SOCIAL STUDIES

STUDENT TEXT BOOK

GRADE 7

DEVELOPED BY ADDIS ABABA EDUCATION BUREAU AND

ADOPTED BYSNNPR EDUCATIONBUREAU

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SOCIAL STUDIES
STUDENT TEXT BOOK

GRADE 7
Authors
AbebeYibeltieYayehyirad (MA)
DessalewAwayeDerese (BA)
MulugetaDiresFetene (MA)
TegegnDegeloSomeno (MA)
Editors, Reviewers and Evaluators
Solomon WondimuMetaferia (MA)
Belay BeleteBirhanu (MA)
Adopters
Tesfahun Markos
Tsegaye Samuel

SNNPR Education Bureau wishes to thank Addis Ababa City Administration Education
Bureau and many individuals, and groups involved in developing, and adopting this text book.
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PHOTO CREDIT: Bahruzewde, A history of modern Ethiopia (1855-1991), Adis Ababa Univesity Press,
[Link], M and Raymond, M., Data of Geochemistry. United States Government Printing Office.
Washington: 1967; MoE,Geography Students Text book for Grade 10, 2011;[Link]
[Link] [Link] [Link]
[Link] [Link] [Link]

While every attempt has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright, the
authors and publishers apologies for any accidental infringement where copyright
has proved untraceable.

©Addis Ababa City Administration Education Bureau

First edition 2021

Addis Ababa
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ContentsPages

Unit One......................................................................................................................................................7
Physical Characteristics of the Earth............................................................................................................7
Origin of the earth and the solar system.................................................................................................8
External components and internal structure of the earth.....................................................................16
Materials forming the crust of the Earth.............................................................................................32
The distribution and economic value of the different rock types in Ethiopia........................................38
Unit Two....................................................................................................................................................48
Human Evolution and World Population...................................................................................................48
2.1. Human Evolution............................................................................................................................49
2.2. Trends of world population............................................................................................................54
2.3 People and the development of transportation..............................................................................73
Unit Three..................................................................................................................................................89
Human and Natural Resources..................................................................................................................89
3.1. Human-Environment relationships (reciprocal relationship)..........................................................90
3.2. Population- resource relationship (over population, optimal population.......................................92
and under population)...........................................................................................................................92
3.3. Types of Natural Resource..............................................................................................................96
3.4 Factors affecting natural resource in Ethiopia...............................................................................100
Unit Four.................................................................................................................................................110
Ancient World Civilization.......................................................................................................................110
4.1 Ancient world civilizations.............................................................................................................111
4.2. Medieval History of the world......................................................................................................126
Unit Five..................................................................................................................................................139
Ancient History of Africa..........................................................................................................................139
5.1 Ancient Civilization of Egypt..........................................................................................................140
5.2. The kingdom of Nubia (Kush)........................................................................................................145
[Link] Kingdom of Meroe..................................................................................................................147
Unit Six....................................................................................................................................................156

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States and Peoples of Ancient and Medieval Ethiopia.............................................................................156

6.1. Aksum, Lalibela and Gondar.........................................................................................................157
Start-up question.................................................................................................................................169
6.2. Population movements, interaction and integration (Gada and other indigenous organizatio...178
6.3. Economic base of states: agriculture, trade and trade routes, taxation.......................................184
Unit Seven...............................................................................................................................................194
Contemporary Global Issues....................................................................................................................194
7.1 Environment..................................................................................................................................195
7. 2 Demographic Overload.................................................................................................................208
7.3 Terrorism.......................................................................................................................................210
7.4 Human Trafficking..........................................................................................................................212

Unit One

The Planet of the Earth In The Universe

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Unit learning outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Explain the origin of the earth and the solar system;

Evaluate the shape and effects of earth’s movements
Describe the four components of the earth and their interaction;
Synthesizethe earth’s internal layers and their characteristics;
Identify direct and indirect sources of information regarding the interior
layers of the earth;
Identify major elements, minerals and rocks forming the crust of the earth;
Analyze the spatial distribution and economic importance of rocks in
Ethiopia.

Main contents

1.1. Origin of the earth and the solar system

[Link] and movements of the earth
[Link] components and internal structure of the earth
[Link] forming the crust of the Earth
[Link] distribution and economic value of the different rock types in Ethiopia
 Unit Summary
 Review Exercise

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1.1. Origin of the earth and the solar system

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

Analyze how the earth and other members of the solar system were
originated and evolved to the present state

More Key words

 Universe  Solar system  Planets
 Sun  Orbit

 Earth  Materials of the  Types of Rocks

Earth’s Crust
Outer planet

A. The origin of the Earth

Start-up questions

 What do you understand about the origin of the Earth and the solar
system?
 Where did the Earth come from, and how it is formed?

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The origin of the Earth is Focus

intimately related to the Till August 2006, Pluto was considered a
formation of the solar system. planet. However, in a Meeting of the
Some scientists believe that the International Astronomical Union, a decision
sun, planets and other smaller was taken that Pluto like other celestial objects

bodies in the solar system were (Ceres, 2003 and UB313) discovered may be
called “dwarf planets”.
formed from a large flammable
of hot swirling gases. The
flammable was loosely packed gases, largely made up of hydrogen and helium,
and dustparticles. Gradually, the gases and dust particles drew together because of
gravitational pull and formed a thin disc. Through time, the discsplit into rings
andkept spinning. The spinning rings at the center formed the sun. The outer rings
resulted in the formation of the eight planets,
Things to do!
including the [Link] estimate that the
earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago. The earth orbit the Sun at a
distance of about 150 million km.
B. Members of the solar system Light travels at a speed of
300,000 kilometers/second. How
Our solar system is made up of a star, eight
long does it take sunlight to reach
planets and countless smaller bodies such as the Earth? This sounds like a
dwarf planets, asteroids and meteoroids. strange question, but think about
it.
I. The Sun

The sun is the centre of the solar system. It is huge and made up of extremely hot
[Link] provides the pulling force that binds the solar system.
The sun is the ultimate source of heat and light for the solar system. But that
tremendous heat is not felt so much by humans because despite being our nearest
star, it is far away from us. The sun is about 150 million km away from the earth.

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II. Planets
 What is planet? What is the name of the planet we live in?

The word ‘planet’ comes fromthe Greek word “Planetai” which

means‘wanderers’. There are eight planets in our solar system. All the planets
revolve around the Sun on paths called orbits. The orbit is elliptical in shape.

In order of their distance from the sun, they are classified in to two; inner planets
and outer planets.

Figure 1.1 The Planets

Inner planets

The four planets closest to the Sun - Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are the inner
planets. They exist in solid state. Astronomers call them the “terrestrial planets”

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because they have solid and rocky surfaces. Compared to the outer planets, the
inner planets are small in size.

Outer planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are the outer planets of our solar system.
These planets are farthest from the Sun. The outer planets are much larger than the
inner planets. Since they are mostly made of gases, they are also called gas giants.

III. Asteroids

Apart from the stars and planets, there arenumerous tiny bodies which also move
around thesun. An asteroid is a relatively small rocky body that orbits the sun.
Most asteroids in our solar system are found in the main asteroidbelt. They are
found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

Figure 1.2 Asteroids belt

IV. Meteoroids

Sometimes one asteroid can crush into another. This can cause small pieces of the
asteroid to break off. The broken pieces of asteroid are called meteoroids. When a
meteoroid enters the earth’s atmosphere, it vaporizes and turns into a meteor: a

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streak of light in the sky. Because of their appearance, these streaks oflight are
sometimes called "shooting stars." Sometimes meteoroids don’t vaporize
completely in the atmosphere. In fact, sometimes they survive their trip through
earth’s atmosphere and land on the earth’s surface. When they land on earth, they
are called meteorites.

Figure 1.3 Asteroid and Meteoroid

The difference between Asteroid and Meteroid

Asteroid Meteoroid
Large pieces of rock in space Broken pieces of asteroids and comets
Much bigger in size compared to Small in size
meteoroid

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Interesting
Things toFact!
do!
While
Whywatching theare
the stars night sky,
not you may
visible at observe
the dayvarious
time?patterns formed by different
groups of stars, these are called constellations. Today there are a total of 88
You’ll need:
A. Individual
constellations thatwork
cover the entire night sky including the Andromeda (Princess of
 1 torch,
1. What
Ethiopia), is ‘Solar
Cassiopeia System’?
(Queen of Ethiopia) and Cepheus (King of Ethiopia). You can
see 2.  of
the patterns 1 constellation
sheet of plain paper,1.4.
pencil and a needle.
Name all the planets in figure
according to their distance from the sun.
Steps:
3. Which one is the nearest planet to the sun?
1. Place the torch in the centre of the paper with its glass front
B. Group discussion
touching the paper.
Discuss the following question in small groups and present your
2. Now draw a circle around the torch.
discussion outcome through your group representative.
3. Perforate the paper with the needle within the circled area.
1) How the earth and other members of the solar system were
4. Now place the perforated circle part of the paper on the glass front
originated and evolved to the present state?
and cover the paper around the torch with a rubber band.
5. Take care that the switch of the torch is not covered.
6. In a dark room, stand at some distance facing a plain wall, switch
off all other lights. Now flash the torch light on the wall. You will
see numerous dots of light on 1.4
Figure the Constellations
wall, the like stars shine in night.
7. Switch on allLatin
the lights
Name in the room.
English All or
Name dots of light will be almost
Description
invisible. Andromeda Princess of Ethiopia

8. You may Apus Bird of Paradise

now compare the situation with what happens to the
Aquarius Water bearer
bright objects of the night sky after the sun rises in the morning.
Cassiopeia Queen of Ethiopia
After you practice at home write a report and present to the class.
Cetus Sea monster (whale)
Cepheus King of Ethiopia
Gemini Twins
Source: [Link]

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1.2. Shape and movements of the earth

Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to
Explain the shape of the earth;
Describe the movement of the earth;
Distinguish the effects of the earth’s rotation from its revolution

Key terms
 Shape  Season
 Orbit  Current
 Rotation  Deflection
 Revolution
1.2.1. Shape of the earth
Start-up questions

 What is shape?
 What does the shape of the earth look like?
The shape of the earth had remained questionable throughout history. The general
acceptance of the fact that the earth is round came about in the first century A.D.
The earth on which we live is one of the planets in the universe. The earth is round.
However, it is not a perfect circle. It has almost a spherical shape. The globe is the
best model of the earth (See Fig. 1.5).

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Fig.1.5 The Globe

As the globe in Fig.1.5portrays, the earth is spherical in shape. It is slightly
flattened at the poles. This indicates that the equatorial and the polar diameters are
slightly different. Thus, the diameter from pole to pole is shorter than the diameter
at the equator. In fact, the difference is small. The equatorial diameter is about
12,700 kilometers while the pole to pole diameter is only about 40 km shorter. The
polar diameter is, thus, 12,660 kilometers.
1.2.2. Movements of the earth
Start-up questions

 What does movement mean?

 What are the results of the earth’s movement?
Movement is the act of shifting position along a definite line. It appears to be
horizontal, vertical or ecliptic along a given direction following a definite line, in
course of time. Everything has its own axis of movement (See Fig. 1.6)
Axis of the Earth

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Axis of the earth is an imaginary line that passes through the centre of the earth
from north to south. The earth rotates on this axis. As you see Fig. 1.6, the earth’s
axis is not situated in a vertical position. It is tilted from the vertical position. The
angle of tilt is measured to be 2330'(23½).

Fig 1.6. Tilted axis of the earth

Everything in the universe moves. There is nothing that does not move. So is our
earth which has several movements. The earth is one of the planets in the universe.
The most noticeable movements of the earth are that it rotates on its axis, and
revolves round the sun. It also moves with the sun in the middle and numerous
other stars in space. In this unit, you will learn only about the earth’s rotation and
revolution. These two movements, which take place at the same time, are
important because, they result in phenomena that affect your life on earth. Like all
other planets, the earth moves round the sun along a definite direction and line
without stopping for a while. The imaginary line or path along which the earth
revolves is called orbit. This orbit is not a perfect circle, but elliptical in shape.
Because of the elliptical shape of the earth’s orbit, the distance between the earth
and the sun changes as the earth revolves round the sun. In general, the earth
makes two movements. These movements are known as rotation and revolution.
Every 24 hours, the earth makes one complete movement on its axis. This
movement is known as rotation. The earth makes one complete movement round

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the sun in a year i.e. in 365¼ days. This movement is known as revolution. The
two movements go hand in hand. The rotation of the earth on its axis is effected
from west to east. This may mean, once every 24 hours, the earth makes a
complete west to east turn on its axis (See Fig.1.7).

Fig 1.7 direction of movement of the earth

1.2.3. Effects of rotation and revolution

A. Effects of rotation
Start-up questions

 Take a spherical object and place it in front of a burning bulb. Move the spherical object
from west to east in front of the burning bulb.
- From your observation, what proportion of the spherical object gets light cast by
the burning bulb?
- What conclusion can you give with regard to receiving light on a still or moving
spherical object?
The rotation of the earth on its axis causes the following major phenomena. These
are changing day and night, and apparent movement of the sun. The noticeable
effect of rotation is the manifestation of day and night. Moreover, rotation of the
earth causes deflection of the wind and ocean currents.

Day and Night

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As indicated earlier, the earth has a spherical shape. Because of this shape, only
one half of the earth gets the sun’s light at any rotational movement. The part of
the earth on which the sun is shining has day and the other part which is hidden
from the shining of the sun experiences night. As the earth turns from west to east,
the part of the earth which was facing the sun will turn away from the sun and the
part of the earth which was away from the sun will face the sun. This is how day
and night succeed one another. The difference between day time and night time is
that in day time the sun is above the horizon while during night time it is below the
horizon.

Apparent Movement of the Sun

Apparent movement means seemingly true movement, but in actual sense it is not
true.
The rotation of the earth makes the sun as if it were moving across the sky from
east to west. But this apparent movement of the sun is caused by earth’s actual
rotation from west to east.

B. Effects of revolution
 What effect does the revolution of the earth have?
The revolution of the earth round the sun results in:

a. Difference in the length of day and night

b. Manifestations of seasons
a. Difference in the length of day and night

Day and night are not of equal length at all places. This is because of the
inclination of the earth’s axis. As indicated earlier, the inclination of the axis is
23½o from its vertical position. This inclination of the earth’s axis makes the sun to
seem “moving” north and south of the equator. Variation in length of day is

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observed due to incoming and outgoing seasons. Length of day time and night time
varies from season to season and from place to place. This is mainly due to the
tilting of the earth’s axis. If the earth’s axis were not tilted, each night and day
everywhere on earth would always be 12 hours long and there would be no
seasons.

b. Seasons

Season is one of the four divisions of the year, defined by the position of earth
along its orbit round the sun. The seasons—winter, spring, summer, and autumn or
fall—are characterized by differences in average temperature and in the amount of
time that the sun is in the sky each day (See Fig.1.8).

