Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

Chapter Three

Elements of Realizability Theory

In the preceding chapters we have been primarily concerned with the problem of

determining the response, given the excitation and the network; this problem lies in the

domain of network analysis. The next part deals with synthesis problems and the

starting point for any synthesis problem is the system function.

𝑅(𝑠)
𝐻(𝑠) =
𝐸(𝑠)
The first step in a synthesis procedure is to determine whether 𝐻(𝑠) can be realized as a

passive network. There are two important considerations: causality and stability.

3.1 Causality and stability

By causality we mean that a voltage can’t appear between any pair of terminals in the

network before a current is impressed, or vice-verse. In other words, the response of the

network must be zero for 𝑡 < 0.

In order for a network to be stable, the following three conditions on its network

functions 𝑇(𝑠) must be satisfied.

1. 𝐻(𝑠) can’t have poles in the right half of 𝑠 −plane.

2. 𝐻(𝑠) can’t have multiple poles in the imaginary (𝑗𝜔) −axis.

3. The degree of the numerator of 𝐻(𝑠) can’t exceed the degree of denominator by

more than unity.

3.2 Hurwitz polynomials

In section 3.1 we saw that in order for a system function be stable, its poles must be

restricted to the left half plane or on the 𝑗𝜔 −axis. Moreover, the pole on the 𝑗𝜔 −axis

must be simple. The denominator polynomial of the system function belongs to a class

of polynomials known as Hurwitz polynomials. A polynomial 𝐷(𝑠) is said be Hurwitz

if the following conditions are satisfied:

a) 𝐷(𝑠) is real when s is real.

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b) The roots of 𝐷(𝑠) have real parts which are zero or negative.

As a result of these conditions, Hurwitz polynomial 𝐷(𝑠) have the following properties;

1. If the polynomial 𝐷(𝑠) can be written as

𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎0 (3.1)

then all the coefficients 𝑎𝑖 must be real and positive. A corollary is that between the

highest order term in s and the lowest order term, none of the coefficients may be zero

unless the polynomial is even or odd. In other words, 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛−2 , … , 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 must not be

zero if the polynomial is neither even not odd.

2. Both the odd and even parts of a Hurwitz polynomial 𝐷(𝑠) have roots on the 𝑗𝜔 −

axis only. If we denote the even part of 𝐸(𝑠) as 𝑂(𝑠) and the odd part as 𝐷(𝑠), so that
𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐸(𝑠)
then 𝑂(𝑠) and 𝐸(𝑠) both have roots on the 𝑗𝜔 − axis only.

3. As a result of property (2), if D(s) is either even or odd, all its roots are on the 𝑗𝜔 −

axis (including the origin).

4. The continued fraction expansion of the ration ( Ψ(𝑠) of the odd to even parts

(𝑂(𝑠)⁄𝐸(𝑠)) or the even to odd parts (𝐸(𝑠)⁄𝑂(𝑠)) of a Hurwitz polynomial yields all

positive quotient terms. As,

𝑂(𝑠) 𝐸(𝑠) 1
Ψ(𝑠) = 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑞1 (𝑠) +
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑂(𝑠) 1
𝑞2 (𝑠) + 1
𝑞3 (𝑠) + 1
…+
𝑞𝑛 (𝑠)
where the quotients 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … , 𝑞𝑛 must be positive if the polynomial 𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐸(𝑠)

is Hurwitz.

5. If 𝐷(𝑠) is Hurwitz polynomial and 𝑊(𝑠) is a multiplicative factor, then 𝐷1 (𝑠) =

𝐷(𝑠). 𝑊(𝑠) is also Hurwitz polynomial, if 𝑊(𝑠) is Hurwitz polynomial.

6. In case the polynomial is either only even or only odd, it is not possible to obtain the

continued fraction expansion. In such cases, the polynomial 𝐷(𝑠) is Hurwitz if the

ratio of 𝐷(𝑠) and its derivative 𝐷′(𝑠) gives a continued fraction expansion.

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Note: Generally, we can check whether a given polynomial is Hurwitz or not, by

using properties (1) and (4)/(5)/(6) for conditions (1) and (2) respectively.

Procedure for obtaining the Continued Fraction Expansion

To obtain the continued fraction expansion, we must perform a series of long division.
𝑂(𝑠)
Suppose Ψ(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠), where 𝑂(𝑠) is of one higher degree than 𝐸(𝑠). Then, we obtain a

single quotient and a remainder.

