is faster than
remote memory. A copy of remote memory is stored here so that the CPU may
work faster

• Memory,
- Random Access Memory (RAM) - memory used for temporary storage of programs and
data while the computer is on.
- Read Only Memory (ROM) - permanent software and data is stored in ROM, so that the
CPU may always access this. A common use for this is a ‘start-up’ routine, which
allows a computer to load the operating system off of a disk.
- ROM (traditional) - a chip which is made to store the program, this may not be changed.
- PROM - a chip which the program may be ‘burned’ into once.
- EPROM - memory is ‘burned’ in, but may be erased using ultraviolet light, and rewrit-
ten.
- EEPROM - similar to EPROM, but may be electrically erased.

• Input/Output (I/O),

- Main functions
• Load and Store programs and data,
- optical and magnetic disk drives
- magnetic tapes
- etc.

• Communicate with users

- CRT driver
- keyboard
 page 5

- mouse
- printer

• Communicate with process

- RS-232 data lines
-

3.1.2 Some I/O Devices

• Teleprinters or Teletypes
- this technology is becoming obsolete very fast, but may be useful when permanent
records of sessions
- inexpensive but slow
- can be operated at a distance by telephone
- allows user input by keyboard, and output on printed paper

• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

- the preferred display device
- very flexible and user friendly
- Inexpensive and fast
- Available in color, and varying sizes
- used for graphical and text output
- can be used with features such as touch screen input for harsh factory floor environments

• Card Readers and Card Punches

- outdated technology which allowed permanent recording of user entry on punched cards

• Printers
- Very popular method of permanent output
- Inexpensive and fast
- Can produce varying qualities of print
- color printers available
- letter size paper output most common

• Magnetic and Optical Disks and Tapes

- Inexpensive methods for transferring and storing data and programs
- storage capacity ranges from Kilobytes to Gigabytes, and capacities are increasing
quickly
- Some are read and write only
- costs are very low per Megabyte, and are still dropping
- Storage media is still somewhat fragile, and requires certain level of protection
- Older tapes and systems are oriented towards backup, but newer methods allow random
access.
 page 6

• mouse/button boxes/dial boxes/tablets/etc

- Various input peripherals make input easier
- very inexpensive
- most allow continuous input more suited to user
- allows more complex programs for user interaction
- the mouse has become the most popular input device
- most of these devices are not suited for the factory floor

• keyboard
- the time honored standard for input
- now very inexpensive, used by almost all computers
- can be used by all people, and is universally understood

• Special Application Boards

- becoming very inexpensive, and common
- A/D and D/A boards allow interfacing to applications which are monitored and/or con-
trolled by analog signals (these are very inexpensive). These are the main source of
interface to Sensors
- Video processing - allows video camera inputs to be read into memory, and the still pic-
tures may then be used for vision processing.

3.2 AN EXAMPLE OF A COMPUTER IN MANUFACTURING

• PLC’s are an example of a microcomputer used for industrial control

• The basic components in a PLC are,

- CPU
- RAM to store working variables, statuses, etc.
- ROM to store the operating system, and programs for interpreting ladder logic, program-
ming, etc.
- A/D, D/A - To input and output analog signals from the PLC, these I/O devices are used
- PIA (Parallel Interface Adapter) - used to drive parallel data lines for digital I/O. These
lines are used for detecting switch closures, driving relays for outputs, turning
indicator lights on and off, etc.
- ACIA (Asynchronous Communications Interface Adaptor) - used to drive RS-232 ports
(or other serial ports) for interface.

3.3 COMMERCIAL COMPUTERS

3.3.1 Mainframes
- Uses a large, and custom designed CPU, in big cabinets
 page 7

- Large, expensive, and require special housing

- Require specialized personnel to run and program
- Ideal for systems which support many user sharing data and services, such as an account-
ing system, or database
- Software may be expensive and hard to maintain
- Graphical user interfaces are limited
- Approximate cost > $100,000
- Common example are VAX mainframes

3.3.2 Super Computers

- Completely customized hardware, optimized for numerical (primarily vectored and
floating point) calculations
- Suited to huge numerical problems
- Often requires a front-end computer for job queueing, post-processing, and pre-process-
ing
- Tremendous cost > $1,000,000
- One example is the CRAY line of computers
- Often uses parallel and distributed processors, along with nitrogen (or similar) cooling
systems
- Very limited spectrum of users

3.3.3 Workstations
- Computers based on leading edge of microprocessor technology, using Enhanced graph-
ical display capabilities.
- These have displaced minicomputers, and created a market for users who have small
budgets but need reasonable computer power.
- Run faster than PC’s, had better price/performance ratio
- suited to networking, shared disks, and virtual memory
- Perform multiprocessing, thus suited to multiple users.
- Approximate cost $10,000 to $500,000
- Example are SUN, HP, and Silicon Graphics Workstations
- Can often find software intended for mainframes, and for Personal Computers which has
been modified to run on Workstations.
- Has the widest collection of public domain software available.

3.3.4 Personal Computers

- Smaller, single user machines based on microprocessors, with some graphics capabili-
ties.
- Very inexpensive from $500 to $10,000
- Some models are Apple Macintosh, IBM PC, etc
- Have very inexpensive software
 page 8

- Style range such as desk-top, lap-top, factory hardened.

- Have the widest range of commercial software and hardware available.
- Excellent for real time control, and simple user interfaces.

3.3.5 Dedicated Computers

- A number of computers have been built into machines.
- These computers are dedicated to one operation, such as an NC controller, a PLC, A
Plastic Injection Machine Controller, computer printer, etc.
- Very well debugged, and easy to use
- Requires some specialized user training.
- Cost is included in cost of equipment, and has effect of lowering costs over relay con-
trolled systems.
- May have simple interfaces for connections to other computers.

3.3.6 Single Board Computers

- A computer with little or no user interface hardware (often only 1 RS-232 port) is pro-
vided.
- The previous standard for control.
- Very inexpensive, from $50 to $1000
- Requires Assembly Language Programming
- May come with I/O for digital, analog, serial, or other communication task.
- Hard to implement and debug

3.4 ARCHITECTURE AND BUSES

• All of the components are tied together by computer buses.

• There are a number of separate buses in a computer,

• Address Bus,
- carries locations from the CPU, so that the proper RAM, ROM, and I/O locations
may be addressed
- This is often 16 bits, but newer computers have moved to 32 an 64 bits.
- The size of this bus limits immediately available memory.

• Data Bus,
- Carries data to and from the CPU and RAM, ROM, and I/O devices.
- The size of this bus makes the difference when specifying whether the CPU is 8
bit, 16 bit, 32 bit, or 64 bit.
- A wider data bus allows the CPU to run faster, but the hardware is more complex
 page 9

• Control Bus,
- Runs between all devices, and is used to direct reads, writes, data ready, address
ready, interrupts, and a number of other signals.

