Modeling Genetic Variation in Gametes

AP Biology​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Objective
Students will model the processes of gamete formation that increase genetic variation:
independent assortment, crossing-over, and fertilization.

Standard
Essential Knowledge:
IST-1.F.1 : Meiosis is a process that ensures the formation of haploid gamete cells in sexually
reproducing diploid organisms—
a. Meiosis results in daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes of the parent
cell.
b. Meiosis involves two rounds of a sequential series of steps (meiosis I and meiosis
II).
IST-1.G.1 : Meiosis is a process that ensures the formation of haploid gamete cells in sexually
reproducing diploid organisms— a. Meiosis results in daughter cells with half the
number of chromosomes of the parent cell. b. Meiosis involves two rounds of a
sequential series of steps (meiosis I and meiosis II).
IST-1.H.1 : Separation of the homologous chromosomes in meiosis I ensures that each gamete
receives a haploid (1n) set of chromosomes that comprises both maternal and paternal
chromosomes.
IST-1.H.2 : During meiosis I, homologous chromatids exchange genetic material via a process
called “crossing over” (recombination), which increases genetic diversity among the
resultant gametes.
IST-1.H.3 : Sexual reproduction in eukaryotes involving gamete formation— including crossing
over, the random assortment of chromosomes during meiosis, and subsequent
fertilization of gametes—serves to increase variation.

Materials

​ 12 toothpicks
​ 18 mini marshmallows of one color
​ 18 mini marshmallows of another color
​

Background
Meiosis

Sexual reproduction occurs through the production of gametes which contain only one set of
genes (haploid, 1N). When two gametes fuse, a new diploid organism with a different
complement of gene copies than either parent is produced. Haploid gametes are produced
through the process of meiosis.

Meiosis consists of one round of DNA replication followed by two nuclear divisions, meiosis I
and meiosis II. This results in the formation of four daughter cells, each with only half the
number of chromosomes of the parent. When two gametes combine during fertilization to form a
zygote, the diploid chromosome number is restored in the resulting organism. Typically, we think
of gametes as
cells that come from either a male (sperm) or a female (ova) that are specialized to fuse with
each other in species specific way (mouse sperm cannot fertilize a whale ovum).

Under a microscope, mitosis and meiosis do not look very different. The phases of division are
visually distinct and named as their visual look-alikes in mitosis. However, the way replicated
DNA is divided is very different in meiosis than mitosis.

Prophase I:

The duplicated sister chromosomes condense and are attached at a centromere as in mitosis.
Unlike mitosis, these sister pairs form a tetrad with duplicated chromosome homologs from both
the maternally and paternally contributed chromosomes. At this point DNA may cross over
between non-sister, chromatid homologs forming unique chromatids that contain DNA from both
maternal and paternal chromosomes.

Metaphase I:

The tetrads align at the center of the cell and spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores.

Anaphase I:

The tetrads separate into two, duplicate chromosomes that remain attached at the centromere
which move to separate poles of the cell.

Anaphase I is followed by telophase 1 and cytokinesis, resulting in two daughter cells that each
have 2N DNA.

Mitosis II follows immediately after meiosis I is completed without further duplication of the
DNA. The single set of chromosomes (held together at the centromere) are separated on the
second spindle thus forming daughter cells that are now 1N. A starting diploid germ cell has now
formed 4 haploid gametes, each containing a mixture of DNA from both the mother and the
father. This method of division produces gametes that vary greatly between each other with
respect to the allele combinations available to pass to the next generation.

Procedure
1.​ Read through the document. Instructions for each activity are given within the document.
2.​ Answer the Analysis and Application questions.
​ ​
1.​ Independent assortment
Independent assortment occurs at metaphase I. At this point, chromosomes are diploid
and duplicated. Independent assortment refers to the fact that the pairs of chromosomes
line up at the metaphase plate independently of each other.
2.​ Crossing-over

Crossing-over occurs during prophase I. At this time, DNA from two nonsister
chromatids is switched, resulting in recombinant chromosomes.