𝑅1 (𝑠)
Ψ(𝑠) = 𝑞1 (𝑠) +
𝐸(𝑠)
The degree of the term 𝑅1 (𝑠) is one lower than the degree of 𝐸(𝑠). Therefore if we invert

the second term and divide, we have

𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅2 (𝑠)
= 𝑞2 (𝑠) +
𝑅1 (𝑠) 𝑅1 (𝑠)
Inverting and dividing again, we obtain
𝑅1 (𝑠) 𝑅3 (𝑠)
= 𝑞3 (𝑠) +
𝑅2 (𝑠) 𝑅2 (𝑠)
Continuing this way, we can obtain a finite length continued fraction expansion of the

odd to even or even to odd parts of the polynomial 𝐷(𝑠).

Exercises:

1. Check whether the following polynomials are Hurwitz or not.

A) 𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑠 4 + 𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 4
B) 𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑠 4 + 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 1
C) 𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 6
D) 𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑠 7 + 2𝑠 6 + 2𝑠 5 + 𝑠 4 + 4𝑠 3 + 8𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 + 4
E) 𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑠 5 + 7𝑠 4 + 6𝑠 3 + 9𝑠 2 + 8𝑠
2. Find the range of values of 𝐾 so that the following function is Hurwitz.
𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑠 4 + 𝑠 3 + 𝐾𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 3

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3.3 Routh – Hurwitz’s Array

The Routh-Hurwitz criterion is a method for determining whether a linear system is

stable or not by examining the locations of the roots of the characteristic equation of the

system. In fact, the method determines only if there are roots that lie outside of the left

half plane; it does not actually compute the roots. Consider the characteristic equation
𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎0 (3.2)

where all the coefficients 𝑎𝑖 are real. In order that Equ. (3.2) not have roots with positive

real parts, it is necessary that the following conditions hold:

1. All the coefficients of the equation have the same sign.

2. None of the coefficients vanishes, i.e, no missing term between that of highest

and lowest degrees.

The first step in the Routh – Hurwitz criterion is to arrange the coefficients of the Equ.

(3.2) into two rows. The first row consists of the first, third, fifth…, coefficients and the

second row consists of the second, fourth, sixth,…, coefficients, all counting from the

highest order term.

The next step is to form the array of numbers by the indicated operations.
𝑠𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑎𝑛−4 …
𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−3 𝑎𝑛−5 …
𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑏𝑛 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑏𝑛−2 …
𝑠 𝑛−3 𝑐𝑛 𝑐𝑛−1

⋮ ⋮ ⋮

𝑠1

𝑠0

Where
−1 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛−2 −1 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛−4 −1 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛−6
𝑏𝑛 = | 𝑎𝑛−3 | 𝑏𝑛−1 = | 𝑎𝑛−5 | 𝑏𝑛−2 = | 𝑎𝑛−7 |
𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1
−1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−3 −1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−5
𝑐𝑛 = | 𝑏𝑛−1 | 𝑐𝑛−1 = | 𝑏𝑛−2 |
𝑏𝑛 𝑏𝑛 𝑏𝑛 𝑏𝑛

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

The array is called the Routh-Hurwitz tabulation/array. Its last row should always be

the 𝑠 0 row.

The necessary and sufficient condition is that all roots of Equ. (3.2) have negative real

parts if all the elements of the first column of the Routh-Hurwitz’s array are of the same

sign. The number of the changes of signs in the elements of the first column equals the

number of roots with positive real parts.

Special cases when Routh-Hurwitz tabulation terminates prematurely

Depending on the coefficients of the equation, sometimes the following difficulties may

occur that prevent Routh-Hurwitz tabulation from completing properly:

1. The first element in any one row of Routh-Hurwitz array is zero, but the others

are not.

2. All elements in one row of Routh-Hurwitz array are zero.

Case 1: If a zero appears in the first element of a row, the elements in the next row will

all become infinite, and Routh-Hurwitz tabulation cannot be continued. To remedy this

situation, we replace the zero elements in the first column by an arbitrary small positive

number 𝜀, and then proceed with Routh-Hurwitz’s tabulation.

Exercise: Check the stability of the system with characteristic equation

2𝑠 5 + 𝑠 4 + 6𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 1 = 0
Case 2: If all the elements in one row of Routh-Hurwitz’s tabulation are zero before the

tabulation is properly terminated, it indicates that one or more of the following

conditions may exist:

1. The equation has at least one pair of real roots with equal magnitude but

opposite signs.

2. The equation has one or more pairs of imaginary roots with equal magnitude

opposite signs. (𝑒. 𝑔. , 𝑠 = ± 𝑗1, 𝑠 = ±𝑗2, ±𝑗3).