• The bus structure of a computer may be as below,

RAM ROM

Data Bus Expansion

Port

CPU Address Bus

Control Bus

RS-232
Serial
Data I/O

3.4.1 Clock Speed and the Buses

• Clock speed determined how often the CPU will process instructions

• Each instruction will use a variable number of clock cycles. For example a get from memory
will take longer than a binary or operation.

• Different CPU’s may use anywhere from 5 to a fraction of a clock cycle to process an instruction

• The bus speeds are limited by

- the physical layout of the board,
- memory speed
- CPU speed (which is related to clock speed)
 page 10

• Each instruction for the CPU is made up of a variable number of bytes. These are loaded from
memory during execution. In an 8 bit bus these are loaded 1 at a time. To speed this up wider
buses are used. For example a 64 bit bus could probably load up to 8 instructions at one. This
allows instructions to be stored and processed faster, and overcome the bus speed limitations
of computers.

• Other Computers use a trick called caching to speed the computer. This uses a shorter bus to
local memory which may be run at higher speeds, thus reducing the slower access to distant
memory.

3.5 SOFTWARE

• The software drives the computer to perform some useful function

• Two main types of programs,

• Interpreted,
- Program is stored as text (or equivalent), and each instruction is read, and inter-
preted as the program is running.
- Can be very slow
- Easier to write operating systems
- Suited to simple programming languages
- BASIC is a popular interpreted language.

• Compiled,
- Programs are converted, and stored in machine language before execution.
- Runs very fast
- Can allow very advanced debugging tools
- Programming can be complex
- Easier to protect copyrights
- FORTRAN and C are good examples of compiled languages.

• Programs may be divided into a number of various categories,

• Operating Systems
- Software which provides fundamental services for the computer, such as running
printers, user accounting, etc.
- Can be very large
- Required for any computer to operate
- Acts as a go between for the programs and the hardware
- Popular Operating systems are UNIX, MS-DOS, VMS, NOS.
 page 11

• Micro-code
- This is a program which the engineers write to control the CPU when it is ini-
tially designed.
- This is not seen by a user.
- Tells CPU how to deal with instructions

• Machine Language
- Written in the lowest level of language available to the user
- These programs are very fast and efficient.
- These programs are difficult to write.

• Graphical User Interface,

- A program which makes extensive use of graphical abilities to interact with the
user.
- Requires a powerful computer
- Can be slow, and use up to 90% of CPU time
- Makes programs very easy to use by novices
- Requires greatly increased development time for software
- Good examples of these programs are Lotus 1-2-3, Autocad, Microsoft Win-
dows, WordPerfect, SDRC Ideas, etc.

• Utility (for want of a better word),

- Simple programs for individual tasks such as file format conversion.
- small in size, and easy to use

• Scientific, Mathematical, etc.

- Use large amounts of CPU time for mathematical calculations
- Very problem specific
- Requires specialized knowledge
- Very expensive
- Requires powerful computer
• Scripts, Batch Files, etc.
- Often interpreted files which instruct the operating system in task such as install-
ing software, running nightly backups, etc.
- Written in ASCII with simple English like commands
- Example of these are ‘[Link]’ files in MS-DOS, and ‘.login’ files in UNIX.

• etc.
 page 12

4. COMPUTER INTERFACING

• Interfacing for Acquisition of Signals from Sensors and Generation of Signals for Actuators

• Used by Computers, PLC’s, PID Controllers, etc.

• Computers are designed to handle both input and output (I/O) data

• Two main types of data I/O for computers

• Analog
• Digital

Voltage
analog

digital

4.1 DIGITAL SIGNALS

• read by the computer, and interpreted as ON or OFF.

• Examples of Inputs
- contact switches
- proximity switches
- pulse counters
- pulse generators
- optical sensors

• Examples of Outputs,
- indicator lights
- solid state relays (e.g. for power to motor)
 page 13

• Within this signal type there are two categories of signal,

- Discrete binary - such as a switch which will be thrown once
- Pulse data - a continuous stream of pulses. The frequency, period, or duty cycle will con-
trol the signal value. A pulse from a tachometer for every revolution will indicate
the motor speed.

• The electrical connections for these signals quite often require some additional circuitry. This
includes,
latches - used to capture fast changing values (74163?)
schmitt triggers - pull a signal that may not be 0 or 5V to a reasonable logic level. It also
uses a dead zone to reduce random switching. (7414?)
flip flops - we can toggle these (7421?)
inverters - gives the signal strength an buffers (7404?)
opto-isolators - eliminates electrical connections for circuit safety. These are basically an
LED and phototransistor in one package.
triacs - allows DC signals to switch AC
relays - allows electrical switching that is electrically isolated with mechanical devices.
line drivers - converts low current signals to higher current (7485?)
op-amps - allow high impedance buffering between inputs and outputs. (741)
RC network - a resistor capacitor pair can be used to pass only high/low frequency signals,
and filter out noise/DC.
pull-up resistors - can keep inputs/outputs from floating.

• Consider the example below,

 page 14

Design some circuitry for a fuel injection computer control unit that is to read pulses
from a tachometer mounted on an engine, and then control fuel injection, and spark
timing. The setpoint is determined by the gas pedal.

4.2 ANALOG SIGNALS

• A Continuous signal is sampled by the computer

• The computer uses approximation techniques to estimate the analog value during the sampling
window.

• An example of an A/D, D/A control of a process is shown below

 page 15

Analog
to Digital Amp
Converter

CPU Water
Running Supply
Control
Program

Analog
to Digital Amp
Converter Water Tank

pressure
transducer

• Multiplexers are used when a number of signals are to be input to a single A/D converter. This
allows each of a number of channels to be sampled, one at a time

• Signal conditioners are often to amplify, or filter signals coming from transducers, before they
are read by the A/D converter.

• Output drivers and amplifiers are often required to drive output devices when using D/A

• Sampling problems occur with A/D conversion. Because readings are taken periodically (not
continually), the Nyquist criterion specifies that sampling frequencies should be twice the fre-
quency of the signal being measured, otherwise aliasing will occur.

• Since the sampling window for a signal is short, noise will have added effect on the signal read.
For example, a momentary voltage spike might result in a higher than normal reading.