Fig. 1.8 revolution of the earth around the sun

The seasons are divisions of the year caused by the earth’s revolution. As the earth
revolves round the sun, changes like temperature conditions are experienced on the
earth. You have learned that the length of day and night changes throughout the
world as a result of revolution. These changes of the length of day and night are
followed by changes in the seasons. For example, summer depends on the angle of

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the

A. Individual work
1. What is the difference between the earth’s shape and the globe?
2. What significance importance does the globe have in terms of
understanding the shape of the earth?
3. Describe axis of the earth.
4. Mention the two movement of the earth.
5. What is the difference between summer and winter?
Things to do:
1. Can you make a globe? Go to your school’s pedagogical centre
and get advice from the person in charge of the centre and try to
make a globe of your own.
2. On a big drawing paper, show the revolution of the earth round
the sun with varied seasons.

sun’s rays and the length of day time. Look at Fig. 1.8. How many seasons do you
observe? You observe four seasons; they are summer, autumn, winter and spring.
Each season has its own characteristics.

Activity 1.2
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1.3. External components and internal structure of the earth

Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to

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 State the four components (subsystems) of the earth and their constant
interaction;
 Distinguish the difference and similarity between direct and indirect
sources information about the internal parts of the earth
 These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
 Top 5 words
  Atmosphere  Hydrosphere  Components
 Biospehere  Lithospehere
More Key Words
 Core  Crust Mantle

1.3.1. External Components of the earth

Start-upquestions
 Do you know what each of these spheres represents - lithosphere,
hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere?
 Are these external components or sub systems interacted?
The physical environment of the earth can be divided into four components or sub
systems. They are the “lithosphere” (land), “hydrosphere” (water), “biosphere”

Word Origin
Many words used in a language may have been taken from some other languages. The
following words are having origin from Greek words.
Atmos– meaning vapor
Hydro – meaning water
Bio – meaning Life
Lithos – meaning Stone

(living things) and the “atmosphere” (air).

A. The lithosphere/Geosphere
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The lithospehere is the solid or rock part of the [Link] is the coolest and most
rigid part of the Earth. It is an irregular surface with various landforms such as
mountains, plateaus, plains, valley etc. The surface of the lithosphere is very
uneven. There are highest mountains like Ras Dejen (RasDashen), and lowest
places like Dallol depression in Ethiopia.
Things to do!

Discuss the following question in

B. The Hydrosphere small groups and present your
The hydrosphere is the water section of the discussion outcome through your

earth. The hydrosphere contains all of the group representative.

1. List the name of highest
water on earth in liquid, solid and vapour
mountains, major rivers, and
[Link] can be found in oceans, seas and
plants grow in your locality.
lakes [Link] oceans are the most prominent 2. Associate the features you
features of the hydrosphere, covering nearly have listed with the
71 percent of the earth’s surface and 97 components of the earth (to

percent of earth's water. which components of the

Figure 1.9 Components of the Earth and their interaction

C. The Biosphere
The biosphere is part of the earth’s surface where
living things exist. It is concentrated near the
surface in a zone that extends from the ocean floor
upward for several kilometers into the atmosphere.

D. The Atmosphere

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Atmosphere is the envelope of air that surrounds the earth. It is a mixture of gases.
The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is nitrogen (78%). Nitrogen enters the
atmosphere when volcanoes erupt and when dead plants and animals decay. The
second most abundantgas in earth’s atmosphere is oxygen (21%). Oxygen is
primarily produced by plants.
Nitrogen and oxygen accounts for about Figure 1.10 Composition of the atmosphere

Ninety-nine percent of the gases. Gases

including argon, carbon dioxide, methane,
and watervapour make up the rest of the
atmosphere.

Things to do!

Discuss the following question in small groups and present your discussion
outcome through your group representative.

1. State the four external components of the earth and discuss their
interaction?

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The components (sub systems) of the earthis highly interacted eachother. The
interaction of these systems influences every environment on Earth. Tall
mountains, for example, often have lower temperatures than valleys or hills. In
high-altitude mountain ranges, the lithosphere interacts with the thinner air and

How do earth’s spheres interact?

The earth is an integrated system that consists of rock, air, water,and living
things that all interact with each other. Scientists divide this system into
four parts. These are the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and
atmosphere. The spheres are closely connected. For example,
 Many birds (biosphere) fly through the air (atmosphere), while water
(hydrosphere) often flows through the soil (lithosphere).
 Human beings from the (biosphere) walk on the ground (the
lithosphere); breath the air (the atmosphere); and drink the water (the
hydrosphere). We could not exist without any one of these systems.
Interactions also occur among the spheres. For example a change in the
atmosphere can cause a change in the hydrosphere, and vice versa.
Examples:
 Humans (biosphere) built a dam out of rock materials (lithosphere)
 Humans (biosphere) harness energy from the water (hydrosphere) by
having it spin turbines (lithosphere) to produce electricity.

precipitation to create a cool or even icy climate zone. Over time, plants and
animals have adapted to life in these unique environments.

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1.3.2. Internal structure and sources information about the internal parts of
the earth
[Link]. Sources of information about the internal parts of the earth
 List out the various sources of information about the interior of the earth?
 How do we get information about the interior of the earth?
Human lives on the surface of a globe that has a radius of nearly 6500km, yet no
one has ever penetrated more than a few kilometres below the solid earth.
The knowledge about the internal parts of the earth is obtained from direct sources
and indirect sources.
A. Direct sources

The direct source of information

about the internal parts of the earth
includes rock materials from mining
areas and molten magma from
volcanic eruptions. Besides scientist
are working on “deep ocean drilling
projects”.
Figure [Link] Kola Super deep
holes, the deepest manmade hole on Earth
i. Mining
Mining is the process of extracting useful materials from the earth. The gold
mining that is being undertaken in the Republic of South Africa enabled human
beings to secure rock sample from a depth of 3 – 4km beneath the surface.
ii. Volcanic eruption

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Volcanic eruption forms another source of direct information. When the molten
material (magma) thrown in to the surface of the earth, during volcanic eruption it
becomes available for laboratory analysis.
iii. Deep ocean drilling projects

Many holes have been dug for research purpose. The deepest hole by far is on the
Kola Peninsula in Russia, referred as the “Kola well”. The deepest drill at Kola,
has so far reached a depth of 12km. This and many deep drilling projects have
provided large volume of information through the analysis of materials collected at
different depth.

[Link] Sources

The vast interior of the earth is largely inaccessible to direct study. The indirect
sources of information about the internal part of the earth are obtained from earth
quake waveandby studying the meteoritesthat fall to the earth.

i. Earth quake wave

An earth quake wave is one of the most important sources of information about
the interior of the earth. An earth quake is simply the shaking of the earth. It is a
natural event. It is caused due to release of energy, which generates wave that
travel in all direction. The wave generated by an earth quake tells us a lot of
things about the material property of the interior of the earth.
ii. Study of meteorites that fall to the earth

The materials and the structures observed in the meteorites are similar to that of the
earth. The analysis indicated that the core of the meteorites consists of iron and
nickel. Since the earth is a celestial body like that of the meteorite, it can easily
have inferred that our earth also contains iron and nickel in its core.

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[Link]. Internal structure of the earth

How do you describe the structure of the

earth?
How many layers are there?
The structure of the earth’s interior is
basically divided into three layers. These are crust, mantle and core.

Figure 1.12 Structure of the Earth

A. Crust
The crust is the outermost and thinnest layer of the earth. It has two different parts:
continental crust and oceanic crust. The average thickness of continental crust is
about 30 to 40 km. In contrast oceanic crust is between 5 to 6km thick. The crust
consists of hard and strong rock. Major constituent elements of the crust are Silica
(Si) and Aluminium (Al) and thus, it is often termed as SIAL.
B. Mantle
The portion of the interior below the crust is called the mantle. The mantle is about
2,900km thick, and takes up 84% of Earth’s volume. The mantle is the thickest
layer of the earth. The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and
Magnesium and hence it is also termed as SIMA.
C. Core
The core is the innermost layer of the earth. It is composed mainly of and Nickel
(Ni) and Iron (Fe) hence it is also called as NIFE. The cores temperature is about
60000c. The core constitutes nearly 15% of earth’s volume. The core has two

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layers: an inner core that is solid and an outer core that is liquid (or semi-liquid). In
the inner core the force of gravity is so intense that the molten metal (iron and
nickel) is compressed in to a solid material.
You can think of the earth like an apple with three layers – skin, flesh and
core. Except, in the earth, the layers are called the crust, the mantle and the
core.

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Activity 1.3
A. Individual work
1. Name the three layers of the earth?
2. Which layers of the earth is the outermost and thinnest?
3. List out the various sources of information about the interior of the earth?
4. Which layers of the earth accounts about 15% of the earth’s volume?
5. Using the following picture, label the layers of the earth that make up the
structure of the earth?

[Link] discussion

Discuss the following question in small groups and present your discussion
outcome through your group representative.

1. State the four components (sub systems) of the earth and explain their
constant interaction?
2. Discuss why inner core become solid?

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1.4. Materials forming the crust of the Earth

Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to
 Identify major elements, minerals and rocks forming the crust of the
earth;
 Analyze how and why different earth’s materials are differentiated into
different layers;

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top 10 words
 Elements  Sedimentary rock  continental crust
 Minerals  Volcanic rock  Oceanic crust
 Igneous rock  Plutonic rock  Metamorphism
 Metamorphic rock
More key words
 Oxygen  Rock  Lava
 Basalt  Magma  Granite

1.4.1. Major Elements

Start-upquestions
 What type of material makes up the earth's crust?
 Name the major elements present in the earth’s crust?

Earth’s crust is made up of several elements. These elements are in a solid form in
the outer layer of the earth and in hot and molten form in the interior. About 98%
of the total crust of the earth is composed of eight elements. As you can see from
the table (table 1.1) the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust are oxygen,
silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium.

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Table 1.1 Weight percentage of the most abundant elements the earth’s crust

Elements Relative abundance (%)

Oxygen (O) 46.6
Silicon (Si) 27.72
Aluminium (Al) 8.13
Iron (Fe) 5.00
Calcium (Ca) 3.63
Sodium (Na) 2.83
Potassium (K) 2.59
Magnesium (Mg) 2.09
Others 1.41
Source: Data of Geochemistry, sixth edition, Michael Fleischer(1967)

1.4.2. Major Minerals

Start-upquestions
 What are the major minerals forming the crust of the earth?
The materials that the earth's crust is made of are called rocks, and all rocks are
made of minerals. There are many known mineral species, but the vast majority of
rocks are formed by combination of a few common minerals, called rock forming
minerals. Minerals, the building blocks of rocks, are inorganic solids with a
specific internal structure and a definite chemical [Link] rock forming
minerals are those minerals which are found in abundance in the rocks of the
earth’s [Link] the (table 1.2) which shows the major rock forming minerals:
such as silicates, Oxides, Carbonates, Sulfidesetc are the major rock forming
minerals.

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Table 1.2 Major rock forming minerals

Mineral group Example
Silicates Mica, feldspar, olivine
Oxides Quartz, Magnetite,
Carbonates Calcite, Dolomite etc
Sulfides Pyrite, Galena
Sulfates Gypsum
Chlorides Rock salt
1.4.3. Major rocks forming the crust
Start-upquestions
 List the major rocks forming the crust of the earth?
 How different rocks areformed?

On the basis of their mode of formation (origin), rocks of the Earth’s crust are
classified into three. These are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

1. Igneous rock
The word igneous was derived from the Latin word “ignis”, which means fire.
Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies either on
the surface or inside the surface. Sometimes the hot rock erupts, on the surface.
Magma that gets to the surface is called lava. There are two main types of igneous
rocks. These are extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks.

A. Extrusive igneous rock

Extrusive igneous rocks are also called volcanic rocks. They are formed when
magma cools and solidifies on the surface of the earth. An abundant and important

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example is basalt and obsidian.

B. Intrusive igneous rocks
Intrusive igneous rocks are also called plutonic rock. They are formed when
magma cools and crystallizes within the interior of earth. Granite is the most
abundant intrusive igneous rock.

Focus
Magma is a name for molten rock material found below the Earth’s surface,
and this name changes to lava when magma reaches the Earth’s surface. It is
produced in the earth’s interior at a depth of about 60 to 200km where
temperature is between 900oc and 1600oc

2. Sedimentary rock
The term sedimentary was derived from the Latin term “sedimentum”, which
means settling (laid down). Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediments come to
settle in a certain areas after they have been transported in to those areas by various
erosion agents. Most of these types of rocks are formed in rivers, seas and oceans.
Sedimentary rocks differ from other types of rocks for the fact that it has layers. A
layer indicates the amount of sediment deposited at a time. The bottom layer is the
oldest and the hardest of all the
layers deposited above it while the
top layer is the youngest and the
softest.

Sedimentary rocks contain fossils

which indicate evidences of past

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events. These rocks are ware house of major energy resources, such as coal,
petroleum and natural gas.

Figure 1.13 Sedimentary rocks, laid down in layers

3.
Metamorphic rock
How metamorphic rocks are formed?
What is Metamorphism? What are the agents of metamorphism?
Metamorphic rocks get their name from the Greek words “meta” meaning change,
and “morpho” meaning form. Metamorphic rock results from changes in other

Focus

Metamorphism involves the transformation of pre-existing rocks,

i.e igneous and sedimentary rock and other qualitatively different
rocks. Heat and pressure are the most important agents of change of
igneous and sedimentary rocks into metamorphic rocks.

Limestone Marble

kinds of rocks. They are produced from pre-existing igneous, sedimentary, and
even other metamorphic rocks through heat and pressure inside the earth’s crust.
Sometimes they are called changed rocks. Marble is an example of metamorphic
rock. It is formed from limestone (sedimentary rock).

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A. Individual work
1. How the different types of rocks are formed?
1.5.
2. Mention the names of the different types of igneous rocks?
T
3. List the major elements forming the crust of the earth?
4. List the major minerals forming the crust of the earth?
5. What are the most important agents of metamorphism?
B. Group discussion
Discuss on the following question in small groups and present your
discussion outcome through your group representative.
1. State the main difference between intrusive and extrusive
igneous rock?
2. Discuss on the major elements, mineral and rocks forming the
crust of the earth

he distribution and economic value of the different rock types

in Ethiopia
Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to

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 Describe the distribution and economic value of the different rock type in
Ethiopia
Start-up questions
 Which areas of Ethiopia are largely covered by igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks?
 List the different uses of rocks in your locality?
A. Distribution of rocks
The igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocksare found in different parts of
Ethiopia. As you can see from the map (figure 1.14) igneous rocks cover large
areas in the central part of the country. Eastern Ethiopia is mainly covered with
sedimentary rocks. Metamorphic rocks are found in the northern, western and
southern edges of the country.

Figure 1.14 Distribution of the major outcropping rocks in Ethiopia

B. Economic
importance of
rocks in Ethiopia

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Rocks have a broad range of uses that makes them significantly important to
human life. These include:

A. Source of fuel:Sedimentary rocks like coal are a source of fuel for industrial
use.
B. Construction purpose: Some rocks like granite and sandstone are quarried and
used for road, bridge and building construction. Rocks like marble can be
polished as an ornament for decorating floors, walls of buildings etc
C. Source of food nutrient: Rocksalt such as sodium chloride from sedimentary
rock provide minerals used in cooking.
D. Formation of soil: Soils are formed from the disintegration of rocks.