3. The equation has pairs of complex conjugate roots forming symmetry about the

origin of the s–plane (𝑒. 𝑔. , 𝑠 = −1 ± 𝑗1, 𝑠 = 1 ± 𝑗1).

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The situation with the entire row of zeros can be remedied by using the auxiliary

equation 𝐴(𝑠) = 0, which is formed from the coefficients of the row just above the row

of zeros in Routh-Hurwitz’s tabulation. The auxiliary equation is always even

polynomials. The roots of the auxiliary equation also satisfy the original equation. Thus,

by solving the auxiliary equation, we also get some of the roots of the original equation.

To continue with Routh-Hurwitz’s tabulation when a row of zeros appears, we conduct

the following steps:

1. Form the auxiliary equation 𝐴(𝑠) = 0 by use of the coefficients from the row just

preceding the row of zeros.

𝑑𝐴(𝑠)
2. Take the derivative of the auxiliary equation with respect to s; this gives = 0.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐴(𝑠)
3. Replace the row of zeros with coefficients of = 0.
𝑑𝑡

4. Continue with Routh-Hurwitz’s tabulation in the usual manner with the newly

formed row of coefficients replacing the row of zeros.

5. Interpret the change of signs, if any, of the coefficients in the first column of

Routh-Hurwitz’s tabulation in the usual manner.

Exercise: check the stability of the system with characteristic equation

𝑠 5 + 4𝑠 4 + 8𝑠 3 + 8𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 4 = 0
Deficiencies of Routh-Hurwitz’s Criterion

1. It is valid only if the characteristic equation is algebraic with real coefficients. If

any of the coefficients is complex, or if the equation is not algebraic, such as

containing exponential or sinusoidal functions of 𝑠 , the Routh-Hurwitz’s

criterion simply can’t be applied.

2. It gives an information about roots of characteristic equation only with respect to

the left half or right half of the s plane i.e., it doesn’t give the information about

the roots on the 𝑗𝜔 axis (stability boundary).

3. It can’t be applied to discrete time systems.

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

3.4 Positive Real Functions

These functions are important because they represent physically realizable passive
𝑁(𝑠)
driving point immittances. A function 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐷(𝑠) is positive real (𝑝. 𝑟. ) if the following

conditions are satisfied;

1. 𝐻(𝑠) is real for real 𝑠 real, i.e. 𝐻(𝜎) is purely real.

2. 𝐷(𝑠) is Hurwitz polynomial.

3. 𝐻(𝑠) may have poles on the 𝑗𝜔 − axis. These poles are simple and the residues

there of are real and positive.

4. The real part of 𝐻(𝑠) is greater than or equal to zero for the real part of 𝑠 greater

than or equal to zero, i.e.,

𝑅𝑒[𝐻(𝑠)] ≥ 0, for 𝑅𝑒[𝑠] ≥ 0 Therefore, 𝑅𝑒[𝐻(𝑗𝜔)] ≥ 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝜔

Note: Roots of D(s) are not permitted at the origin except in case of odd functions.

Simplification of condition (4) is possible by letting,

𝑁(𝑠) 𝐸1 (𝑠) + 𝑂1 (𝑠)
𝐻(𝑠) = =
𝐷(𝑠) 𝐸2 (𝑠) + 𝑂2 (𝑠)
Where 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) is an even function and 𝑂𝑖 (𝑠) is an odd function.

Rationalizing 𝐻(𝑠), we have

𝐸1 (𝑠) + 𝑂1 (𝑠) 𝐸2 (𝑠) − 𝑂2 (𝑠) 𝐸1 (𝑠)𝐸2 (𝑠) − 𝑂1 (𝑠)𝑂2 (𝑠) 𝑂1 (𝑠)𝐸2 (𝑠) − 𝐸1 (𝑠)𝑂2 (𝑠)
𝐻(𝑠) = ∗ = +
𝐸2 (𝑠) + 𝑂2 (𝑠) 𝐸2 (𝑠) − 𝑂2 (𝑠) 𝐸22 (𝑠) − 𝑂22 (𝑠) 𝐸22 (𝑠) − 𝑂22 (𝑠)
We see that the products 𝐸1 (𝑠)𝐸2 (𝑠) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂1 (𝑠)𝑂2 (𝑠) are even functions, while