• When an analog value is converted to or from digital values, a quantization error is involved.
The digital numbering scheme means that for an 8 bit A/D converter, there is a resolution of
256 values between maximum and minimum. This means that there is a round off error of
approximately 0.4%.
 page 16

Voltage is sampled during these time periods

voltage

time

(Sampling Frequency)-1 Sampling time

4.2.1 Analog to Digital Conversion

• When there are analog values outside a computer, and we plan to read these to digital values,
there are a variety of factors to consider,
- when the sample is requested, a short period of time passes before the final sample value
is obtained.
- the sample value is ‘frozen’ after a sample interval.
- after the sample is taken, the system may change
- sample values can be very sensitive to noise
- the continuous values of the signal loose some accuracy when conversion to a digital
number

• Consider the conversion process pictured below,

 page 17

V(t)
V max

V2

V1

V min

t
τ
t1 t2
where,
V ( t ) = the actual voltage over time
τ = sample interval for A/D converter
t = time
t 1, t 2 = time at start,end of sample
V 1, V2 = voltage at start, end of sample
V min, V max = input voltage range of A/D converter
N = number of bits in the A/D converter

• Once this signal is processes through a typical A/D converter we get the following relations
(these may vary slightly for different types of A/D converters).
 page 18

N
R = 2
V 2 – V min 
V D = INT  ----------------------------
- R – 0.5
V –V 
max min

V max – V min
V ERROR =  ----------------------------
-
 2R 

where,
R = resolution of A/D converter
V D = the integer value of the voltage
V ERROR = the maximum quantization error

• In most applications a sample is taken at regular intervals, with a period of ‘T’ seconds.

• In practice the sample interval is kept as small as possible. (i.e., tau << T)

• If we are sampling a periodic signal that changes near or faster that the sampling rate, there is a
chance that we will get a signal that appears chaotic, or seems to be a lower frequency. This
phenomenon is known as aliasing.

• Quite often an A/D converter will multiplex between various inputs. As it switches the voltage
will be sampled by a ‘sample and hold circuit’. This will then be converted to a digital value.
The sample and hold circuits can be used before the multiplexer to collect data values at the
same instant in time.

[Link] - Flash A/D Converter

• On type of A/D converter is the flash converter shown below,

 page 19

Vref
Vin
R/2

Decimal to binary
R converter
binary out
R

R/2

• These converters are very fast, but they are hard to build for high resolutions.

• The conversion rates for these devices are limited by inherent capacitance, and transistor switch-
ing times.

4.2.2 Digital to Analog Conversion

• After we have used a controller equation to estimate a value to put into our process, we must
convert this from a digital value in the computers memory, to a physical voltage.

• This voltage is typically limited to 20mA in most computer board, and drawing near this current
 page 20

reduces accuracy and life of the board.

• A simple circuit is shown below for a simple digital to analog converter.

5KΩ

10KΩ V– V ss
MSB bit 3 -

V +
20KΩ + +
bit 2
0
Computer Vo
40KΩ
bit 1
-

80KΩ
LSB bit 0

First we write the obvious,

V + = 0 = V–

Next, sum the currents into the inverting input as a function of the output voltage and the
input voltages from the computer,
Vb3 V b2 Vb1 V b0 Vo
--------------
- + --------------
- + --------------
- + --------------
- = -----------
-
10KΩ 20KΩ 40KΩ 80KΩ 5KΩ
∴V o = 0.5V b3 + 0.25V b2 + 0.125V b1 + 0.0625Vb 0

Consider an example where the binary output is 1110, with 5V for on,
∴V o = 0.5 ( 5V ) + 0.25 ( 5V ) + 0.125 ( 5V ) + 0.625 ( 0V ) = 4.375V

• The calculations for the A/D converter resolution and accuracy still apply.

• Consider the example below,

 page 21

We need to select a digital to analog converter for an application. The output will vary
from -5V to 10V DC, and we need to be able to specify the voltage to within 50mV.
What resolution will be required? How many bits will this D/A converter need?
What will the accuracy be?

4.3 TIMING

• Timing is significant in computer controlled processes. If we think of a simple example, a fixed

sample period means that the computer program must arrange to read the analog value at a
consistent time.

• Various schemes for timing include,

- interrupts - fairly efficient, but requires some timing hardware inside
• by computer clock - a regular interrupt for the operating system
• programmable timer - a timer that is told to call an interrupt after some time
• by external trigger - asynchronous timing, potentially unstable
• by external clock - an external synchronous clock
- delay loops - consumes a large number of clock cycles
• wait for clock value - reasonable time, but prone to software problems
• count cycles - quite stable, but the computer cannot do anything else
- whenever possible - this ‘non-real-time’ approach can become unstable
- hardware
 page 22

• trigger and scan - a special input board can be set to read one or more values
when timing or triggering conditions met

• Values are simply read from/written to locations in memory for both analog and digital values.
When the process takes more than a single CPU cycle there will be a flag set to indicate when
the operation is done. One example is reading analog values. This process may take hundreds
of CPU cycles. We have three options,
1. continually check the ‘done’ flag/bit in memory
2. have the A/D converter trigger an interrupt when done
3. have the program perform other tasks for a period of time longer than the longest scan
time.

• There are three fundamental properties of interrupts used for timing,

Hardware/Software
Hardware - These are actual pins on the outside of the CPU. When a change occurs
the CPU will save its current status, and go to a subroutine. When done the sys-
tem status is restored, and the computer programs resumes where it was inter-
rupted. The number of hardware interrupts is often severely limited, but extra
hardware can be added to expand the hardware interrupts. A computer keyboard
and mouse typically use hardware interrupts.
Software - These are similar to hardware interrupts, except they are started by a
call in software. These are plentiful, and used in all aspects of modern operating
systems. MS-Dos makes extensive use of these software interrupts.
Disabling
Maskable - These interrupts can be turned off by software. When running a critical
process we may not want an interrupt to occur (and stop our program tempo-
rarily).
Non-Maskable - these interrupts cannot be disabled and will always cause the pro-
cessor to stop.
Priority
We can set priorities for interrupts. If multiple interrupts occur at the same time the
highest priority interrupt will be executed first. This allows critical processes to
be addressed first.

4.3.1 Interrupts

4.3.2 Clocks and Timers

 page 23

4.3.3 Watch Dog Timers

4.3.4 Polling

4.3.5 DMA

4.4 DISPLAYS

5. COMPUTER INTERFACE BOARDS

5.1 OVERVIEW

5.1.1 Types

5.2 REGISTER LEVEL PROGRAMMING

5.3 EXAMPLES

6. COMPUTER CONTROL OF PROCESSES

• Functions of a Process I/O Interface,

 page 24

- Control the scanning and processing of all the inputs and outputs between the process
and the computer.
- Provide conversions of signal levels, compensation for sensor range, and linearization of
signals.
- Provide signal and sensor validity checks.
- Provide signal pre-processing and filtering.
- Provide measurements to the various other programming packages which have been con-
verted to engineering units or interpreted in other ways.
- Provide alarm limit checks input-by-input.
• Some features found in computer control systems,
- timer initiated events - such as clock based sampling periods for a control loop
- Process initiated interrupts - Prioritized interrupt signals can be used to alert computers
to standard notifications, or to initiate an emergency sequence when a critical fail-
ure has occurred.
- Control software - directs the operating points for the control system
- System and program initiated events - these are for system house keeping, and for com-
munication to other computer systems in a network.
- Operator initiated events - requests for reports, changing of operating parameters, check-
ing quality, etc.