Table 1.3 Economic importance of rocks

Major Rocks Associated mineral Importance

Metallic minerals, such as
- gold, - Decorative and Jewelry materials
Metamorphic - nickel, - Construction,
rock - diamond, - Electrical wire making,
- copper, - industrial machinery production
- uranium, iron, etc
platinum and lead
Sedimentary Mineral fuels, such as - Energy sources
rock - coal - Construction
- petroleum
- Writing materials
- natural gas
- limestone, and gypsum
Igneous rock Basalt, granite, sandetc Building and construction materials

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Activity 1.5

A. Individual work
1. What type of rock is dominant in Addis Ababa and its surrounding?
(refer figure 1.10, distribution of the major outcropping rocks in
Ethiopia)
2. List down the uses of rocks?
B. Group discussion
Discuss on the following question in small groups and present your
discussion outcome through your group representatives.
1. Is it possible to learn of past conditions of the earth by studying
sedimentary rocks?
2. In a group, walk around your school compound and its
surroundings. Collect samples of several types of rocks and bring
them back to the classroom. Finally, report to the class about the
uses of rocks you have collected in your locality?

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UNIT SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the physical characteristics of the earth. We
discussed how the earth and other members of the solar system were
originated and evolved to the present, explained the external components and
internal structure of the earth, examined the materials forming the crust of the
earth and we have described the distribution and economic value of the
different rock type in Ethiopia.
 The origin of the earth is related to the formation of the solar system. The sun
and the sun’s family (planets, asteroids, meteors etc) were formed from a large
filament of hot whirling gases. Finally, as a result of long time processes the sun
and the planets were formed.
 Geologists estimate that the earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago.
 The shape of the earth is spherical.
 Axis of the earth is tilted by from the vertical position.
 The noticeable movements of the earth are rotation and revolution.
 The path the earth follows when it revolves round the sun is called orbit. It is
elliptical in shape.
 The four components (sub systems) of the earth are the lithosphere, hydrosphere,
biosphere and the atmosphere.
 The knowledge about the internal parts of the earth is obtained from direct
sources and indirect sources.
 The internal structure of the earth is divided in to three major components: the
crust, the mantle and the core.
 The materials that the Earth's crust is made of are called rocks, and all rocks
are made of minerals.
 On the basis of their mode of origin, rocks of the Earth’s crust are classified into
three: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
 Rocks are used as a source of fuel, construction and serves as a source of food
nutrients

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Glossary
Asteroids: a relatively small rocky Mantle:an intermediate layer of the
body that orbits the sun. earth. It is found between the
Atmosphere:the envelope of air crust and the core layers of the
that surrounds the earth, held earth
in place by gravity. Meteors: Shooting star; fragment of
Biosphere: part of the earth’s solid matter which enters the
surface where living things upper atmosphere from outer
exist. space.
Celestial bodies: refers to the sun, Minerals: naturally occurring
the moon, and all those objects inorganic solids with a
shining in the night sky. specific internal structure and
Constellation:The patterns of stars a definite chemical
seen in the sky composition.
Core: the central layer of the earth Orbit: the path each planet follows
which is composed of nickel when it moves around the sun
and iron. Planet: a spherical object that orbits
Crust: the outer surface or layer of around a star
the earth Rock: a solid material that
Hydrosphere: is the water surface comprises the earth’s crust.
of the Earth including oceans, They are made of minerals. In
seas and lakes. turn minerals are made up of
Lithosphere: the solid or rock part elements.
of the Earth. Solar system: the sun, the eight
Magma: Molten rock beneath the planets and all other objects
surface of the earth. that revolve around the sun.

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Orbit: the line along which the

earth goes when it travels
round the sun.
 Revolution: the movement of the
earth round the sun in the time
span of 365 days.
 Rotation: the movement of the
earth on its axis every 24
hours.
Season (s):traditional division of
the year based on well-known
weather conditions.
Shape:original form of something.

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REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT ONE

I. True or False
Direction: Write “True” if the statement is correct and write “False” if
it is incorrect

_____1. The core of the earth consists of nickeland iron.

_____2. The layer of the earth beneath the mantle is core.
_____3. The crust is the innermost layer of the earth.
_____4. Mineral fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are associated
with metamorphic rocks.
_____5. An earth quake wave enables us to acquire information about the
interior of the earth.
_____ 6. Rock is a solid material that comprises the earth’s crust.
_____ 7. The earth’s shape is likened to perfectly circular object.

_____ 8. Globe is another version of map.

II. Matching
Direction: Match the items in column “A” with items in “B”

A B

_____ 1 Lithosphere A. The water section of the earth

_____ 2 Hydrosphere [Link] variations in seasons
_____ 3 Atmosphere [Link] part of the earth that supports all sorts of life
_____ 4 Biosphere D. The gaseous envelop of the Earth
_____ 5 Rotation E. The solid or rock part of the earth
_____ 6 Revolution F. Causes variation in day and night

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III. Multiple choices

Direction: Choose the correct answer from the given options.
_____ 1. The type of rock that shows layered arrangement is:
A. Igneous C. Sedimentary
B. Metamorphic D. Magma
______2. Which is the third nearest planet to the sun?
A. Venus B. Earth
B. Mercury D. Mars
_____3. How long does it take for the Sun’s light to reach Earth?
A. 10 minutes B. 8 minutes C. 7 minutes D. 12 Minutes
_____4. Which of the following two important elements constitute the earth’s
innermost core?
A. Potassium and Magnesium C. Nickel and Iron
B. Silicon and Aluminium D. Magnesium and Silicon
_____ 5. An imaginary line or path along which the earth revolves round the sun is
called:

A. axis B. angle C. Orbit D. tilt

______ 6. What do you call the complete movement that the earth makes on its
axis every 24 hours?
A. Revolution B. Rotation C. Season D. Day and night
_______7. Which one of the pairs of words shows the direction of movement of
the earth on its axis?
A. East-westB. West-east C. East-south D. North-east

IV. Fill in the blank

Direction: Fill the following blanks with appropriate word(s)
1. The star from which we get light and heat is ________________.
2. All the planets revolve around the Sun on paths called ______________which
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is__________________ in shape.
3. ________________ is naturally occurring inorganic solids with a specific
internal structure and a definite chemical composition.
V. Short answer
Direction: Give short answers for the following questions.
1. How the earth and other members of the solar system formed?
2. How many planets are there in our solar system? List them
3. Write down the direct and indirect sources of information about the interior of
the earth?
4. Explain the earth’s shape and its movements.
5. What are the manifestations of the earth’s rotation and revolution?

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Check List

Put a tick (√) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can perform

I can

1 Discuss how the earth and other members of the solar

system were originated and evolved to the present state

2 State the four components (sub-systems) of the earth and

their constant interaction

3 Distinguish between direct and indirect sources

information about the internal parts of the earth

4 Identify major elements, minerals and rocks forming the

crust of the earth

5 Analyze how and why different earth’s materials are

differentiated into different layers

6 Describe the distribution and economic value of the

different rock type in Ethiopia.

7 Identify the shape and movements of the earth

8 Explain the effects of earth’s movements.

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Unit Two

Human Evolution and World Population

Unit learning outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

 appreciate the origin of human beings;

 Show archaeological sites on sketch map;
 Point out the archaeological sites that show the origin of earlier human
beings;
 Analyzeworld population growth distribution;
 Calculate different demographic rates;
 Evaluate the role of different mode of transportation;
 Identify and show significant road signs

Main Contents

2.1 Human Evolution

2.2 Trend of World Population

2.3 People and the Development of Transportation

 Unit summery
 Review Exercise

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2.1. Human Evolution

Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to
 Point out archaeological sites that show the origin of earlier human
beings;
 Examine the historical routes humankind has passed through over
time;

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top 10 words
 Evolution  Homo  Homo erectus
 Fossil  Hominids  Homo sapiens
 Genus homo  Homo habilis  Pre-history
 Bi-pedal
More key words
 Archaeology  creationist

2.1.1. Archaeology and archaeological works

Start-up question
 What is Archaeology?
Archaeology is the science in which archaeologists dig out material objects and
fossils of the past. It helps us in the study of pre-history. Pre-history was the distant
past before the beginning of writing and recording. Fossils are the remains of dead
plants, human beings and animals. Therefore, the study of fossils and other
material remains of the past help us to reconstruct what happened before the art of
writing started.

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Figure 2.1Artifacts and fossils

2.1.2. Origin of the first human beings
Start-up question
 Distinguish the difference between the Creationist theory and the
scientific theory?
With regard to the origin of human beings, there are two theories suggested.
These are: creationist theory and scientific (evolution) theory
Creationist theory said that human beings were created by God. Those who
believe in the assumption that God creates humans and the whole universe are
Creationists.
The Scientific theory believe that human beings and other living things are the
result of gradual and natural process of changes that took millions of years.
English Scientist, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) explained about evolutionary
process.

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Hominids were the ancestors of human beings. Human beings belong to the species
called homo sapiens. Australopithecines (southern ape) were the earliest (the first)
human species that was appeared in Africa around 6 million years ago. Its fossils
were discovered in Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa and Chad.
The fossil remains of Australopithecus Afarensis, Known as Lucy or Dinikensh,
were found in 1974 at Hadar, in the Afar region, Ethiopia. Afarensis may have
been ancestor of Genus Homo.
2.1.3. Historical paths human kind passes over time
There are different species that belong to genus homo are: homohabilis, homo
erectus and homo sapiens.
The homo habilis (handy human being) is considered to be the oldest human being
that appeared in Africa. Its fossils were found at Olduvia Gorge in Tanzana, at lake
Turkan in Kenya and in the Omo valley in Ethiopia.
Home erectus (up right walking human being) was the first human being to master
the use of fire and the earliest species to migrate from Africa to other part of the
world. Its fossils discovered in Ethiopia in the Omo Basin, Melka-Kunture, Konso-
Gardula and Middle Awash.

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Focus
There are three stages through which the Homo species passed before the
emergence of modern humans. These are:-
1. Homo habilis-i.e. able to make tools
2. Homo [Link] to erect upright and walk
3. Homo sapiens-i.e. knowledge is the distinctive feature of modern
human

Homo sapiens (wise human being) were very similar to modern human being.

Fossils of this species were found in the Awash and Omo valleys and in the areas
near Dire Dawa. Modern beings appeared about 40,000 years ago in Africa. They
are different in many ways from their ancestors. They have large brains, are bi-
pedal and wake erect, use languages, develop culture, invent tools and transmit
knowledge from generation to generation

Figure 2.2 Human evolution from Homo habilis to Homo erectus

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Activity 2.1

A. Individual work
Using the reference materials, write very short notes on the following
terms:
1. Archaeology
2. Fossils, Hominids
3. Creationist theory
4. Evolutionary theory
B. Group discussion:
Discuss on the following question in small groups and present your
discussion outcome through your group representative.

1. List the sites where the fossils of Homo erectus were discovered in
Ethiopia.
2. By using map Africa indicate the location of archaeological sites
that show the origin of early human being

2.2. Trends of world population

Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to
 Predict future world population growth pattern on the basis of present and
past population growth rate
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 Calculate different demographic rates such as growth, mortality, fertility,

net-migration and etc.;
 Identify types and causes population movement;
 Locate densely and sparsely populated regions on world population map;
 Evaluate growth trend of Ethiopian population in line with world population
growth;

Start-up question
 What do you mean by human population?
 What factors have contributed to the growth of world population?
Human population refers to the total number of human inhabitants of a specified

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top 10 words
 Birth rate  Fertility  Mortality
 City  Immigrant  Migration
 Death rate  Hamlet  Population
 Emigrant
More key words
 Dependency ratio  Natural increase Population explosion
 Infant mortality  Settlement Population cluster

area, such as a city, country, or continent, at a given time. Population is one of the
most critical factors that determine the socio-economic and environmental
conditions of every country in the [Link] world’s population has been
experiencing continuous growth since the [Link] UNDP estimated that
world population reached 6 billion with an annual growth rate of 1.5% by 2000
A.D. The number added to world population per year would increase from 80

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million to 90 million if the growth rate of 1.5% continues, and world population
would double in a period of 40-50 years from about 2000 A.D. Such rapid and
dramatic growth rate of the world population is known as population explosion.
Factors that contribute for rapid population growth
The rapid increase in the size of the human population is attributed to many
[Link] include:
 Advancements in scientific knowledge, agriculture, industry, medicine;

 Improvement in peoples living conditions;

 Humans ability to control famine and disease, which have been major
killers of humans;
 The relatively lower cost of importing vaccines, antibiotics,
insecticides, and high-yielding varieties of seeds.

As indicated in (Table 2.1) below, by 1750 there was only about 791 million
peoples in the world. However, in a matter of 250 years, the world population

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reached over 6 billion. The growth of human population between 1750 and 2000
has been very rapid.

Table 2.1 Trends in world population growth (1750-2050)

Region Population size (in millions)
Years

1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050

Asia 502 635 809 947 1,437 3,689 5,369
Africa 106 107 111 133 228 797 1,846
Europe 163 203 276 408 546 727 642
Latin America and 16 24 38 74 166 523 480
the Caribbean
North America 2 7 26 82 221 481 722
Oceania 2 2 2 6 12 30 45
Total 791 978 1,262 1,650 2,556 6,073 9,104`
Source :- Microsoft Encarta (2009)

Trend and growth rate of Ethiopian population

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According to the 2007 Census, the population of Ethiopia was 73.8 million. The
country’s population is among the fastest growing in the world

It was estimated that, in 1900, Ethiopia had only 11.8 million persons. As shown in
(Table 2.2), this number increased to about 12.9 million in 1920 and to 23.5
million in [Link] table shows that, in 1960, the country had twice the population
it had in 1900. These values show that, during those decades, it took 60 years for
the population to double in size. In contrast, since 1960, the time required for the
population to double has been on the decline. This is because of rapid rate of
population growth.

As shown in (Table 2.2)the growth rates of the Ethiopian population since 1900
shows that the population increased by less than 1.0% until about 1920. With
worldwide efforts to control malaria and other diseases in the 1950s,the growth
rate rises from year to year and reached 2.8% in 1984, and 3.1% in 1994.

According to the results of the three censuses, there was a slight decline in the
population growth rate over recent decades, changing from 3.1 percent in 1984 to
2.9 percent in 1994, and to 2.0 percent in 2007. This was mainly the result of the
government’s efforts to regulate fertility rates through the delivery of family
planning services.
Table 2.2 Population estimate and growth rate in Ethiopia (1900-2007)
Year 1900 1920 1940 1960 1970 1984 1994 2007
Population (million) 11.8 12.9 16.3 23.5 29.5 42.6 53.5 73.8
Growth rate (%) 0.2 1.0 1.5 2.2 2.8 3.1 2.9 2.0
Source: Central Statistical Authority (CSA) 1994 and 2007

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Activity 2.2
A. Group discussion
Discuss on the following question in small groups (based on Table 2.1 and
2.2)and present your discussion outcome through your group representative.
1. Identify the two continents whose population growth rates differ the
most?
2. Discuss the consequences of any rapid population growth you have
observed in your locality? What measures do you suggest to correct the
situation?
3. Discuss about the growth and distribution pattern of Ethiopian
population?