𝑂1 (𝑠)𝐸2 (𝑠) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸1 (𝑠)𝑂2 (𝑠) are odd functions. Therefore, the even and odd part of H(s) are,
𝐸1 (𝑠)𝐸2 (𝑠) − 𝑂1 (𝑠)𝑂2(𝑠) and, 𝑂1 (𝑠)𝐸2 (𝑠) − 𝐸1 (𝑠)𝑂2 (𝑠)
𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛[𝐻(𝑠)] = 𝑜𝑑𝑑[𝐻(𝑠)] =
𝐸22 (𝑠) − 𝑂22 (𝑠) 𝐸22 (𝑠) − 𝑂22 (𝑠)
If we let 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜎 = 0), we see that the even part of any polynomial is real, while the odd

part of the polynomial is imaginary i.e.,

𝑅𝑒[𝐻(𝑗𝜔)] = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛[𝐻(𝑠)]𝑠=𝑗𝜔 and 𝑗 𝐼𝑚[𝐻(𝑗𝜔)] = 𝑜𝑑𝑑[𝐻(𝑠)]𝑠=𝑗𝜔

It is clear that
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑅𝑒[𝐻(𝑗𝜔)] + 𝑗 𝐼𝑚[𝐻(𝑗𝜔)]

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We can also see that, the denominator of 𝑅𝑒[𝐻(𝑗𝜔)] is always a positive quantity because
[𝐸2 (𝑗𝜔)]2 − [𝑂2 (𝑗𝜔)]2 = 𝐸2 (𝜔2 ) − 𝑂2 (𝜔2 )
Therefore, our task of testing for condition (4) resolves into the problem of determining

whether
𝐴(𝜔2 ) = 𝐸1 (𝑠)𝐸2 (𝑠) − 𝑂1 (𝑠)𝑂2 (𝑠) ≥ 0
Properties of positive real function (𝑝. 𝑟. 𝑓)

1. If 𝐻(𝑠) is 𝑝. 𝑟., then 1⁄𝐻(𝑠) is also 𝑝. 𝑟.

2. The sum of 𝑝. 𝑟. 𝑓𝑠. is 𝑝. 𝑟. from an immitance standpoint, we see that if two

impedances are connected is series or two admittances are connected in parallel,

the resultant immittance is 𝑝. 𝑟. (note that the difference of two 𝑝. 𝑟. is not

necessarily 𝑝. 𝑟.).

3. The poles and zeros of a 𝑝. 𝑟. 𝑓 can’t have positive real parts. In addition to this,

only simple poles with real positive residues can exist on the 𝑗𝜔 −axis.

4. The poles and zeros of a 𝑝. 𝑟. 𝑓 are real or occur in conjugate pairs.

5. The highest powers of D(s) and N(s) polynomials may differ at most by unity.

This condition prohibits multiple poles or zeros at 𝑠 = ∞.

6. The lowest powers of D(s) and N(s) polynomials may differ at most by unity.

This condition prohibits multiple poles or zeros at 𝑠 = 0.

Exercises: Determine whether the following functions are positive real or not.
2𝑠2 +5
A) 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠2 +1)
(𝑠+2)(𝑠+4)
B) 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠+1)(𝑠+3)
2𝑠2 +2𝑠+1
C) 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑠3 +2𝑠2 +𝑠+2
𝑠3 +𝑠2 +3𝑠+5
D) 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑠2 +6𝑠+8

Note: when all coefficients of 𝐴(𝜔2 ) are not positive, Sturm’s test has to be used, which

states that: the number of zeros of 𝐴(𝑥) where 𝑥 = 𝜔2 in the interval 0 < 𝑥 < ∞ is equal

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to 𝑠∞ ~𝑠0 where 𝑠∞ and 𝑠0 are the number of sign changes in the set (𝐴0 , 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑛 )

evaluated at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = ∞, respectively.

Where 𝐴0 (𝑥) = 𝐴(𝑥) 𝑑𝐴0 (𝑥)

𝐴1 (𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥
And the subsequent functions are
𝐴𝑖−2 (𝑥) 𝐴𝑖 (𝑥)
= (𝐾1 𝑥 − 𝐾0 ) −
𝐴𝑖−1 (𝑥) 𝐴𝑖−1 (𝑥)
Where 𝐾1 and 𝐾0 are constants. The procedure of finding 𝐴𝑖 (𝑥) will continue till 𝐴𝑛 𝑥 is a

constant. Every time 𝐴(𝑥) goes through a zero, the sign of 𝐴(𝑥) changes. If there are no

zeros of 𝐴(𝑥) in the range 0 < 𝑥 < ∞, the condition of Sturm is satisfied.

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