3.​ Random fertilization

During fertilization, one male and one female gamete pair together randomly. By this
point, there is enough variation that subsequent fertilization events from the same male
and female will all produce unique offspring.
Modeling independent assortment
As a human, you are a diploid organism with 23 chromosomes. You received 23 from your
mother and 23 from your father at fertilization. Independent assortment refers to the fact that,
during gamete formation, your chromosomes match up in a variety of ways. Your gametes are
not composed of all your maternal chromosomes or all your paternal chromosomes. Some
gametes will have 2 paternal and 21 maternal, 13 paternal and 10 maternal, 19 paternal and 4
maternal, and so on. Your chromosomes sort themselves into haploid gametes independently
from each other.

Procedure
1.​ Gather your supplies:
●​ 12 toothpicks
●​ 18 mini marshmallows of one color
●​ 18 mini marshmallows of another color
2.​ You will be modeling a diploid organism with 3 chromosomes. Chromosome A has 4
genes; chromosome B has 3 genes; chromosome C has 2 genes.
3.​ Using the 18 marshmallows of the first color, build the maternal chromosomes:
●​ On 2 toothpicks, slide on 4 marshmallows each. This represents chromosome A.
●​ On 2 toothpicks, slide on 3 marshmallows each. This represents chromosome B.
●​ On 2 toothpicks, slide on 2 marshmallows each. This represents chromosome C.
4.​ Using the 18 marshmallows of the second color, build the paternal chromosomes
following the same pattern as listed in step #3.
5.​ You should now have the same chromosomal representation as the cells that are starting
meiosis: diploid with duplicated chromosomes.
6.​ The result of meiosis is haploid cells with unduplicated chromosomes. Using your
chromosomal representations, how many different combinations can you come up with to
 represent daughter cells of meiosis? (Hint: paternal A, paternal B, paternal C counts as
one combination. How many others can you come up with?)

Analysis
1.​ In an organism with 3 chromosomes, how many possible daughter cells are there?

2.​ When there are 2 homologous chromosomes, there are 4 different possible daughter cell
combinations. When there are four homologous chromosomes, there are 16 different
possible daughter cell combinations. Based on this information, create a mathematical
model that relates the number of chromosomes to possible daughter cells.

2^n

Modeling Crossing-over

While independent assortment creates vast variation in daughter cells, crossing-over increases
that variation even more by mixing up pieces of maternal and paternal chromosomes into
recombinant chromosomes.

Procedure
1.​ Use the same organism information and chromosomes from the independent assortment
activity.
2.​ Pair the duplicated homologous chromosomes next to each other. (You should have 3 sets
of 4 toothpicks.)
3.​ On the two chromatids that are in the center of each pairing, switch the top
marshmallows.
4.​ Separate all the chromosomes so that they represent the unduplicated chromosomes
found in daughter cells.
5.​ Do you have any identical chromosomes anymore?
Analysis
1.​ Describe how crossing-over creates variation.
Modeling random fertilization
In an organism with 4 chromosomes, there are 16 different combinations possible for the
gametes. During fertilization, 1 out of the 16 combinations is randomly chosen from the male
organism and 1 out of the 16 combinations is randomly chosen from the female organism. The
resulting zygote will be a unique organism with a mixture of genes. This 4-chromosomal
organism is modeled below.
Procedure
1.​ Cut out the numbered boxes on the handout.
2.​ Place all numbers into the Ziploc bag.
3.​ Shake the Ziploc bag.
4.​ With eyes closed, take out one number. This represents which combination of gamete
your organism is providing.
5.​ Pair with a neighboring group and see what number they extracted. Write your zygote
combination below:
6.​ (You may also use an online random number generator instead of cut out numbers if you
prefer)

Gamete #1: __________​ ​ Gamete #2: ___________

Gamete #1: __________​ ​ Gamete #2: ___________

Gamete #1: __________​ ​ Gamete #2: ___________

Gamete #1: __________​ ​ Gamete #2: ___________

Analysis
1.​ Out of the 4 times that you “created” a zygote, did you have any zygotes that were
exactly the same? Why or why not?
Application

1.​ Humans have 23 chromosomes. How many possible daughter cell combinations are
possible at the end of meiosis?

2.​ Errors during meiosis occasionally occur. What would be the result of meiosis if a pair of
homologous chromosomes did not line up exactly during a crossing-over event?