2.2.1 Components of population dynamics

Start-up question
 What are the components of population dynamics?
The main components of population dynamics/ determinants are fertility, mortality
and [Link] and mortality are biological factors, while migration is
purely [Link] combined effect of the three factors controls the changes
in population size and composition.
A. Fertility
Start-up question
 What do you mean by fertility?
 What factors affect the fertility of a society?
Fertilityrefers to the actual reproductive performanceof a [Link] growth of
world population depends largely on human fertility. This is so because any society
replenishes itself through the process of human fertility.
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Measures of fertility
Fertility can be determined using different methods but the most commonly used
measure of fertility is birth rate.

Birth Rate (BR)

Birth rate is the most common and simplest index of fertility. It is simply the
number of live births observed in one year among one thousand people in a given
region.

Birth rate can be expressed as a number of live births per thousand people.
B
BR= P ×K

Where B is the total number of live births during a year, P is mid-year total
population and K is a constant, conventionally 1000.
Example
If the number of live births in a population of 50,686,000 was 150,800, the
birth rate is:
B 150,800
BR= P ×K¿ 50,686,000 ×1000=¿2.9 births per1000 per year

Factors of Fertility Distribution

Various factors affect fertility distribution in the world including
 Low access to contraceptives;
 Backwardness and poverty;
 Low status of women;
 Need of children’s for labour;
 Children are considered as symbol of virility and
 Low educational background.

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B. Mortality
Start-up question
 What is mortality? What factors affect mortality?
Mortality refers to the occurrence of death in the human population. Mortality rates
are higher in the developing countries than in the developed ones. This difference
is caused by variations in standards of living, nutrition, medical services, personal
hygiene and environmental sanitation.
Measures of Mortality
Mortality can be measured in a number of ways, including the use of death rate and
infant mortality rate.
Death rate (DR): is the ratio of the total registered deaths of a specified year in a

D
DR¿ P × K where DR is crude death rate, D stands for total observed

deaths, P is total mid-year population, and k is a constant, 1000.

Example
In a hypothetical region, the total number of deaths observed in 2011
was 21,000, and the total mid-year population was 7,000,000. What is
death rate?
D 21,000
DR¿ P × K = 7,000,000 ×1000 =3/[Link] number indicates that the

deaths of 3 persons were observed for each 1000 people.

region to the total mid-year population, multiplied by 1000.

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Focus
Rate of natural increase is refers to the difference between the number of live
births and the number of deaths occurring in a year.
Rate of natural increase=Birth rate-Death rate
Infant mortality is the death of young children’s aged below one year.

Major factors that attributed forhigh death rate are the following:
 Low standard of living
 Low access to health facilities
 Poor nutrition, and sanitary practices
 Civil war and political instability
 Wide spread of famine and starvation
 High incidence of disease and infections
C. Migration
Start-up question
 What is migration? Why do people migrate?
Migration refers to the movement of humans from one place to another. Migration
takes place with two major factors. These are:
I. Push factors: impose pressure on peoples to migrate, which includes poor
employment, civil war, and harsh climate etc.
II. Pull factors: attract peoples to migrate, which include good job opportunity,
favourable climate and good welfare service.

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An emigrant (out migrant) is a person who is leaving one country to live in

another.
An immigrant (in migrant) is a person who is entering a country from another to
make a new home.

Measures of migration
Immigration rate it is the number of people arriving at a destination per 1000
people in a given year.
Number of Immigrants
Immigration rate¿ Total population at destination ×1000

Emigration rate it is the number of departing people from an area of origin per
1000 people in a given year.

Number of Emigrants
Emigration rate = Total population at origin ×1000

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Net Migration Rate (NMR): shows the net effect (balance) of immigration and
emigration in an area. It can be expressed as an increase or decrease per 1000
people in the area in a given year.

Number of Immigrants−Number of Emigrants

NMR = ×1000
Total population
Example:
Assume the number of emigrants and immigrants of country ‘A’ are 50,000
and 260,000 respectively. If the total population is 105 million, what will be
the NMR?
NMR=
Number of Immigrants−Number of Emigrants 260,000−50,000
×1000= ×1000=
Total population 105,000,000
2/1000

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Activity 2.3

A. Individual Work
1. What are the factors that led fertility differences in developed and
developing countries?
2. What are the major factors that attributed for high death rate in the
world?
B. Group work
Discuss on the following question in small groups.

1. The number of live births for place “A” was 2400, and its mid-year
population was 160,000. Find BR.
2. The number of deaths for place “B” was 219,300, and its mid-year
population was 19,297,000. Calculate DR.
3. Assume the number of emigrants and immigrants are 30,000 and
150,000 respectively, if total population is 100 million. Calculate
NMR?

2.2.2 Population characteristics

Start-up question
 What are the major characteristics of population?
The structure of a population is the distribution of males and females within
different age groups.

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The structure or composition of population can be classified in to two categories;

these are biological and cultural characteristics.
Biological characteristics include race, ethnicity, sex and age and cultural
characteristics comprise education, health, nutrition, religion, occupation, etc.
Age structureis the distribution of a given population into age groups. There are
two important statistical tools used to understand age [Link] are: age
groups and population pyramid.
Age groups: in the broad age groups, age structures were;
 Young age, 0-14 (the young dependent population),
 Working age, 15-64 (the economically active population)
 Old age, 65+ (the elderly dependent population).
Population Pyramid: It is the graphic representation of the age distribution of a
given population by sex.
Look the figures given below which shows the population of Ethiopia by sex.

Figure 2.3 typical example of population pyramid

Population Pyramid of Ethiopia for 2007 Source: PCC [14].

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In general, population pyramids of developing countries like Ethiopia have very

broad bases, showing the dominance of the young-age population.

Sex Structure
Start-up question
 What is sex structure?
The sex structure of a population is shown by its sex ratio, which is the ratio of
male population to female [Link] ratio is usually expressed as the number
of males per 100 females in a population.

Male population
Sex ratio= Female population ×100

Age dependency ratio

Start-up question
 What is age dependency ratio?
 Is the dependency ratio of your locality or city high or low? Why?
Age dependency ratio (ADR)is the relationship between the working or
economically active population and the non-working population. In Ethiopia, the
age dependency ratio is very high. In other words, the dependency burden of the
young and old age populations on the working or economically active population is
very heavy.

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ADR =( population of aged 0 14)+¿ ¿

Example:
Suppose region “A” has the number of dependent population (under-
15years) is 6,247,000. The number of old age (dependent) population >
64 is 6,217,000 and number of independents (15 – 64 years) is about
27,160,000. What will be the ADR?
ADR =( population of aged 0 14)+¿ ¿
(16,247,000)+(6,217,000)
= 27,160,000
×100=82.7%

2.2.3 Population, distribution

Activity 2.4

A. Individual work. Try to calculate individually in the class

1. Assume total students of a given school were 3000. Out of this 1650
were females. What is sex ratio?

2. Suppose region “A” has the number of dependent population under-

15 years is 12,191,000, number of old age (dependent) population >
64 is 5,127,000 and number of independents 15 – 64 = 29,120,000.
Calculate ADR?

Start-up question
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 What factors have influenced the distribution of world population?

Population distribution refers to the way people inhabit and occupy the earth’s
surface. Generally, the distribution of population in the world is uneven.
Factors of population distribution
The major factors of population distribution can be classified in to two groups.
These are: physical factors and human factors.
Physical Factors
The most significant physical factors affecting the distribution of population are:
 Natural resources (water, soil, vegetation and mineralsetc)
 The nature of topography (slope and altitude)
 Climate condition (mainly rainfall and temperature)
Human factors
The major factors affecting distribution of population includes:
 Socio-economic factors( job opportunities, availability of technology)
 Political factors(civil war, political unrest)
 Type of farming and transportation facilities,
 Social organization
Spatial distribution of world population
1. Densely Populated Regions
There are three main belts of high population density and concentration in the
world. These areas are also called “Population Clusters”. These regions are:

[Link] population belt

B. Peninsular Europe
[Link]-eastern North America
[Link] Population Belt: The region accounts for about 60% of the world’s total
population. The belt includes:

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 East Asia- Japan and China are the most populous in the sub-region.
 South Asia- India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are densely populated.

[Link] Europe: Europe makes up 10.8% of the world’s total population.

[Link]-eastern North America: It accounts for about 5% of the world’s total

population. This part of North America (mainly the USA) is highly urbanized and
industrialized
2. Sparsely Populated Regions
Sparsely populated areas simply mean an area that contains few people because of
physical and human factors which are not suitable for peoples living.
These regions include the following areas.
 Tundra  Hot-wet-land
 Hot-dry- land  High relief
 Areas with poor soil

 One dot represents 1000peoples

Dot map of world-population Distribution, 2000 (Source: [Link])

Figure 2.4 spatial distribution of world population

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Activity 2.5

A. Group discussion

Discuss on the following question in small groups and present your discussion
outcome through your group representative.
1. Why are some part of the world so crowded and others so sparsely
populated?
2. What does population distribution mean?
3. List some natural and human factors that affect population distribution in
your locality?

4.
2.2.4 Population movement (national and intra-national)
Start-up question
 Why do peoples move from one place to another?
The movement of population can be national (cross boundary) and intra-national
(within) a nation.

Intra-national migration has taken place when people move from one part of a
country to another [Link] takes the following forms:
 Rural-urban  Urban-rural
 Rural-rural  Urban-urban
For example, peoples migrate from Afar region to Addis Ababa is considered as
intra-national migration.

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When migrants move cross a national territory of a country, the movement is

called national [Link] instance, peoples migratefrom Ethiopia to Saudi-
Arabia is considered as national migration.

Activity 2.6
A. Individual work
Do the following question in your exercise book.
1. Can we consider all kinds of people’s movements as “migration”? Why or
why not?
2. What are some of the possible consequences of migration, both in areas of
origin and destination?

2.2.5. Population settlement (rural and urban)

Start-up question
 What is the difference between a rural settlement and an urban settlement?
 What are the advantages of living in an urban area?
A settlement is defined as a place in which people live, carrying out a variety of
activities, to make their livings, such as trade, agriculture and manufacturing.
Settlements can be divided into rural and urban, based on the density of human-
made structures and dominant economic activity.

Rural settlement refers to peoples live in villages and dispersed (scattered)

settlements in areas far from urban centres. In ruralsettlements peoples are mainly
engaged in agriculture.

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Urban settlementrefers to peoples live in town or city and they are engaged on
non-agricultural activities.

All settlements are a part of settlement hierarchy, but it differs in size, number of
population and range of goods and services [Link] instance, small
settlements, like hamlet and village, are found in rural areas with isolated
homesteads and less service provision. Whereas town and cities are urban areas
with higher population and wider range of goods and service provision. See figure
2.5, that show hierarchy of settlement and the range of goods and services which
provides.

Figure 2.5 Hierarchy of settlement

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Activity 2.7

A. Practical activity:

Visit or observe the surrounding settlement of your locality then, discuss the
following questions based on your visiting, and present it to your classmate
by your representatives.

1. Write down the difference between rural and urban settlement based on
a. Style of buildings
b. Density of population
c. Dominant economic activity
2. Why do most people prefer to live in cities?

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2.3 People and the development of transportation

Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to
 Explain basic terms and concepts related to transport activities;
 Describe the historical development of means of transportation;
 Evaluate the role of transportation by using the different modes of transport
system;
 Compare the different modes of transportation on the basis their use;
 Identify significant road signs in class room;
 Explain basic road safety rules.
 Discuss the socio economic impact of traffic accidents

These are words you should try to learn for this unit
Top 10 words
 Air transport  Shipping  Transportation
 Passengers  Pipelines  Traffic signs
 Light train  Railway  Road safety
 Pack animal
More key words
 Water  Road traffic
transport accident

2.3.1 The concept and historical development of transport

Start-up question
 What sorts of transportation systems are available in your area?
Transportation refers to the movement of passengers, animals and goods from one
place to another place. There are different means of transportation system that are
available in different area like human powered and pack animal transports. In the
earlier time there was no means of transportation other than walking, but gradually

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the development began to uses animals to travel and transport things on land. The
man invented wooden cart with four legs as means of land transport. Then
advances in technology have allowed people to travel farther and invented different
modern means of transport after industrial revolution.
Nowadays, the types and quality of transportation have made much progress. This
has enabled people to travel longer distances in shorter times than ever before.
Over the year, faster means of transportation have been introduced, and now
distances which used to take days or months to cover, can be covered in a matter of
minutes or hours. The rapid progress in transportation and other forms of
communications have made places all over the earth functionally closer to each
other.

Figure 2.6 Different mode of transport

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2.3.2 The role of transportfor socio economic development

Start-up question
 How do you explain the usefulness of transportation in the world and in
Ethiopia?
When transport systems are efficient, they provide economic and social
opportunities and benefits that result in positive multiplier effects such as better
accessibility to markets, employment, and additional investments. When transport
systems are deficient in terms of capacity or reliability, they can have an economic
cost such as reduced or missed opportunities and lower quality of life.
Good transportation systems are needed to move goods within a country and
abroad. They are also essential to spreading the benefits of health care and
education.
Transportation plays a crucial role in the activity of a community. For
instance,public transportation provides people with mobility, access to
employment, community resourcesand recreational opportunities.

Focus
Transportation allows for access to food, healthcare, educational opportunity
and employment.
Efficient and affordable transportation is important driver in economic growth
in rural areas and help ensure that people can obtain service and participate in
public life.

2.3.3 Modes of transport

Startup question
 What are the major modes of transport?

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Modes of transport refer to different ways by which goods or people are

transported from one place to the other through land, air or water. Basically, modes
of transport classified in to three categories. These are;
1. Land Transport (road, railway, pipelines)
2. Water Transport (shipping)
3. Air Transport
1. Land transport
Land transport is accomplished either by rail or by road. It includes bus, car,
bicycle, railway and the means of transportation that go from one place to
another by land.
Types of land transport
A. Road transport
It is the most common and oldest mode of transportation. Road transport
includes animal transport such as mules, donkey, and horses and transport on
vehicles such as trucks and buses.
Domestic animals like donkey, horses, mules and camels are widely used in
Ethiopia to transport goods and peoples from place to place.
Road transporthas advantages of other mode of transportation for two reasons.
I)It provides door to door services,
II) They operate on public high ways that do not require an expensive terminal

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Figure 2.7 Road transport

B. Railway transport
It involves the use of trains that carry large amount of goods usually for long
distance. They can carry heavy bulk products like iron ore, coal and petroleum.
However, railway lines are not easy to construct. They are expensive to build,
especially in mountainous countries like Ethiopia because train cannot climb
steep hill sides. Railway transport is important to carry out vast quantities of
goods at any time.
For example the main railway route in Ethiopia is Addis Ababa -Djibouti
railway which covers a distance of 784 km.
Addis Ababa light train is the first light train in eastern Africa and launched in
the city on 20 September 2015. It covers 31.6 km running from city in two
lines. These are East-West line stretches from Ayat village to
Torhaylochthrough Megenagna, MeskelSquare, Legehar, and [Link]
North-south line stretches from Menilik Square to Kality through
Merkato,Lideta, Legehar, MeskelSquare, and Gotera.
It is important to reduce traffic congestion, air pollution, and increase mobility
in the city.