• Interrupts
• Each computer has the ability to process interrupts.
• These interrupts can stop the microprocessor, and make it execute other subroutines.
• If no interrupts are received, the computer will always run the same program
• When interrupts are received, they are processed as urgent, or non-urgent.
• When an interrupt is processed, a small subroutine is run, and then execution returns to
the original point in the interrupted program.
• If interrupts are not used, then the computer must continuously scan all of its inputs to
see if any are critical. But this is not practical for real time processing.

• Linear Computer Controllers,

• Linear control theory can be converted into computer programs.
• Canonical form (Laplace/frequency domain) control rules can be converted into a form
suitable for computers by using ‘z-transforms’
• State space control laws can be converted into computer code using matrix techniques,
along with numerical integration.
• For example the PID control law has been used in many computer control programs to
date.
 page 25

• The figure below depicts a compute controlled process

Control Computer

Task Level Digital D/A Process

Control PID & Driver
Program Controller

Amp
& A/D

• Advanced topics include,

- Feed forward controllers
- Adaptive controllers
- Optimal controllers
- Non-linear control systems
- Multi-input/Multi-output control systems
 page 26

• An example of Computer-process interface

Analog-to-
digital
converter

Contact
input
interface

Pulse
counter Manufacturing
Digital
Computer process
and
Digital-to- equipment
analog
converter

Contact
output
interface

Pulse
generator

Data
processing
peripherals

6.1 TEMPERTURE CONTROL

6.2 BATCH PROCESSING

• The nature of Batch processes,

- Batch processes deal with discrete quantities of raw materials or products.
- batch processes allow the tracking of these discrete quantities of materials or products
- batch processes allow more than one type of product to be processed simultaneously, as
long as the products are separated by the equipment layout.
 page 27

- Batch processes entail movement of discrete product from processing area to processing
area
- Batch processes have recipes (or processing instructions) associated with each load of
raw material to be processed into product.
- Batch processes have more complex logic associated with processing than is found in
continuous processes
- Batch processes often include normal steps that can fail, and thus also include special
steps to be taken in the event of a failure.

• The nature of steps in a batch process,

- Each step can be simple or complex in nature, consisting of one or more operations
- Generally, once a step is started it must be completed to be successful.
- It is not uncommon to require some operator approval before leaving one step and start-
ing the next.
- There is frequently provision for non-normal exits to be taken because of operator inter-
vention, equipment failure or the detection of hazardous conditions.
- Depending on the recipe for the product being processed, a step may be bypassed for
some products.
- The processing operations for each step are generally under recipe control, but may be
modified by operator override action.
• A typical process step
Operator or
Operator or Operator Recipe Hold at
Recipe Bypass Abort Completion
Command Command Command

Yes

No Perform Step Hold

Previous Bypass Step at step No Next
Step Operation completion Step

Yes
Fault Detected
or Operator Abort

Fault Exit to
pre-defined step

• Functions of all Process Control Systems

 page 28

- There must be an I/O interface between the processes and the control. The I/O interface
passes all the information moving between the two parts of the total system.
- The control system must provide continuous control functions to regulate appropriate
portions of the process.
- The control system must provide sequential control functions. A properly designed batch
control system should make it easy to describe the sequence of operations and the
checks that must take place.
- The control system must provide displays and interfaces which the operator can use to
monitor and direct process activity.

• Additional functions found only in Digital control systems

- An advanced control system should allow the process to handle a range of products, and
not just a single product. The use of recipes is a concise and convenient method to
describe the process steps for each product.
- An advanced control system should provide a multiprogramming environment in which
each specific task can be programmed in a simple stand-alone fashion. The system
should also allow more than one unit in the plant to be controlled at the same time.
- An advanced control system should provide displays which are oriented toward the total
process rather than toward individual parameters.
- An advanced control system should automatically detect and correct process upsets and
equipment failures.
- An advanced control system should provide for device operations which reduce the com-
plexity of the logic that the user must deal with. There are many mundane and
repeated operations and error checking functions which must be done in manipu-
lating valves, pumps, motors, fans, and so on which can best be handled in device
packages which standardize such operations.

6.3 COMPUTER PROCESS MONITORING

• Process Data,
• can ensure dangerous situations are avoided
• variables such as temperature, pressures, forces, concentrations of chemicals, etc.
• Can help track process progress, and allow corrections

• Equipment Data,
• Data related to equipment
• Can avoid dangerous and costly operating conditions

• Product Data,
• Allows on line monitoring of process output,
• variables can be, quality, yield, production rate, etc.
 page 29

6.4 IMPLEMENTING A COMPUTER CONTROL SYSTEM

• The steps below are typically essential for replacing an existing/new control system with a com-
puter control system:
1. do an analysis of the existing/similar system.
2. clearly list control objectives
3. list outputs required to meet objectives
4. list inputs required to meet objectives
5. determine logical relationships between the inputs and outputs
6. write programs for relationships found in last step
7. document all aspects of the system

6.4.1 SCADA

• SCADA (System Control And Data Acquisition) systems are based around a central computer.

• The central computer communicates with remote computers/PLCs/sensors to issue control com-
mands and collect data.

6.5 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. A video voltage signal is to be digitized by an A/D converter. The maximum voltage range is
15V. The A/D converter has a 6-bit capacity. Determine the number of quantizing levels the
quantization level spacing, and the quantization error.
 page 30

7. COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS

• We need to be able to connect computers to transfer information.

7.1 COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS CATEGORIES

• Basic Categories
• Interface to Sensors and Actuators
- Uses readings from sensors to control devices in the environment
- very simple protocols, but often requires specialized hardware and software.
• Interface to computers
- uses machine to machine connection for direct communication
- can appear to be like a local area network
- low speeds (eg. 300 baud, 1.2, 2.4 9.2 Kbaud)
• Local Area Computer Networks
- measured in distances from meters to kilometers
- speed measured in Megabits/sec
- medium includes, wire, fibre-optics, radio frequency
- commonly available in all forms
- inexpensive
• Wide Area Computer Networks
- from city wide, to global
- speed measured in Kilobytes/second
- medium includes, wire, fibre optics, satellite, microwave
- access is costly (some mix of initial and variable costs), and geared to large cor-
porations, or special applications.