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Figure 2.8 Addis Ababa light train and Ethio-Djibouti railway

Focus
Pipelines are specialized form of transport used to transport liquids and gases.
For example a pipeline can be used to transport oil deposits from Sudan to
Ethiopia. The other modes also include cable (internet, energy supply), and
space, (satellite).

2. Water transport
Water transport is the cheapest form
of transport for bulky goods over
long distance. Water transport
involves the use of shipping to
transport various goods from place
to [Link] transport does not
require heavy construction like road
and railway lines. It needsports and
Figure 2.9 Ethiopian shipping
canals [Link] transport is not
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well developed in many parts of Ethiopia. However, in some parts of the country,
river and lakes use for water transportation like,

 Lake Tana, (Gojjam to Gonder),

 River Baro, (Ethiopia to Sudan),

 Lake Abaya, Arba Minch to Dilla

3. Air transport
Air transport is the latest and fastest mode of transport. Planes can carry only a
certain types of cargo because of
size and shape limitation.
Furthermore, planes are least
dependable and most expensive
form of transportation.
It is speedy transport so that it is
suitable to transport perishable
Figure2.10 Ethiopian air transport
products and electronic materials.
Aeroplanes, helicopter etc. are examples of air transport that travel by air ways.
2.3.4 Road safety, road traffic accidents and its socio economic implication
Start-up question
 Why is road safety important?
 What are the most important road safety rules?
Road traffic safety refers to the method and measures used to prevent road users
from being killed and injured.
Typical road users include pedestrians, cyclists, motorists, vehicle passengers, and
passengers of on-road public transport (mainly buses and trains).

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The most important road safety rules for pedestrians

 Knowyour safety signal

 Take extra care in crossing curve road.
 Be careful while crossing the road
 Always use sidewalks
 Never jump over the divider railings
 Wait a suitable gap in the traffic flow
before cross the road

Figure 2.11 Road traffic signs for pedestrians

The most important road safety rules for drivers
 Never drink and drive
 Never break red signal
 Always drive with in speed limit
 Understand and follow the road signs
 Keep the left while driving vehicle from opposite direction.

Road traffic accidents and its socio economic implication

Start-up question

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 Who are affected by road accidents?

 Is road accident a social problem?
 What is the effect of road traffic accident on economic growth inEthiopia?
A road traffic accident occurs when a vehicle that is moving along a roadway
crashes with another vehicle or object.
Road accident is most unwanted thing which happens to road user. Road accident
causes loss of lives, increase of dependency, and destruction of property, increase
of poverty, injuries and permanent disability. Road traffic injuries caused
significant economic losses to individuals and their family and countries all over
the world. These losses may be associated with cost of treatment, loss of
productivity, and valuable working time for victims and relatives, loss of skilled
labor force.
More than half of all road traffic deaths and injuries involve vulnerable road users
such as pedestrians, cyclists and motorcyclists and their passengers.

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Activity 2.8

A. Individual work: answer the following questions

1. Write down the means of transport used in your locality and
compare and contrast based on uses, accessibility and
compatibility.
2. Think the advantage and disadvantage for modes of transport
land, air and water you could do this in the form of table

Modes of transport Advantage Disadvantage

Land
Water
Air
B. Group discussion
Discuss on the following questions in small groups and present your
discussion outcome through your group representative.
1. Observe your locality and explain the socioeconomic impact of
road traffic accident and
2. Discuss about the basic road safety rules?

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SUMMARY
 Archaeology is the science in which archaeologists dig out material
objects and fossils of the past. It helps us in the study of pre-history.
 With regard to the origin of human beings, there are two theories
suggested. These are: Creationist theory Scientific (Evolution) theory
 Human population refers to the total number of human inhabitants of
a specified area, such as a city, country, or continent, at a given time.
 The main components of population dynamics/ determinants are
fertility, mortality and migrations.
 The structure or composition of population can be classified in to two
categories; these are biological and cultural characteristics.
 The distribution of population in the world is uneven, because of two
major factors. These are natural and human factors.
 There are three main belts of high population density and
concentration in the world. These are Asiatic population belt,
Peninsular Europe and North eastern North America.
 The movement of population can be national (cross boundary) and
intra-national (within) a nation.
 Settlements can be divided into rural and urban, based on economic
activity.
 Modes of transport includes land, water, and air transport.
 Road traffic safety is a measures used to prevent road users from
being killed and injured. Road accident causes loss of lives, increase
of dependency, and destruction of property, injuries and permanent
disability.
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Glossary
Air transport: the movement of Pre-history: the period before the
passengers and cargo by aircraft beginning of writing.
such as airplanes and helicopters. Population explosion is the rapid
Archaeology: is the science dig out (sudden) increase of population.
material object and fossils of the Population: is the number of people
past. in a city or town, region, country
Australopithecines: the first earliest or world.
human species. Population cluster: refer to a large
Bi-pedal: walk erect population concentration.
Creationist: human being created by Population structure refers to the
God. age-sex composition of any
Doubling time of population: is population.
length of time needed by a Spatial distribution of population:
population to double itself. is concerned with how people
Evolution: gradual process of change. are distributed spatially.
Fossil: remains of dead material Settlement: a place where people live
object. and form communities.
Homo: family of modern human Traffic signs: a sign conveying
being. information, an instruction, or a
Hominids: ancestor of modern warning to drivers.
human being. Transportation: the movement of
Pipelines: is the long-distance people and goods from one
transportation of a liquid or gas location to another.
through a system of pipes Railway: is also known as train
transport

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Road traffic accident: is any injury

due to crashes originating from
terminating with or involving
vehicle partially or fully on
public road.
Road transport: means
transportation of goods and
personnel from one place to
another via road.
Road safety: refers to the method and
measures used to prevent road
users from being killed or
seriously injured.
Rural: the countryside rather than the
town.
Transportation: the movement of
people and goods from one
location to another.
Urban: a place characteristic of a
town
or city.
Water transport: is the process of
moving people, goods, etc. by
barge, boat ship over water
bodies.
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REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT TWO

I. True or False
Direction: Write “True” if the statement is correct and write “False” if
it is incorrect
______1. Archaeology is the science in which archaeologists dig out material
objects and fossils of the past.
______2. The distribution of population in the world is uniform in all countries.
______3.Migration is a biological factor that determines the size of population.
______4.Air transport is very latest and fastest form of transport.
II. Multiple choices
Direction: Choose the correct answer from the given options.
____1. The graphical representation of age distribution of a given population by
sex is:
A. Age structure C. Age dependency ratio
B. Population pyramid D. None
____2. Which one of the following is not the feature of modern human beings?
A. Large brains C. Bi-pedal
B. Large jaws D. Transmitting knowledge
____3. The cheapest form of transport for bulky goods over long distance is
A. Air transport C. Road transport
B. Land transport D. Water transport
____4. Which of the following is not factors that contribute rapid population
growth in the world?
A. Human ability to control disease C. Improvement in knowledge
B. improved vaccinations D. Increase in illiteracy

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____5. Which of the following region is not sparsely populated?

A. Peninsular Europe C. High relief areas
B. Tundra D. Hot dry land areas
III. Fill in the blank:
Direction: Fill the following blanks with appropriate word(s)
1. The remains of dead plants, animals and human beings are called___________
2. The actual reproductive performance of a population is called______________
3. Human beings belongs to the species is called____________________
4. A person who is leaving one country to live in another is__________________
5. Mode of transport which is accomplished either by road or rail way is called___
IV. Short answer
Direction: Give short answers for the following questions.
1. What are the main factors that control the change in population size?
2. Write down some factors affecting fertility distribution?
3. Describe the two important statistical tools to understand age structure.
4. Explain the difference between urban and rural settlement.
5. Explain the socio economic implication of road traffic accidents.

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Check List
Put a tick (√) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can
perform
I can
1 Point out archaeological sites that show the origin of earlier
human beings;

2 Examine the historical routes humankind has passed through over

time;

3 Predict future world population growth pattern on the basis of

present and past population growth rate

4 Calculate different demographic rates such as growth, mortality,

fertility, net-migration and etc.;

5 Identify types and causes population movement;

6 Locate densely and sparsely populated regions on world

population map

7 Evaluate growth trend of Ethiopian population in line with world

population growth;

8 Explain basic terms and concepts related to transport activities;

9 Describe the historical development of means of transportation;

10 Evaluate the role of transportation by using the different modes of

transport system;

11 Compare the different modes of transportation on the basis their

use;

12 Identify significant road signs in class room;

13 Explain basic road safety rules.

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Unit Three

Human and Natural Resources

Unit learning outcomes
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the reciprocal relationships between humans and nature;
 Categorize natural resources on the basis of their degree of permanency;
 List factors affecting the utilization of natural resources;
 Predict the consequences of the destruction of non-renewable resources;
 Evaluate the relationship between population density and natural resource;
 Describe what is meant by over population, optimal population and under
population.

Main contents

3.1. Human-Environment relationships (reciprocal relationship)

3.2. Population- resource relationship (over population, optimal
population and under population)
3.3. Types of Natural Resources
3.4. Factors affecting Natural Resources in Ethiopia
 Unit Summary
 Review Exercise

3.1. Human-Environment relationships (reciprocal relationship)

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

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 Examine the reciprocal relationships between human and the environment;

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top 3 words

 Human  Environment  Reciprocal relationship

Start-up questions
 How the environment influences human beings?
 How the humans modify (influence) their environment?
 What type of relationship exists between humans and the environment?
Every single living thing on the earth is dependent on the environment it lives
[Link] need to interact with the environment to obtain food, water, fuel,
medicines, building materials and many other things.
The elements of the physical environment such as climate, relief, soil and the like
influences peoples mode of life. It is impossible to explain the difference between
human society and the history of that society without referring to the influence of
the [Link] factors, for example, favourable climate, fertile soil,
adequate water supply positively influence population concentration. Areas with
unfavourable climate (extremely hot or cold and dry climate), infertile soil, and
inadequate water discourage large human settlement. This clearly shows how the
environment influences population distribution.
The influence of environment on humans’ activity is unavoidable. But peoples can
modify (influence) their environment with the help of their skill, knowledge and
experience. The advancement of technology enables human beings to create
conducive environments.

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Generally, there is an inseparable bond between human beings and nature. The
relationship between the two is highly reciprocal (both affect each other).

Activity 3.1
A. Group discussion
Discuss the following question in small groups and present your
discussion outcome through your group representative
Some food items are easily perishable. The high temperature of an area for
example, may cause the food to be easily perishable. Since ancient times
peoples use different techniques to preserve food for a long time.
1. What kind of food preservation methodsare used in your home
(locality)?
A. Traditional methods
B. Modern methods
2. What influences humans to practice different food preservation
methods?
3. Is it possible for humans to modify (influence) their environment
with the help of their skill, knowledge and experience? Explain
4. “The relationship between human and the environment is
reciprocal”. Explain it.

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3.2. Population- resource relationship (over population, optimal

populationand under population)
Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Describe over, optimal, and under population with respect to natural

resources;

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top 3 words

 Over population  Optimum population  Under population

More Key words

 Anti natalist  Pro natalist  Carrying capacity

Start-up questions
 What is population? What is a resource?
 How do you explain the relationship between population and resources?
 What is meant by overpopulation, optimal population and under population?

Human population refers to the number of people living in a definite area. Humans
cannot live without the clean air we breathe, the plants we eat, or the water we
drink. Natural resources are essential to human wellbeing.
Natural resources are resources that occur in nature. These cannot be produced by
human kind but they are derived from the environment. Natural resources include
soil, water, minerals, wildlife, vegetation, and energy sources. People use all these
resources to improve their lives.

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Population and resources have a strong relationship with each [Link] growth
and decline of population affects the availability of natural resources. At the same
time, the availability of natural resources affects the trends of population.
Overpopulation
Overpopulation refers to an excess of population in an area in relation to the
available resources. When the carrying capacity of an area is exceeds by its
population the area is said to be over populated because the area has more
population than what it can comfortably support . Overpopulation is characterized
by low percapita income, high unemployment, malnutrition and famine, low
standards of living, and outward migration.
Under population
The concept of under population is just opposite of over population. Under
population occurs when the population of an area is too small for full utilization of
its resources. In these circumstances an increase in population would mean a more
effective use of resources and increased living standards for all of the people.
Underpopulation is characterized by low unemployment and inward migration.

Optimum population Population

Resources
The term optimum population refers
to the balanced population - resource
relationship in an area.
See Figure 3.1, which shows the
relationship between population and
resources.

Figure 3.1 Population-resource

relationships

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Generally, overpopulation and under population refers to an imbalance in the

relationship between the level of population and resources. Several countries have
attempted to introduce population policies aimed at managing or balancing this
relationship. The population policies are classified into two categories. These are:
A. Anti natalist population policy: is a policy which aims to reduce birth rate
and slow population growth. This can be done through education on
family planning and increased access to contraception, or by law
(example China, Ethiopia and many developing countries of the world)
B. Pro natalist population policy: is a policy which aims to increase birth
rate and rate of population growth. This can be done through the use of
incentives (example France, Sweden, Romania etc)

Do you know?
The Chinese one child policy
One of the most documented population control policies has been the Chinese one
child policy. The Chinese government became concerned about population growth.
The government realized that the Chinese people could only have a rising living
standard if the population was controlled.
Between 1974 – 1979 the people were encouraged to reduce the birth rate by the
slogan ‘Wan- xi- shao’ (later, longer, fewer):
 Later marriage
 Longer gap between children
 Fewer children
The ‘Wan- xi- shao’ policy did not work well and the population went on
increasing.
In 1979 the government introduced the one child policy. Strong pressure was put
on women to use contraception. This policy was very successful in urban areas
than rural areas. In 1990 onwards the one child policy has been relaxed slightly.
This is partly because it was so difficult to enforce, and because the Chinese
government was concerned about the economic implications of a population in

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Activity 3.2

A. Individual work
1. Define the following terms:
A. Over population
B. Under population
C. Optimum population
B. Group discussion

Discuss the following question in small groups and present your discussion
outcome through your group representative.

1. What is the differencebetween pro natalist and Anti natalist

population policies?
2. How the population policies help in solving problems caused by the
imbalance between population and resources?

3.3. Types of Natural Resource

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to
 Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable natural resources;

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top 3 words
 Non-renewable  Resources  Renewable
More key words
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 Fossil fuels  Wind energy  Replace
 .

Start-up question
 What do we call the materials that people use from the environment to meet
their needs?
 Write at least three renewable and non-renewable resources that you ever
know.
 What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable resources?
In the content of renewability, natural resources can be categorized in to
renewable and non-renewable resources.
3.3.1 Renewable resources
Resources that can be replaced themselves naturally after used are called
renewable resources. The renewable resources are replaceable in character since
they are able to reproduce themselves. For instance, forest is a renewable resource
that can produce timber and other forest products year after year if it is carefully
and scientifically managed.
Examples: air, water, sunlight, wind, forest etc.

3.3.2. Non-renewable resources

Resources that exist in limited supply and cannot be replaced if they are used once
are called non- renewable resources.
These resources are generally non-replaceable in character.
Examples: petroleum oil, natural gas, coal, fossil fuels etc.

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The following table shows the difference between renewable and non-renewable
resources.
Renewable Vs. Non-renewable
 Can be used more than once  Can be used one time
 Unlimited amount  Limited supply
 Lower carbon emission  Higher relative carbon emission
 Have environmental impact  Have environmental impact
Example: wind energy, sun light Example: natural gas, opal

Wind energy

Figure 3.2 Renewable and non-renewable resources

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Do you know Opal?

The meaning of the word Opal comes from a Greek word 'Opallios' which
means 'to see a change of color', which is connected with the way precious
opal diffracts light.
It is a hydrated amorphous form of silica and chemically similar to quartz, its
water content may range from 3%-20%. Opal is first discovered in Ethiopia in
the early 1990’s. Ethiopian Opal is the newest variety of precious opal
gemstone resourced from Wollo(Amhara region), of northern Ethiopia.
What rock is opal found in?
Because of its amorphous character, it is deposited at a relatively low
temperature and may occur in the fissures of almost any kind of rock, being
most commonly found with limonite, sandstone, rhyolite, marl, and basalt.
It is economically valuable and one of the main export mineral resources now
in Ethiopia.

Figure 3.3 Ethiopian opal

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3.3.3. Consequences of depletion of non-renewable natural resources

The depletion of natural resources occurs when resources are consumed at a faster
rate than that of replacement. Natural resources are those resources that are in
existence without human actions and they can either be renewable or non-
renewable.

A resource that is rare on earth due to depletion has a higher value than a natural
resource which is in abundance. Due to the increasing global population, the levels
of natural resource degradation is also increasing. Some of the consequences of the
depletion of non-renewable natural resources are air and water pollution, damage

Activity 3.3
A. Individual works. Question based on facts
1. What are natural resources?
2. Discus about the uses of resources available in your locality?
B. Group discussion
Discuss the following question in small groups and present your discussion
outcome through your group representative.
1. List the natural resources available in your locality, thenCategorize
which resources is renewable and non-renewable
2. Discuss how people can conserve and manage those resources?

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to public health, wildlife and habitat loss, water use, land use, and global warming
emissions.

3.4 Factors affecting natural resource in Ethiopia

There are words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top 10 words
 Agriculture  Farm land  Overgrazing
 Deforestation  Forest  Population pressure
 Natural resource  Wild life  Resettlement
 Urbanization

Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to

 State major human activities affecting the natural resources in Ethiopia;
 Develop sketch map to locate natural resources in their locality.

Start-up question
 List down the major natural resources ofEthiopia?
 What are the major problems of natural resource in Ethiopia?
 Write down the impact of population pressure on natural resource.
Ethiopia is gifted with abundant natural resources of adequate landmass, fertile
soil, favorable climate, water, wildlife, natural vegetation and variety
[Link] of these resources are not properly identified, well managed, and
fully exploited. In Ethiopia, natural resources are under the influence of various
interconnected [Link] are:
 Population pressure  Resettlement,
 Agricultural expansion  Rapid urbanization

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Population pressure
Population is a vital resource of any country and the most important means for
[Link] it is also the major factor for natural resource
[Link] of population leads to enormous production of wastes,
increased pressure on arable lands, losses of biodiversity, pollution of air and
water.
Population pressure results in loss of soil fertility, low vegetative cover,
unsustainable farming practice, overgrazing, and migration of wildlife. The process
ends with amplified environmental consequences such as:
 Decline biodiversity  Occurrence of natural hazards
 Water quality deterioration  Diversesocio-economic problems
 Imbalance ecosystem service  Poverty, famine and starvation.
Resettlement
What is resettlement?
Resettlement is a process of moving a group of people to new place or settlement
to live in.
Resettlement programs in Ethiopia have been considered as a viable solution to the
rural communities which faces different problems. However, it causes significant
impacts on natural resources of the environment specifically at the destination
areas.
The main objective of Ethiopian government resettlement program was to support
households get access to productive farmlands, and achieve food self-sufficiency.
This strategy, in most cases, was taking place through the clearing of natural
vegetation particularly in the areas covered by dense forests.
These households had settled by clearing areas which were originally covered by
forests causing deforestation, land degradation, and associated environmental
problems.

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Agricultural expansion
How does agricultural expansion cause deforestation?
Agricultural expansion is the conversion of non-arable land to arable land. For
instance, conversion of forest land to arable land.
Agriculture is the backbone for Ethiopian economy, because more than 80% of the
populations are engaged in agricultural activities. But today in Ethiopia agricultural
sector is to be a major cause of environmental pollution and affects natural
resource. These impacts includes the following
 Deforestation (for expanding arable land)
 Using of chemical fertilizer and pesticides easily contaminate living
organisms, soil, air, and water, etc.
The recently established large-scale horticulture and floriculture activities are
extensively using chemicals. Those chemicals mostly leaving as a pollutant within
the environment, causing adverse effect on soil, air, and water quality.

Figure 3.4 Deforestation and agricultural expansion

Rapid Urbanization
Rapid urbanization is the process of population shifts from rural to urban, or an
increasing number of people living in town cities.
Nowadays, in different places of Ethiopia the rate of urbanization is growing very
fast. Peoples in many rural areas have been migrating towards urban centers in
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search of a better livelihood, job opportunities, education, and other services. This
led to the unplanned and rapid expansion of small citiesand creating huge pressure
on natural resources. Land use conversion into new urban settings, housing
construction, different infrastructures like (education, health, and shopping
centers), parking lots, complex road networks, industrial sites, etc. results extensive
deforestation.
Generally, rapid urbanization in Ethiopia has always been related to remarkable
environmental problems such as, degradation of land, forest, large scale quarrying
and excavation of sand, gravel, and other building materials.
Methods of conserving natural resources
The Ethiopian governments have taken several steps to address these problems like
tree planting programs, launching soil and water conservation campaign.
The major method of conserving natural resources includes:
 Agroforestry
 Social forestry and
 Apply upward growing of urban centres.

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Activity3.4
A, Individual work (question based on facts)
1. What are the effects of the destruction of natural resources?
2. How population pressure and agricultural expansion does
affects natural resource?
3. What do you mean by resettlement?
B. Group discussion:
Go to the field in your locality and visit or observe the condition of
forest and soil resource in that area then;
1. Write a report what you observe and present your findings to
your classmates
2. Develop a sketch map of the place you visit and locate natural
resources in their locality.
3. How rapid urbanization affects natural resource?

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UNIT SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the human and natural resources. We
discussed the human-environment relationship, population-resource
relationship, explained and the types of natural resources and the factors
affecting natural resources in Ethiopia.
 The elements of the physical environment such as climate, relief,
soil and the like influences peoples mode of life.
 The influence of environment on humans’ activity is unavoidable.
But peoples can modify (influence) their environment with the
help of their skill, knowledge and experience.
 Population and resources have a strong relationship with one
another. The growth and decline of population affects the
availability of natural resources. At the same time, the availability
of natural resources affects the trends of population.
 Naturalresources can be categorized in to renewable and non-
renewable resources.
 Resources that can be replaced themselves naturally after used are
called renewable resources. Examples: air, water, sunlight, wind,
forest etc.
 Resources that cannot be replaced they used once are called non-
renewable resources. Example natural gas petroleum oil, coal,
fossil fuels etc.
 In our country Ethiopia, natural resources are under the influence
of various interconnected factors, these are: population pressure,
resettlement,agricultural expansion and rapid urbanization.

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Glossary

Agriculture: is a process of Optimum population: a term which

pantingcrops and rearing animals. denotes balanced population
Carrying capacity: Thenumber of resource relationship in an area.
people a region can support without Renewable: resources that can
environmental degradation replacethemselves.
Deforestation: permanent removal of Resource: all material available in the
trees. environment.
Fossil fuel: a fuel formed by natural Resettlement: moving group of people
processing. to new place to live.
Non-renewable resource: resource Under population: occurs when the
that can replace themselves. population of an area is too small
Overgrazing: staying cattle’s in range for full utilization of its resources.
land for long time. Urbanization: an increasing number
Overpopulation: refers to an excess of of peoples in town and cities.
population in an area in relation to Wind energy: is the process by
the available resources. which wind used to generate
electricity
.

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REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT THREE

I. True or False
Direction: Write “True” if the statement is correct and write “False” if
it is incorrect
_______1. Forest and water resources are non-renewable resources.
_______2. Rapid increasing of population number does not affect natural resource.
_______3. Chemical fertilizers used in agricultural activities are major sources of
water pollution.
_______4. Humans and the environment are strongly inter-related.
_______5. Agricultural expansion does not affect natural resources.
II. Matching
Direction: Match the items in column “A” with items in “B” and write
the answer in the space provided.
A B
___ 1 Overpopulation A. Permanent removal of trees.
___ 2 Under population B. Increase number of people live in town
___ 3 Optimum population C. The available resources exceeds the population
___ 4 Deforestation D. Population exceeds the available resources.
___ 5 Urbanization E. Balanced population- resource relationship
F. Group of the same species

III. Multiple choices

Direction: Choose the correct answer from the given options.
_______1. Which one of the following is different from the other?
A. Natural gas B. Petroleum oil C. Fossil fuel D. wind energy

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_______2.Which of the following the factors is not the causes for deforestation?
A. Agricultural expansion C. Resettlement

B. population pressure [Link]

_______3.Which of the following country adopts anti-natalist population policy in
managing or balancing human and resource relationship?
A. France B. Sweden C. Ethiopia D. Romania
_______4. One of the following is not a method of conserving natural resources?
A. Deforestation C. Social forestry
B. Agroforestry D. Reforestation
IV. Fill in the blank:
Direction: Fill the following blanks with appropriate word(s)
1. __________is the conversion of non-arable land to arable land.
2. The process of moving a group of people to new place or settlement to live
is known as_______________________
3. Resources that cannot be replaced themselves after use is known as._______
4. The number of people a region can support without environmental
degradation is called: ___________
V. Short answer
Direction: Give short answers for the following questions.
1. Write down some methods of conserving natural resources in Ethiopia?
2. Explain the reciprocal relationship existing between humans and the
environment?
3. How does population growth affect a country's natural resources?
4. Explain the difference between renewable and non-renewable resources?
5. What are the roles of renewable and non-renewable resources in sustainable
economy?
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Check List

Put a tick (√) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can perform

I can

1 Examine the reciprocal relationships between

human and the environment;
2 Describe over, optimal, and under population
with respect to natural resources;
3 Distinguish between renewable and non-
renewable natural resources;
4 State major human activities affecting the
natural resources in Ethiopia;
5 Develop sketch map to locate natural resources
in their locality.

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Unit Four

Ancient Civilizationsand Medieval History of the World

Unit Learning Out Comes
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 Compare and contrast the rise and expansion of Christianity and Islam;
 Locate the major river valley civilizations of the world;
 Analyze major historical developments of the world during the medieval
period

Main Contents
4.1. Ancient World Civilization
4.2 Medieval History of the World
 Unit Summary
 Review Exercise

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4.1 Ancient world civilizations

Competencies:After studying this lesson, you will be able to
 Point out common elements of the ancient river valley civilization
 Compare and contrast the rise and expansion of Christianity and Islam;

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top 10 words
 Buddhism  Democracy  Hinduism  Republic
 Confucianism  Empire  Logographic
 Consuls  Oligarchy
More Key Words
 Assembly  Monotheism  Reincarnation
 Cuneiform  Polis

Introduction
Start-up question
 List the major river valley civilization of the ancient world.
The ancient civilization was born along the banks of rivers and made lasting
contribution to world civilization. Rivers were attractive locations for the first
civilization because they provided a steady supply of water and made the land
fertile for growing crops and facilitated transportation and communications. In
ancient time agriculture was well under way in several regions including ancient
India( around the Indus Valley), Mesopotamia (between Tigris and Euphrates
River), and China (along the Yellow River).It was assumed that the origin of
civilization was closely connected with the beginning of cultivation of crops and
domestication of animals which necessitated permanent settlement. Almost all of
the ancient river valley civilizations were developed on the base of well-organized
states, religious belief, towns, and government and writing systems.

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4.1.1. Mesopotamia
Geographical Location of Mesopotamia
Start-up question
Focus
 Where is the location of Mesopotamia?
The heart land of the region of
Mesopotamia was located along the Tigris and
Mesopotamia civilization was
Euphrates rivers in the Middle East. The name the land between the two rivers:
given to the civilization, Mesopotamia means the the Tigris and Euphrates
Greekword “mesos” meaning “between rivers.”
Sumer was a region where the world’s first civilization developed in southeastern
Mesopotamia around 2900B.C. It is also referred to as Sumerian civilization.
Ancient Mesopotamia civilization now lies mostly in modern Iraq and parts of
what is today Syria, Turkey, and Iran.

Figure 4.1 Map of Mesopotamia

Contributions of the Sumerian Civilization.
Start-up question
 Do you know the existence of 60 minute in hour and 3600in a circle?
 What was the cuneiform?
Sumer left behind a lasting legacy. One of their legacies was the writing
[Link] Sumerians developed one of the world’s earliest systems of writing

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called Cuneiform. Sumerians invented the boat moved by wind and the plough
(agriculture). They built monuments in mud bricks dried by the sun. They laid
foundation for the study of modern sciencein astronomy, medicine, mathematics
and metal work. Theyinvented 60 minutes in hour and 3600 in a circle.
It was in Mesopotamia that the earliest cities, first urban civilization most probably
appeared. The rulers of the Sumerian city-states were absolute kings called lugals.
Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, they worshipped many [Link] kings
ruled as the representatives of the city-state’s chief god and he was not a god
himself as in Egypt.

Activity 4.1
Answer the following questions:
A. Individual work
1. In which river banks did the Mesopotamian civilization originate?
2. Which present day countries were included in Ancient
Mesopotamia?
B. Group discussion:
Discuss on the following question in small groups and present your
discussion outcome through your group representative.
1. List the main contributions of ancient Mesopotamia.
2. Using reference materials write very short notes on the following:
-Cuneiform -lugals -Sumerians

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4.1.2. India and China

India
Start-up question
 Which present day countries were included in ancient India?
India is a country in South Asia whose name comes from the Indus River. About
2500B.C Indian civilization emerged by the Dravidians (indigenous peoples of
North India) inthe Indus Valleyin the western part of Asia, which is todayknown as
Pakistan and western India. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were the two majorcities
of this period of the Indus valley civilization.
Achievements of Ancient India
Start-up question
 Where did the symbol Zero originated?
Indians were advanced in science and mathematics. Particularly in surgery the
Indian physicians were famous. The Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3), were first used in
India. The decimal system and the symbol for Zero had their origin from India.
Indus artisans used copper, bronze, silver and
gold to make different tools and ornaments. Focus
Urbanization The Indus cities are noted for
Start-up question their urban planning. They
 What are the two major cities of ancient are also noted for their baked
India? brick houses, public baths,
Well planned cities reveal organized well-planned streets,
government in ancient India. Harappa and elaborated drainage system
Mohenjo-Daro were one of the twoprominent and water supply.
ancient cities in India. The Indus valley civilization had the most advanced town
planning.
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Religion
Start-up question
 Where did Hinduism originated? Who was Buddha?
Hinduism (the Hindu religion) is the major religion of India and one of the oldest
living religions of the [Link] teaches that mankind (soul) is condemned to a cycle
of [Link] continuous process of rebirth called [Link]
the religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama about [Link] was called Buddha
by his followers, which means Enlightened [Link] from Hinduism
as a reform movement.