• Classification of Interconnected processors (by Physical Size)

Table 1:

Inter-processor Dis- Processors Located in Example

tance Same
0.1 m Circuit Board Data flow machine
1m System Multi-
processor
10 m Room Local
network
100 m Building
1 km Campus
 page 31

Table 1:

Inter-processor Dis- Processors Located in Example

tance Same
10 km City Long haul network
100 km Country
1000 km Continent Inter-
connection of long haul
10000 km Planet networks

7.2 THE HISTORY

• Late 50’s
- Bell introduces data communication networks
- Texaco uses remote monitoring and control for automating polymerization plant.
• Early 60’s
- World wide use of data phone system to link airports for maintenance
- Many uses of terminals for inputting and displaying data.
• Mid 60’s
- Uses of computer for large scale test monitoring
- NC part programming being done remotely on time sharing mainframes.
• 70’s
- Advent of Mini computers made it possible for companies to have multiple com-
puters which had to communicate.
• 80’s
- Microprocessor drops cost of computers dramatically, and automated machines
become very common
- Personal computers, and automated machinery start a trend to network small
computers networked with large computers
-

7.3 SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS

• Serial communication channels send data one bit at a time.

• These techniques are often slower, but are essential when transmitting using radio waves, tele-
phone lines, or similar media.

• Serial lines have become one of the most common methods for transmitting data to instruments,
 page 32

and most personal computers now have two serial ports.

• Serial data can be transmitted two ways,

synchronous - all of the data bits are timed between sender and receiver.
asynchronous - the data bits arrive unannounced, without any coordination between
sender and receiver. (this is the most common)
RS-232/RS-232C - the most common standard using voltage levels
RS-422 - a current loop standard well suited to noisy conditions
RS-485 -

• A typical data byte looks like the one below. The voltage/current on the line is turned on/off. The
width of the bits determines the possible bits per second (bps). The value shown before is used
to transmit a single byte.

on

off

before start data parity stop after

• The bits shown correspond to,

before - this is a period where no bit is being sent and the line is high
start - a single bit to help get the systems synchronized
data - this byte could be 7 or 8 bits, but is almost always 8 now. The value shown here is
01001000 binary.
parity - this lets us check to see if the byte was sent properly. The most common choices
here are no parity bit (just drop it out), or even parity, or odd parity. In this case
there are two bits set. If we are using even parity the bit would be set. If we are
using odd parity the bit would be off
stop - the stop bits allow form a natural pause at the end of the data.
after - a period of time where the line is high before the next byte.

7.3.1 RS-232

• This standard is based on a high being +3 to +15V, and an off being -3 to -15V (+/-12V is com-
monly used).

• The typical connection scheme is shown below. notice that the lines are crossed between con-
nectors. Also note that in some cases the dsr/dtr lines are not used.
 page 33

Computer Computer
A com com B
txd txd
rxd rxd
dsr dsr
dtr dtr

• The line names are,

TXD/RXD - (transmit data, receive data) these lines pass data one way from sender to
receiver.
DSR/DTR - (data set ready, data terminal ready) these handshaking lines indicate when
the remote machine is ready to receive data.
COM - a common ground to keep things from blowing up, etc.

• A simpler wire is also used for some devices (in low noise situations) called a null modem cable.
In this cable only the data and common lines are used.

Computer Computer
A com com B
txd txd
rxd rxd
dsr dsr
dtr dtr

• There are typically two connectors used for these devices. (Note: the connector have very fine
numbers on them)
 page 34

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
DB-25
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 DB-9

• The main pin assignments for the DB-25 are,

2 - TXD
3 - RXD
6 - DSR
7 - COM
20 - DTR

• The main pin assignments for the DB-25 are,

2 - TXD
3 - RXD
- COM
- DSR
- DTR

7.4 RS-422

7.5 RS-485
 page 35

7.6 GPIB/IEEE-488

7.7 PARALLEL COMMUNICATIONS

• In parallel data schemes, all of the data bits are sent at the same time.

• This generally allows a higher rate of data transfer, but only shorter distances, and with a higher
number of conductors in the cable.
 page 36

8. INTERFACING COMPUTERS FOR DATA TRANSFER

8.1 SERIAL DATA TRANSFER

• A single communication line links two computers, and allows communications one bit at a time.

• Typically strings are passed to and from a terminal, modem, mouse, etc.

• Each string is broken up and each byte is sent one at a time.

• Each byte is sent one bit at a time with the various framing options,
- 1 or 2 stop bits
- Even, Odd, or No parity bit
- 7 or 8 data bits
- 1 start bit

data bits
(7 or 8 bits high or low) stop bits
(1 or 2)
parity bit
(a simple check
start bit (low) for data bits)
voltage
(on data line)

tim

1 byte with overhead

(a total of 10 or 11 bits)

• Advantages,
- Very inexpensive
- Easy to hook up
- A popular communication port found on almost all computer hardware, regardless of
age.
 page 37

- Can be robust in an industrial environment

- Standards are very clearly defined
- can use common phone lines

• Disadvantages,
- Very slow

• Characteristics,
• Speeds of 110, 150, 300, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 12000, 19200 baud (bits per sec-
ond)
• Can use as few as three wires for connection, or more as advanced handshaking lines are
required.
• Specialized chips, and modems are commercially available for using this interface

• Popular standards are RS (Recommended Standard)-XXX published by the Electronics Indus-

tries Association
- RS-232 - available on almost all computers
- RS-422 - a popular industrial standard which can be noise resistant then RS-232
- RS-423
- RS-449

8.2 PARALLEL DATA TRANSFER

• Instead of sending the bits in a byte one at a time, parallel buses send the bits in parallel, so that
the entire byte arrives at once.

• Basic parallel interfaces connect only two computers (see next section for other case)

• Advantages,
- Can be very fast, and reliable
- Easy to create computer hardware to support
- Chips exist for easy implementation of this scheme
- The parallel port may be used for alternate form of digital I/O

• Disadvantages,
- Cabling can be more expensive
- Standards are not as wide spread as serial communications
- parallel ports are not universally available on computers and peripherals

• These interfaces have been popular for,

- printer, and disk interfaces because of their higher speeds, and low costs
- as a basic digital Input/Output source to drive indicator lights, keyboards, displays, etc.
 page 38

8.2.1 GPIB Bus (IEEE-488)

• A Parallel bus that has been enhanced to support a number of computers connected by the same
cable.

• A Brief History,
• In the early 70’s there was a movement towards standard serial interfaces, but no clear
development of a parallel interface standard. As a result Hewlett Packard (HP) set
out to develop the GPIB (General Purpose Interface Bus).
• The HP standard was accepted by both the IEEE and ANSI as standards in 1975.
• By the early 80’s the standard was available in small personal computers (e.g. Commo-
dore Pet Computers).
• Today many products, and chips are available for development and use of the standard.

• Advantages,
- Low costs
- Widely available for test instruments
- Maximum speeds between 500 Khz and 1 MHz
- Can replace up to 16 individual serial interfaces with a single interface on the main com-
puter

• Disadvantages,
- Not necessarily real time,
- Can be difficult for beginners to learn the bus architecture, but users are often isolated
from this.
- This is often used as a high performance interface on specialized equipment, but is not
available on commercial applications anymore.

• Some details,
- Each device on a GPIB bus has its own address number.
-A talker-listener protocol is used to resolve bus usage
- The devices on the bus can be instructed to identify themselves.
 page 39

9. COMPUTER NETWORKING

• A Network is a way of connecting different computers to allow data and message passing, and
resource sharing.

• Early communication techniques included telegraphs (with morris code), telephones and tele-
types.

• Advantages
- allows shared computers and peripherals
- provides communication and cooperation tools for people and computers
- increases reliability by having alternate computers available
- decreases isolation of many computers

• Applications,
- allows remote access to databases and libraries
- electronic mail
- distributed computational facilities
- remote control of applications

• The relationship between various network types is shown below

Example LAN Topologies

Bus or Ring Star

...

- Shared Media
- Distributed Control
- No media sharing
- Central Control
 page 40

• The Star Network topology uses many connections to a central server

- Central control

- Dedicated communication channels

- Single point of failure

- Often compatible with telephone

wiring (voice/data integration)

- Typical minicomputer and mainframe

environments

• When all computers are connected to the same network cable, there are a number of structures
which may be used. The bus topology below is simpler, and the tree topology is more flexible
 page 41

and versatile. This approach uses a single cable which is easy to add to

...
Bus Topology

...
Tree Topology

R Repeater

• The ring topology below shows a closed loop of cable which can be simple to implement, but
 page 42

limited in capabilities

- Distributed control

- Entire communication capacity

capacity for any station

- Vulnerable to loss of shared

communication facilities

- Primary vendors: IBM & Proteon

• An enhanced ring topology is pictured below

Characteristics
HOST
N o. 3 H O ST
- Control token passed from
N o. 2
node to node

- Only node with token can transmit

- Token replaced on ring at the end

start of
S message
of message
HO ST
- Permits variable size messages N o. 4
HOST
- Only one message on the ring E N o. 1
at a time
end of
message
direction of message flow
 page 43

• The figure below shows two ring networks, with a few possible devices hooked to them.

BRIDGE

File
Server

Wiring
Concentrators

Gateway

Terminal
Controller

Wide-Area
Links

9.1 OSI NETWORK MODEL

• Advantages
- Computers not necessarily from the same manufacturer
- Allow computers to communicate information.
- Sharing of equipment such as printers, disks, etc.
- Programs can run on multiple machines improving performance
- Access to machines with better/different resources.
 page 44

• Several types: Ring, Star, Linear, Point-to-Point

• Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN)

9.1.1 Why Use A Network?

• Medium for Communication:

- Satellite link
- Phone line
- High Speed (Multiplexed) phone lines
- Coax Cable
- Fibre Optical Cable
- Twisted pair cable
- (Theoretically anything can be used)

• General OSI Diagram contains seven layers

 page 45

Layer Layer Name Unit of Transmission

7 Application Message Application

6 Presentation Message Presentation

5 Session Message Session

4 Transport Message Transport

3 Network Packet Network

2 Data Link Frame Data Link

Layer Protocol
1 Physical Bit Physical

Interconnecting Medium
A Layer Interface

[Link] - Physical Layer

• Physical layer is concerned with transmission of raw bits over a physical circuit.

• Deals with voltages, timing, connections, etc.

• Responsible for bit synchronization and the identification of a signal element as either a 0 or a 1.

• Protocols: RS-232, RS-449, CCITT X.25 and X.21, IEEE 802

 page 46

[Link] - Data Link Layer

• Data link layer breaks input data into “data frames” and processes acknowledgments.

• Object is to provide a error-free transmission line to the network layer.

• Responsible for the reliable delivery of information over a point-to-point or multipoint link.

• Supervises interchange of both link control data and user information

• Protocols: ANSI X3.28, HDLC, X.25, ISDN, IEEE 802

[Link] - Network Layer

• Network layer determines the interface between the computer and the intermediate system, how
packets are routed.

• Chooses a route from the available data links that form the network.

• Object is to take messages, convert them to packets and send them towards the destination.

• Protocols: CCITT X.25, X.21, IP, CCITT Q.931, ISO 8473

[Link] - Transport Layer

• Transport layer takes data from the session layer, splits it up if necessary, and passes this to the
network layer.

• Ensures that pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.

• Isolates the user from any concern for the actual movement of the information.

• Protocols: TCP, ISO 8073

[Link] - Session Layer

• Session layer defines a connection between users (presentation layer processes).

 page 47

• Includes specification of the remote machine, authorization, options for the communication, and
recovering from errors in broken transport connections.

• The set-up of communications is called binding.

• Protocols: ISO 8327, CCITT X.225, T.62, ECMA 75, NFS, RPC.

[Link] - Presentation Layer

• Ensures compatible syntax among the communicating processes by adjusting data structures,
formats, and codes.

• Presentation layer is generally represented by library routines which the user accesses to per-
form network operations.

• This layer can also perform transformations such as compression and encryption.

• Protocols: DIS 8823, 8824, 8825, CCITT X.409, T.61

[Link] - Application Layer

• Application layer is written by the user, or is a program that performs some function for the user.

• Provides a window by which the user gains access to the communication services provided by
the architecture.

• Protocols: DIS 8571, 8832, 9040

 page 48

9.2 OPEN SYSTEMS

Control
Services Primitives
(N+1) th Layer

N th Layer

System/Vendor X System/Vendor Y
Functional Peer Protocol Functional
Entity Entity

(N-1) th Layer
Control Services
Primitives

• Open Systems Principles

• Entity is a group of functions for a particular task. Accept input, and produce output.
• Layer is a group of functions designed to provide a set of services related to the mission
of that layer
• Entities provide a set of services to the layer above. In doing this they use the services of
the underlying layers.
• Each layer isolates the layer above from the details of the underlying layers, and thus a
lower layers characteristics can change without affecting the rest of the system.
• Primitives control the layer’s services and data flow. Primitives fall into 4 groups:
Request, Indicate, Response, and Confirm

• We can do a simple comparison of networking models

 page 49

ISO Internet SNA DECNET

Application User Application

Application
Presentation Telnet, Ftp NAU services

Data flow control

Session (None) (None)
Transmission control
Host-Host
Transport Network services
Source to destination IMP
Path Control
Network Transport

IMP-IMP
Data Link Data link control Data link control

Physical Physical Physical Physical

9.3 NETWORKING HARDWARE

• A number of basic components are required for networks

• Computer (or dedicated computing equipment)