Figure 4.2 Symbol of Buddhism

Fall of Indus Valley Civilization

Start-up question
 How did the Indus Valley civilization disappeared?
Abruptly the Indus Valley civilization disappeared for the reason not known much.
Seemingly it may have been ended due to environmental change and the invasion
from outside especially by the Aryans from north. Aryans were thePeople migrated
from central Asia into northern India and drove out the Dravidians.
Ancient China
Start-up question

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 Where did the ancient Chinese civilization emerge?

Ancient Chinese civilization first emerged along the Huang (Yellow) River Valley
in northern part of [Link] Shang and the Chou were the earliest Chinese
dynasty. TheShang dynasty was thefirst dynasty in China that arose in northern
China around [Link] Shang dynasty dominated the region until [Link]
Shang dynasty was centred in the Huang Ho valley.
Achievements of Shang Dynasty
Start-up question
 What was the writing system of ancient China?
Bronze vessels, horse drawn war chariot and the writingsystem was some of the
achievements of the Shang state. The Chinese had a system of writing called
Logographic. It used pictorial symbols to stand for words of Chinese language.
From bronze they made different weapons such as spears and daggers.
Fall of the Shang Dynasty and the rise of the Chou Dynasty.
Start-up question
 How the Shang dynasty was ended?
About 1122 B.C the Chou people of Western China defeated the last king of the
Shang state and established their own [Link] set up the Chou (Zhou), which
lasted until 256BC.
Achievements of the Chou Dynasty
Start-up question
 What is Confucianism?
During the period of the Chou dynasty, the Chinese philosophy emerged.
Confucius (551-479B.C) was the most respected and influential Chinese
philosopher in Chinese history. His philosophy was known as Confucianism.
Under the Chou dynasty, culture flourished, civilization spread and feudal system
of government emerged. The Chou period was also known for economic growth.
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Trade expended and cities grew. Trade grew even faster with the help of metal
[Link] Chou dynasty writing was standardized and iron working
[Link] weapons such as spears and daggers from bronze were
producedby Chinese craftsmen.

Focus
Basically Confucianism was a secular philosophy not a religion.
Confucianism stresses the need to develop moral character (personal
ethics) and responsibility.

Figure 4.3 Great Wall of China

Discoveries and Invention of Ancient China
Start-up question
 Whydid the Chinese constrict the Great Wall?
The ancient Chinese constructed what was known as the Great Wall of China
(7,400km) across northern China to protect their territory out of invaders from
central Asia. It was the remarkable achievements of ancient Chinese and one of the
seven wonders of the ancient [Link] use of Coal was first started by the
Chinese. They were also the first to produce porcelain (ceramic). The Wheel
barrow, Silk-making from the cocoons of silk worms, the lacquer, paper, printing
and the gun powder were also discovered in China.

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Activity 4.2
A. Individual work:Answer the following questions:
1. Describe the main achievements of the Indus valley civilization.
2. Which present day countries were included in Ancient India?
3. How the Shang dynasty came to an end?
B. Group Discussion:
1. Identify the following
- Confucianism -Buddhism -Logographic
- Reincarnation-The Chou dynasty-Confucius
- Hinduism -Buddha
2. Show the location of Ancient India and China using the map

4.1.3. The Greco-Roman World

Ancient Greece
Geographical Location
Start-up question
 What is Hellas?
Geographically Greece is located in southeastern [Link] Greeks called
themselves Helens and their land Hellas.

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Beginning of Greece civilization

Start-up question
 Who were the first European people to become civilized?
 What is Polis?
Ancient Greece was the birth place of Western civilization about 2,500 years
[Link] ancient Greek glorious achievements in government, philosophy, science
and the arts still influence our daily life in the [Link] Greece civilization
was developed mainly in small city-states. A city-state consisted of a city or town
and nearby villages and farm lands. The Greek city-states were called Polis. The
two most known city-
states were
Athena and Sparta.

Figure 4.4. Location of Greece

Government in Ancient Greece
Start-up question
 What is Oligarchy and democracy?
One type of government that evolved in ancient Greece city-states was
calledoligarchy. It was a type of government in which power is in the hands of
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small, wealthy elite. But, during the 6 th century B.C, among Greek city-states,
Athens evolves into a democracy. The Athenians called their political system
“demokratia,” which means “rule by the people.”Except women and slaves,
ordinary citizens of Athens could fully participate in government. In the Assembly,
general meeting, all Athens citizens had the right to debate, attend, speak, and vote.
Among the Greek city-states Athens was the largest in size and population. Athens
developed the most successful democracy. The type of democracy that practiced
by the Athens was direct democracy i.e. people can directly participate in the
decision making process.
Contribution of Greek Civilization
Start-up question
 What you heard about the word psychology, Olympic and Marathon?
Ancient Greece is the birthplace of western philosophy. Some of the Greek
philosophers include Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Herodotus was said to be the
“Father of History.” Modern medicine had its foundation in Greek. Hippocrates
was also said to be the “Father of Medicine.”Ancient Greeks also made great
achievements in government, science, architecture, art, drama, pottery and
sculpture. Athena was the centre of Greek culture.

Focus
Democracy, psychology, philosophy, Olympic and Marathon are their
origin in Greece. They made great contribution to the modern world in
physics, biology, mathematics, medicine, drama, poetry, art and
sculpture.

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Figure 4.5 Greek architecture

Ancient Rome
Start-up question
 Who were the ancient settlers of Rome?
Different peoples inhabited ancient Italy around 753 B.C along the Tiber River.
One of the early peoples settle in Romewas called the Latins. They were the
ancestors of Romans. Gradually, Rome grew from a village of farmer and
shepherds into a prosperous city and Empire.
The Romans Establish a Republic
The Romans established a form of government, which today we call a Republic.
The Republic lasted from 509 B.C until [Link] elected officials called consuls
headed the government of the republic. A consul served for only a year. The most
powerful government body of the Republic was the Senate. The Senators served
for life.
Roman Citizens
Start-up question
 What were the three social classes of in ancient Roman society?
Roman citizens were classified into three classes known as:Patricians, Equites and
Plebeian.

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Focus
The Patricians were the richest land holding nobles(upper class).
The equites were rich but they were not nobles.
The Plebeians were ordinary people like farmers, artisans, merchants and
laborers. They had the legal rights but little influence. There were also a
large number of slaves. They have no right at all like the Roman citizen.
They are not considered as citizens.

Roman Empire
Start-up question
 What are meant by the Republic and the Empire?
The Roman Republic existed until 27BC. A republic is a form of government in
which power is held by the people and their elected representatives. The Roman
Empire was established in 27B C after the republic was destroyed. The Roman
Empire lasted until Rome fell in about 476 A.D. When an extensive group of
people or countries were ruled by a single supreme authority was called Empire.
The Roman Achievement
Start-up question
 What was an amphitheatre?
The Romans had contributed a lot to modern
Focus
world [Link] legal system,Latin
Ancient Romans built public
language and Latin alphabet are some of the
baths and amphitheaters (outdoor
heritages of the ancient Romans. They
arenas).The most famous
Romans excelled in engineering. Roads,
amphitheater in the city of Rome
bridges, and harbours were built by Roman
was called Coliseum.
engineers.

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Activity 4.3
A. Individual Work: Question based on facts:
1. Identify the following:
- Herodotus - Patrician -Latin
- Socrates -Plato -Hippocrates
2. Define the following:
- Republic -Oligarchy -puritans - Democracy
- Empire -Polis -Plebeians - Consuls
B. Group Discussion:
Discuss on the following question in small groups and present your discussion
outcome through your group representative.
1. Name the two most known ancient Greek city-states.
2. List the three social classes of the Ancient Rome.
3. On world map locate the following – Rome, Greece, Sparta, and
Athens

4.1.4. Rise and Expansion Christianity

Origins of Christianity
Start-up question
 What is Christianity?

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Christianity emerged in the 1 st century in Palestine. At that time Palestine was

ruled byRoman Empire. It is the religion centred on the life and teaching of
[Link] wasborn in Bethlehem, near Jerusalem, in Judea part of Palestine.
Focus
Christianity is a monotheistic religion. Christians believe in one God and that he
created the universe. According to Christians, God sent Jesus (the messiah) into the
world as a savior, hence Christ, from the Greek word for “anointed one”.

Early Christianity and its Expansion

Start-up question
 Why Roman government was not tolerant towards Christians?
The Roman government was not tolerant to the Christians at the beginning and
persecuted them for about [Link] was because the Christians believed that
making sacrifices in honour of the emperor was denying God. The Roman
government considered this act as political disloyalty because they refused to
honour the emperor.
Despite ruthless persecution by the Roman rulers, many people (non-Jews)
gradually accepted Christianity. The idea of the Christianity “Equality of men
before God” was attracted many people to join to the new religion. Rome’s change
of attitude towards Christianity began with Emperor Constantine.
Focus
The persecution of Christians finally ended in the 4 th century A.D, when Emperor
Constantine (r. 324-337) issued the Edict of Milan. It granted religious toleration
and freedom of worship to all citizens of the Roman Empire. In 392A.D. the
Emperor Theodosius (r. 379-395A.D.) proclaimed Christianity the official state
religion.

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Difference arose in the Christian church. The East-West difference in 1054 A.D
divided the Christian church into two distinct parts: the Roman Catholic Church
and Greek Orthodox Church. Again in 1517, western Christianity was divided into
the Roman Catholic Church and Protestantism by a movement called the
Reformation.

Christian nowadays is the largest religious group in the world. It is the major
religion in Europe, the Americans, and Australia. Large numbers of Christians also
live in Africa and Asia.

Activity 4.4
[Link] Work: Locate the following places on a world map:
- Palestine - Constantinople - America
- Roman Empire - Africa - Europe
- Australia - Asia
B. Discuss in a group:
1. Who was the Roman Emperor that order religion tolerance?
2. During whose time was Christianity proclaimed as the official
religion of the Roman Empire?

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4.2. Medieval History of the world

Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to
 Analyze the main features of the Byzantine empire
 Compare and contrast the rise and expansion of Christianity and Islam;
 These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Key Terms

 Crusade  Seliuk Turks  Kaaba  Quaraysh

 Hejira  Justinian Code  Jihad  Polytheism

4.2.1. Byzantine empire

Start-up question
 What was the political centre of Byzantine Empire?
The time from the 6th century to the 16th century is known as medieval period
(middle age) in European history. Feudalism was the major economic, social and
political system during this period.
The Byzantine Empire was also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or
Byzantium, was the continuation of the Western Roman Empire in its eastern
provinces during the medieval ages. Since 330 A.D. Constantinople, renamed after
its founder Emperor Constantine, was its capital [Link] the fall of Eastern
Roman Empire the Byzantine Empire survived and continued toexist for more an
additional years until it fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. The empire got its
name from Byzantium, the old name of the city of [Link]
later is called Istanbul.
Byzantine Empire existed for long period after the collapse of West Roman
[Link] becomes a centre of civilization in Europe during the medieval

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periodwith the decline of civilization in West Europe. Byzantine civilization was

Greco-Roman and Christian in nature.
During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was the most powerful
economic, cultural, and military force of Europe. Christianity, Greek culture and
Roman customs flourished in the empire. The Byzantine Orthodox Church which
was officially separated from Roman Catholic Church in 1054 becomes a national
church of the Byzantine Empire.
The Byzantine Empire reached its greatest size under Emperor Justinian I (r.527-
565). He organized and reform many laws of the ancient Romans. These
collections of Laws become known as the Justinian code.
Byzantine architecture made use of domes and beautifully coloured glasses. The
church ofHagia Sophia (St. Sophia) in Constantinople is a good example of
Byzantine architecture. The church was built in 537A.D, during the reign of
Justinian. It is still stands.

Figure 4.6 Hagia Sophia

Agriculture, crafts and trade was the economic basis of the Byzantine Empire. The
Byzantine Empire was headed by the [Link] 1071 the Byzantine Empire
defeated by the Seljuk Turks. The Byzantine Empire asks military assistance of

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Western Europe. The help in the form of military expedition come from Western
Europe in the form of Crusades. The crusades were a serious of religious war
between Christian Europe and the Muslim Seljuk Turks to secure Christian holy
land, Jerusalem.

Focus

The Byzantine Empire ended when Ottoman Turks controlled the city of
Constantinople in [Link] later renamed Istanbul.

Activity 4.5
A. Individual work: Answer the following questions:
1. Why the Byzantine Empire was called a centre of Civilization in
Europe during the medieval period? Explain.
2. When did the Byzantine Empire reach at heights of its expansion?
B. Things to do:
1. Draw a sketch map of Middle East and show (locate) the area of
Byzantine Empire.

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4.2.2. The Rise and expansion of Islam

Arabs before Islam
Start-up question
 Who are the Arabs?
The Arabs are Semitic-speaking peoples who led a nomadic life in Arabian
Peninsula. They engaged on trade. Pre-Islamic Arabs was politically disunited.
The early Arabswere polytheists.

Beginning of Islam
Start-up question
 What do you understand by the word Islam and Muslim?
Islam is the name given to the religion preached by Prophet [Link] rise
in about 610 AD. The founding Prophet of Islam,Mohammed was born in Mecca
about 570 A.D from Quaryash tribes. The Quaryash were powerful merchant tribe
in Arab peninsula that inhabited and controlled Mecca and its Kaaba.
When Prophet Mohammed began his teaching Islam in Mecca at the age of 40 he
was experienced strongresistance and persecution fromQuaryash tribe. Because his
teaching attached the idolatry, the economic source of the Quaryash.

Figure 4.7 Birth place ofIslam

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Focus
Prophet Mohammed sent his followers including his daughter and her husband to
take refuge in Ethiopianat about 615A.D. They were allowed to stay in Ethiopia
until their return to Arabia in 628A.D

Islam in the Arabic word means “submission to the will of God.” Those who
believe in one God and accept Mohammed as His messenger are called Muslims.
Like Christianity, Islam is a monotheistic, based on belief in one God. The Arabic
name for God is Allah. The Muslim holy book is known as the [Link]
moved from Mecca to Medina in 622 A.D. His flight to Medina is known as
Hejira. The date was taken as the beginning of Islamic calenderer

Figure. 4.8 TheKaaba in Mecca

Expansion of Islam
Start-up question
 Write four countries of the world which have the largest Muslim population?
Medina became the center of the new religion after when Prophet Mohammed
moved to Medina. Here he got many followers and organized an Islamic society.
He started a holy war (Jihad) against unbelievers. As a conqueror he comes back

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to Mecca in 630 A.D with huge army. Prophet Mohammed destroyed all the pagan
gods (idols) except the black stone, the Kaaba, which was incorporated into Islam
because they had great respect throughout Arabia.
One-third of Arabia had accepted the new religion at the time of his death. Four
caliphs (successors) after the death of Prophet were: Abu Bakar, Umar, Othman
and Ali. The Arabs were able to expand Islam outside Arabia with the Arabic
tribal customs of making raids against unbelievers. This activity of making raids
against one’s enemies was called a jihad, (Islamic Holy war.) Egypt, Palestine,
Syria and the Persian Empire were incorporated within a decade after the death of
Mohammed. Gradually, Islam expanded to North Africa, Spain, other parts of the
Middle East and reached India. They created a new vast Muslim Arab empire that
extended from Spain to the Indus River valley through jihad.
Islam is one of largest religion in the world. Nowadays, Muslims live in every
country in the world. According to the existing sources, more than half of the
world’s Muslims live in South and South-East Asia. The Muslims living in the
Middle East account for one-fourth of the total followers of Islam. Indonesia,
India, Bangladesh and Pakistan have the largest Muslim population.