- An obvious must. Without the computer there is no need for networking
- Approximate cost $500 to $1,000,000

• Network Interface Hardware

- Some computers come with built in network interfaces, If these are for the wrong net-
work types, or there is no network interface, a networking interface must be pur-
chased.
- examples are ethernet, latticenet, fibre, etc.
- Approximate Cost $200.00 and up

• The Media,
 page 50

- This is the cabling which will connect the computers

- 10base2 (thin wire) is thin shielded coaxial cable with BNC connectors
- 10baseF (fiber optic) is costly, but signal transmission and noise properties are very
good.
- 10baseT (twisted pair) is the most popular. It is a pair of twisted copper wires terminated
with an RJ-45 connector.
- Approximate cost for thick net $40 + $5/station, for thin net $10 + $1/station
- 10base2

• Transceiver
- A device which is sometimes included between the network media, and the network
interface hardware.
- Allows easy changes to media type.
- Not used for thin cable computer interfaces.
- Approximate costs $100 to $200

• Hub/Concentrator
- Connects separate wires and will route local traffic to local wires and remote through
external connections.
- approximate cost $50/wire

• Bridges, (Data link layer)

- Used when hooking one network type to another, or isolating one part of a network from
another.
- A bridge can be used for hooking an ethernet cable to an optical backbone cable.
- Has one input, one output, and will only handle sorting by network address (like ethernet
address of machine).
- Approximate cost $2,000 to $5,000
- Same functionality as router.

• Routers, (Network Layer)

- When there are too many networks on the same network, a router can be used to isolate
small loops of the network from traffic which does not involve it.
- More intelligent than a bridge, multiple inputs/outputs.
- Sorts Network packets by IP address.
- Approximate cost $5,000 to $10,000.

• Repeaters, (Physical Layer)

- If network cables are too long, the repeaters will boost the signal strength so that it may
complete it’s journey.
- Also allows media to be changed

• Networking Software / Networking Management Software

- Handles networking interface control for,
- receiving / sending data or files
- electronic mail tools
 page 51

- messaging systems
- etc
- Examples of this are NFS (Network File Server), SNMP (Simple Network Management
Protocol)
- Approximate costs >$1,000, unless provided with system

• Gateways (Application, Presentation, Session and Transport layers)

• An example of a micro computer with a networked interface

Network
Tap

RAM

IO-system PROM

80586 CPU

LAN
Token Bus Handler
Cable
(Dual Gate Array)
 page 52

10. MANUFACTURING AUTOMATION PROTOCOL

(MAP)

10.1 OVERVIEW

• Specifically developed for computer communications in a factory environment

• 1980 GM decides to begin development of a networking protocol for the high data rates
expected, while improving noise immunity. This scheme was expected to provide a common
standard for all equipment to simplify integration.

• Problems,
• Difficulties have arisen getting Countries andVendors to agree on specific standards
• Standards are so broad that they have become very complex and hard to develop hard-
ware and software for, thus driving up the costs
• Versions 2.1 and 2.2 left the application layer under-defined, but a new effort in version
3.0 to define the application layer. This has lead to even higher levels of disagree-
ment.
• The MAP Protocol is not clearly defined in a single document

• In 1985 GM realized that it couldn’t meet its needs for CIM. Only 15% of the 40,000 program-
mable devices could communicate.

• No single vendor could meet all the needs, and multiple vendors caused communication incom-
patibilities.

10.2 DETAILS

10.2.1 Physical Alternatives (Layer 1 OSI Model),

• Networks,
• Broadband
- many simultaneous communications on same wire at same time, using varied fre-
quencies for transmit channels and receive channels.
- uses a head end remodulator to retransmit the signal
- each station needs MAP hardware
- for very large factories
- uses a 1 inch (2.5 cm) thick cable
- maximum 10 Megabits/sec. per channel
 page 53

• Carrierband
- less expensive
- uses smaller cables
- rate of 5 to 10 Megabits second (single channel)

• Other Equipment,

• Bridge
- allows connections between different network types (such as a connection
between Broadband and Carrierband)

10.2.2 Data Link Layer (Layer 2 OSI Model),

• Real time response was required, so token passing is used.

• Token passing allows a ‘token’ to be passed between computers, whichever computer has the
token is given control of the network.

• The token is continually passed to each machine on a network.

• If a token passing ring is broken, the computers will wait, and eventually each half of the broken
ring will have tokens being passed.

• Extensive algorithms have been developed for control of token passing, and resolution of con-
flicts.

• Preferred Standards.

• Preferred LAN is IEEE 802.4 token-passing bus.

• Uses standard ISO network, transport, session, and presentation layers.

10.2.3 Application Layer:

• Some specifics,
- FTAM (File Transfer Access Method) for file transfer
- MMS (Manufacturing Message System) for content of messages bound for robotic
equipment
- ACSE (association Control for Service Elements) for program to program communica-
tion.
- Set of protocols should make communication between heterogeneous devices, not only
 page 54

in moving data around, but also in communication the meaning of that data.
- MAP has been delayed because of changes to the standard between 2.1 (1985) and 3.0
(1988)
- A version of MAP, EPA (Enhanced Performance Architecture) has been developed, and
is supported by the process control industry, and CNMA (Communication Net-
works for Manufacturing Applications)
- CNMA has lobbied for the inclusion of Ethernet (IEE 802.3) as an alternative for the
standard.

• MAP Layers Compared with the ISO/OSI Reference Model

 page 55

ISO/OSI
Reference
MAP Version 3.0
Model

Directory Services
Application Network Management
MMS FTAM ACSE

Presentation Presentation

Session Session

Transport Transport Class 4

CLNS
Network
ES-IS

IEEE 802.2
Data Link
IEEE 802.4 10M-byte
Broadband
or
Physical
5M-byte Carrier Band

Notes:
ACSE Association control service element
CLNS Connectionless network service
ES End system
FTAM File transfer and access method
IS Intermediate system
MMS Manufacturing message specification
 page 56

10.3 DETAILS FOR TOP

• TOP (Technical and Office Protocols) is designed for the office environment.

• Preferred LAN is IEEE 802.3 Ethernet, But allows for Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) and Token Ring
(IEEE 802.5). Fibre optical media will be added when they are defined.

• uses same ISO standards for network, transport, session and presentation layers that MAP uses

10.3.1 Application Layer:

• ACSE and FTAM are the same as MAP, MMS is not included

• (MHS) CCITT X.400 message handling service provides electronic mail transfers of all types of
documents

• ISO Virtual terminal protocol to allow a terminal on any machine to log onto any other machine.

• ODA/ODIF (ISO Office Document Architecture and Office Document Interchange Format) To
permit formatted documents to be transmitted independently of the package used to create
them. (Text, and Raster or Line graphics)

• CGM (ISO Computer Graphics Metafile) to permit the exchange of geometrical graphics

• IGES (ANSI Initial Graphics Exchange Standard) to exchange product design information
among CAD/CAM workstations.

10.4 MAP & TOP

• Suggested that the two protocols MAP for CAM, and TOP for CAD be separated at the database
level.

• STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product Data) based on PDES, is an international standard
to facilitate the transfer of data in CAD/CAM.

• GOSIP (Government Open Systems Interconnection Profile) has been developed by the U.S.
Government (NIST) to provide an open systems standard fro their computers. GOSIP is almost
a subset of TOP 3.0
 page 57

• TOP Protocol Layers Compared with the ISO/OSI Reference Model

ISO/OSI
Reference
TOP Version 3.0
Model

Directory Services
Application RTS Network Management
FTAM VT ACSE

Presentation RTS Presentation

Session Session

Transport Transport Class 4

CLNS
Network
ES, IS, and X.25 PLP

IEEE 802.2 X.25

802.3 10BROAD36

Data Link (1984)

802.3 10BASE5

LAPB
IEEE IEEE
802.5 802.4 X.21 bis
Physical
and X.21

Notes:
ACSE Association control service element
CLNS Connectionless network service
ES End system
FTAM File transfer and access method
IS Intermediate system
LAPB Link access protocol-balanced
MHS Message-Handling System
PLP Physical layer protocol
RTS Reliable transfer system
VT Virtual Terminal
ISO/OSI
Reference
Model

Application

Presentation

Session
10.5 MAP AND OTHER STANDARDS

Transport Fieldbus MAP / TOP MiniMAP

page 58

Network

Data Link

Bitbus Ethernet
Physical
• ISO/OSI Reference Model Compared with Factory Communication Standards

Key: OSI Areas pertinent to the standard

 page 59

• MAP Enhanced Performance Architecture (EPA) and MiniMAP Protocol Stacks

Application Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

EPA Data Link EPA Data Link

EPA Physical EPA Physical

a. MAP/EPA System b MiniMAP System

10.6 AN EXAMPLE OF A MAP IMPLEMENTATION

• One proposed MAP-compliant approach to computer integration is the introduction of an FMS

into the plant-wide data communications network)
 MAP
MRP APT/CAD Network
MAP Broadband 10 MBps Manager

Computer Room

FMT ... FMT

FMS
BR VAX/VMS FMS MHS
DB
TS

MAP Carrierband 5 MBps

TMS CMS
page 60

TDP FMT VDT VDT PLC

TGC PLC LSC CNC ... CNC RC PLC CMC

Tool L/UL Machine Machine Robotic Wash Pallet

ETG AS/RS AWC Tool # 1 Tool # N Work Station CMM AS/RS
Station

AGV
Wire Guided Vehicle Material Transport System
• All seven MAP layers reside and run on each board set of this board-level MPA interface

AGV
 page 61

Table 2:

Legend

MRP Material Requirements Planning

APT/CAD Automatic Programmed Tool/
Computer-Aided Design
BR Bridge
FMT FMS Terminal
TS Terminal Server
FMS DB FMS Database
MHS Material Handling System
TMS Tool Management System
CMS Coordinate Measuring System
TDP Tool Data Panel
TGC Tool Gage Control
PLC Programmable Logic Control
LSC Load Station Controller
VDT Video Display Terminal
CNC Computer Numerical Controller
RC Robot Controller
CMC Coordinate Measuring Control
ETG Electronic Tool Gage
AS/RS Automatic Storage/Retrieval System
L/UL Load/Unload
AWC Automatic Work Changer
CMM Coordinate Measuring Machine
 page 62

10.7 ETHERNET

10.7.1 Internet

10.7.2 SLIP/PPP

10.8 DATA HIGHWAY+

10.9 REMOTE PLC I/O

10.10 DEVICENET

10.11 OTHER STUFF

10.12 Network Facts

• Speeds often measured in bps (bits per second) but we are more interested in the bytes per sec-
ond. There is approximately an 11:1 ratio.
T1 is 1.544 Mbps
T3 is 44.54 Mbps

• Network transmission,
baseband - single frequency- only one station may transmit at any time (Ethernet, ARC-
 page 63

net, Token ring). These must be in discrete digital packets.

boradband - multiple frequencies allow multiple simultaneous data streams. This network
can reach higher speeds by multiplexing and can have continuous and/or analog
channels (ISDN, CATV,ATM)

• Networks are some mix of clients and servers.

server - will share reseaources (eg, files) with many remote computers
client - a computer that typically talks to a limited number of servers

• Token based networks rotate talk permissions between machines by passing a “token”

• ARCnet - a token passing network that is relatively immune to noise

• IBM token ring - a star topology token passing network

• FDDI - fiber based token passing rings that rotate in opposite directions

• Ethernet - both bus and star topologies

 page 64

11. DATABASE TECHNOLOGY

11.1 DISTRIBUTED DATABASE SYSTEMS

11.1.1 Relational database systems

•Information is stored in 2D-tables

•Rows in a table are records

•Columns in a record are fields

•A key, consisting of one or more fields, that uniquely identifies a record

•A dictionary is a table that describes all the tables

•Fully-partitioned: if each table is stored at exactly one physical site

•Fully-replicated: if each table is stored at all physical sites

•Natural distribution: data are kept at the local site

•Query operations:
- Select - picking records
- Project - picking fields
- Join - merging of tables

•Predicate: a condition between fields used to manipulate the queries

11.1.2 Issues for distributed database systems

• Distribution of tables to sites

• Natural distribution of data at various sites

• Fully partition of systems

• Fully replicated systems

• Important factors
 page 65

• Replicates the dictionary at every site

• Frequency of request to a table from a site

• Storage capacity at each site

• Communication costs between sites

[Link] - Query processing

• Query response time (for interactive applications)

• Total bandwidth consumed (for batch applications)

• Approach
- Optimizing specific query based upon specific statistical conditions
- The query site will either “estimate” or request the related sites to report the related time
and cost of moving the data before deciding on an actual query sequence

[Link] - Concurrency control

• Maximize the amount of parallel activity while maintaining the semantic integrity of the data

• Approach
- A transaction: a set of reads, followed by some processing, and then a set of writes
- A log is the time ordered sequence of reads and writes performed on the database
- A log is serial if each read is immediately followed by an appropriate write
- There is no known algorithm that allows serial logs, all serializable logs, and all other
logs that leave the database consistent
- Most algorithms achieve serializable logs by allowing transaction to lock part of the
database
- The lock could be applied on the full database, or some tables, records, fields, and phys-
ical sectors
- Deadlock occurs when two queries want to lock certain resources that have already been
locked by each other