Figure 4.9 Muslim empires in the old world

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Basic Features of Islam and Its Achievements

Start-up question
 What are some of the contributions of Islam to this world?
The basic feature of Muslim Arab civilization is not purely Arabian in all aspects
because they were influenced by other civilization like Greek, India, China,
Byzantines and Persians. Muslim scholars added not only the use of logic in the
development of mathematical ideas and relationships, but also to an effective
system of numeration that involved zero. They built big monuments including
Mosques and palaces in different cities.

Figure 4.10The Mosque of Damascus

During expansion of Islam trade generally flourished. The flourishing of trade led
to the creation of prosperous cities which in turn becomes centers of
administration, culture and economic activities. Arabic become an international
language over the vast Muslim Arab Empire.

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Activity 4.6
A. Individual Work: Questions based on facts:
1. Who are the Quaryash?
2. Describe the following terms
Hejira Quran Jihad Polytheist
B. Group Work
1. Where is the birth place of Islam?
2. What is meant by Islam?
3. What is meant by Muslim?

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UNIT SUMMARY

In this unit, at first, we have discussed the ancient and medieval civilization of
the different parts of the world. In detail we have seen the civilization of
Mesopotamia, India, China, the Greco-Roman world and the Byzantine Empire.
Most of the civilizations have common elements. All most all of them
developed on the bases of well-organized states, towns and writing system.
Some of the civilization developed in river valley, while others were maritime
civilization. Innovations and discoveries that they made still influence our life
in many ways.

Secondly, we have studied the emergence of Christianity and its spread from
the 1st century A.D onwards. At, first, Christian was suffered of persecution by
the Romans but since the reign of Emperor Constantine the new religion got
tolerance and spread freely all through the Roman Empire.

Thirdly, we have also seen the rise and expansion of Islam since the 7 th century
A.D. Before the rise of Islam, the Arabs were politically disunited and practiced
traditional religion. With the rise of Islam, the Arabs entered a new way of life.
They were united under Islam through Prophet Mohammed. Within a few
decades of Mohammed’s death, the Middle East comes under their rule through
jihad. They created a new empire that extended from Spain to the Indus valley.
Arab rule brought with it a new religion and a new culture to the conquered
areas and people.

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Glossary
Buddhism: a religion created by Monotheism: a belief in the existence
Buddha of one God.

Confucianism: a philosophy developed Polytheism: the worship of or belief in

in the 6th century B.C in China by multiple gods.
Confucius.
Quaryash: a powerful tribe that
Consuls: elected officials of Roman controlled Mecca and Kaaba.
Republic.
Republic: a government led by elected
Crusade: the war of Christian Europe officials.
against Seljuk Turks.
Reincarnation: rebirth or
Cuneiform: ancient form of transmigration of the soul.
Mesopotamian writing.
Seljuk Turks: a Muslim Turks that
Empire: rule of an extensive group of ruled central Asia in the 11th and 13th
states or countries by a single centuries.
monarch(Emperor)

Hejira: the journey of the prophet

Mohammed from Mecca to Medina

Hinduism: major religion in Indian

Kaaba: the holy shrine (or Islamic

relic) in Mecca.

Jihad: Islamic holy war.

Justinian Code: collection of Roman

law by Emperor Justinian.

Logographic: ancient Chinese writing

system

Lugals: rulers of the Sumerian city-

states.

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REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT FOUR

I. True or False Item
Direction: Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if the
statement is wrong on the space provided.
______1.The Byzantine Empire reached its height of the power during the
time of Justinian.
_______2. The Mesopotamian civilization emerged along the Nile Valley.
_______3. Hinduism was a reform movement developed from Buddhism.
_______4.The ancient Chinese civilization emerged in the Nile River.
_______5.Latins was one of the first settlers of ancient Rome.
II. Matching Item
Direction: Match the following items from “B” column with “A”
column

Column A Column B
__1.Herodotus A. Founding prophet of Islam
__2.Coliseum B. Richest nobles of Rome
__3.Mohamme C. Father of History
d
__4.Theodosius D. Amphitheatres in Rome
__5.Patricians E. Make Christianity official religion of Rome
III. Multiple Choice Items.
Direction: Choose the correct answer and write the letter of your choice
on the space provided.
_____1.The absolute king of the ancient Mesopotamia was called:
A. Cuneiform C. Sumerians
B. lugals D. Pharaohs

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______2. One of the following is major religion of India:

A. Hinduism C. Islam
B. Christianity D. Shintoism
______3. One of the following was the ancient Chinese writing system:
A. Hieroglyphics C. Mandarin
B. Cuneiform D. Logographic
____4. The city-states of the ancient Greeks were called:
A. Constantinople C. Hellens
B. Polis D. Hellas
_____5. One of the following was the most powerful government body of
the Roman Republic:
A. Consul C. Senate
B. lugals D. President
IV. Fill in the Blank Item
Direction: Fill in the blank spaces with suitable words.
1. The Greeks called their land_______________
2. The first Roman Emperor was______________
3. The type of government in which power were controlled by a few
powerful people are called___________________
4. Jesus Christ was born in __________________
5. The Arabs were the speakers of the language family known
as__________________

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Check List
Put a tick (√) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can perform
I can
1 Point out common elements of the ancient river
valley civilizations

2 Compare and contrast the rise and expansion of

Christianity and Islam

3 Analyze the main features of the Byzantine

Empire

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Unit Five

Ancient History of Africa

Unit learning out comes: At the end of this unit, students will be able to:

 Explain the major contribution of the ancient Egyptian Civilization.

 Identify the typical features of the kingdom of Nubia.
 Discuss the main historical events of the Kingdom of Meroe.
 Appreciate that Africa is a continent with ancient history and civilization.

Main contents

5.1. Ancient Kingdom of Egypt

5.2. The Kingdom of Nubia

5.3. The Kingdom of Meroe

 Unit Summary
 Review Exercise

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5.1 Ancient Civilization of Egypt

Competencies:

 Outline the major contributions of the ancient Egyptian civilization;

 Show appreciation for Africa’s ancient history and civilizations.
 Point out the main features of ancient Nubia and Meroe;
 Compare and contrast the main features of pre-colonial African states

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top 10 words
 Hieroglyphics  Pyramid  Papyrus
 Pharaoh  Vizier  Temple
 Nome  Peasant  Tomb
 Craftsmen

Start-up question
 Where is the location of present day Egypt?
The civilization of ancient Egypt began at about 3000 B.C in the Nile Valley.
Egypt was located in Northeast parts of Africa. The ancient Greek Historian
Herodotus said that Egypt was “the gift of the Nile.” The Nile River is the lifeline
of Egyptians. Egypt could not exist without the floods, water and soil supplied by
Nile. Due to Nile flood most of the people during this time was living along the
river and the river [Link] Nile River has two major tributaries. These are White
Nile and Blue Nile (Abay).
History of Ancient Egypt
Start- up questions
 What was the capital city of the old Kingdom?
 What was the political Centre during the Middle and the New kingdom?
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The history of ancient Egypt was divided in to three periods. These are: the old
Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom. The capital of the Old Kingdom
was Memphis. During the Middle and New Kingdoms, the capital was shifted to
Thebes.
Social Class in Ancient Egypt
Start-up question
 What is a peasant?
 What are craftsmen?
There were three social classes in ancient Egypt. These are:
The upper class: made up of Kings, government officials, rich land owners and
priests.
The Middle Class: consisted of merchants, craftsmen and other skilled workers.
The Lower class: made up of poor farmers. They were the most oppressed class.
The peasants lived in small mud huts and grew crops. They were largest and lowest
social class. Peasants in ancient Egypt perform corveelabor, public service and
were conscripted as soldiers.

Figure 5.1 Social divisions in Ancient Egypt

Agriculture
Start -up question
 What were the main crops of ancient Egypt?

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Economy of Ancient Egyptian was mainly based on agriculture. Climatically

ancient Egypt was a hot country with almost no rainfall. Most of the year, the
farmers grew crops by using irrigation. They used canals that carried water from
the Nile to their agricultural fields. The peasants used wooden plough pulled by
[Link], barley, onion, flax and vegetables were the main crops of ancient
Egypt. They were also keepers of cattle, goats and other domestic animals.

Figure 5.2 Ancient Egypt

Trade
Start- up question
 Who sent the well-known Egyptian Voyage to the land of punt?
Ancient Egyptian traders sailed to lands bordering Aegean, Mediterranean and Red
seas. They acquired silver, iron, horses and cedar logs as a result of trade. They got
slaves, ivory, gold, copper and ebony from Nubia and Kush, a country south of
Egypt. The well-known Egyptian voyage to the land of punt was sent by Queen
Hatshepsut. Punt was the first historical known state in the Horn of Africa. By
means of trade Egyptian ideas and customs were spread.

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Government
Start-up question
 Who was the appointed official of nomes?
The ancient Egyptians made remarkable progress in government. The officials
called viziers (prime minister) helped the king govern ancient [Link] king of
ancient Egypt was called “Pharaohs.”Ancient Egypt was divided into 42
provinces called “nomes,” each ruled governed by an appointed official known as
“nomarch”.
The Pyramid

Figure 1The Pyramid

Start-up question
 What is Pyramid?
Ancient Egyptian rulers used the labor of peasant and slaves for the construction of
palaces, temples and tombs. The large royal tombs built for the Pharaohs were
called Pyramids. Egyptian pyramids are the oldest and largest stone structure in
the [Link] largest Pyramids at Giza recognized as one of the Seven Wonders of
the Ancient World
Beliefs
Start-up question
 What is Mummification?

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The ancient Egyptians worshiped many gods. They believed in life after death.
Ancient Egyptians preserved the body of the dead. The process of preserving the
dead body intact is called mummification. They believed that by preserving a
dead person’s body their soul would live on in the afterlife forever. Therefore, they
built big pyramids for the Pharaohs as tombs.
Egyptian Writing
Start -up question
 What were hieroglyphics and papyrus?
The best known and most elaborate system of writing developed by the ancient
Egyptians was called hieroglyphics. It was a pictorial form of writing. It is an old
form of writing of its kind.
The Egyptians first used hieroglyphics for inscription carved or painted on temple
and palace pillars and walls and also on tombs. Egyptians, gradually, however
introduced sheets of papyrus. Papyrus was a paper like substance.
Contributions of Egyptians
Start-up question
 Explain the significance of the ancient civilization of Egypt.
The ancient Egyptians invented lots of things we still used today. They made
remarkable progress in government, religion, engineering and architecture. Also
they contributed in writing, medical discoveries and science includingmathematics.
They produced a calendar with 365 days.

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Activity 5.1
A. Individual work Question based on facts:
 What is a pyramid?  What is hieroglyphics?
 What is mummification?  What is Vizier?
 What is nomarch?  What is papyrus?

B. Group [Link] the students to discussin groups and present their

ideas through their group representative.
1. According to the Greek historian Herodotus Egypt was “the gift of
the Nile” What does it mean? Discuss
C. Things to do
1 Draw sketch map of Africa and locate the source of Blue Nile.

5.2. The kingdom of Nubia (Kush)

Geographical Location
Start-up question
 Where was the Nubia kingdom located?
Nubia, which was also known as Kush was located in the South of Egypt in the
present day Sudan. The kingdom was one of the most ancient independent
kingdoms of Africa. According to Egyptian records, the kingdom of Kush began
around 2000BC and fell in 350 AD. It was lie along the Nile River. The kingdoms
had capitals at Napata and [Link], its culture and history was closely

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linked with ancient Egypt. For example, Nubia used Egyptian writing system until
it invented its script in the later periods.
Egyptian Conquest
Start-up question
 How did the Nubians rule ended in Egypt?
Egyptians controlled Nubia from the 1500’s BC. Nubians adopted elements of
Egyptian art, architecture, language and religion. The Nubians ruled Egypt in turn
from about 750 BC until 670 BC. Napata became the capital of the combined
territory of Egypt and Nubia. The Nubian rule over Egypt ended in about 670 BC
when the Assyrians invaded Egypt and drove them out of the country. They
destroyed Napata. Then the Nubians moved their capital south to Meroe.

Figure 2TheKushite kingdom in750BC.

Trade
Nubia was a trading centre. The kingdom export slaves, cattle, gold and
[Link] Nubians lived along the Nile. In the deserts, Nubians mined mineral
resources. Nubians traded with the Egyptians, their neighbours to the north.

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Activity 5.2

A. Question from facts:

A. Individual work
1. What were the political centers of Nubia (Kush) before Meroe?
2. What was the capital of combined territory of Egypt and Nubia?
3. Who drove out the Kuahities in 670B.C from Egypt?
B. Group discussion
1. What factors forced the Kushities to leave Egypt in 7th century
B.C?

5.3. The Kingdom of Meroe

Start-up question
 Why the period Meroe served as capital marked as the glorious period of
civilization of Kush?
When the Assyrians destroyed Napata, the capital of Kush in 670BC, the rulers of
Kush fled to south and began to expand its territory in the Southern direction.
Meroe supplanted Napata as the political, religious and economic centre of Kush.
The then capital Meroe was a little north of Khartoum. Khartoum was the present
day capital city of Sudan. The Nubian kingdom flourished again.
The period which Meroe served as the capital marked the peak of the civilization
of Nubia. The Nubian civilization of this period is often referred to as Merotic
civilization. During the Merotic time the Nubians found iron ore, developed iron
industry and made iron tools and weapons. The use of iron weapons made the

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kingdom militarily very powerful and which enabled them to conquer a large
territory.
Trade
Start-up question
 What were the main export items of Meroe?
Meroe dominates the trade of the Horn of Africa. Trade became the main source of
prosperity. Ivory, slaves, ebony and gold was the main export items.
Achievements of Merotic civilization
When the Merotic civilization reached its height of its power, the people of Meroe
developed new styles in art and architecture, used their own language, invented a
system of writing and worshipped their own gods.

Figure 5.5 Merotic monument

Decline of Meroe
Start-up question
 Who destroyed the Merotic civilization in 350 AD?
Meroe reached height of its power from the middle of the third century BC to the
first century BC. The decline of Meroe was highly related to the rise of rival
Aksumite state. About 350AD the Aksumite king called Ezana invaded and ended
Meroe, which brought the end of Merotic civilization.

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Comparison between pre-colonial Egypt, Nubia and Meroe.

Ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization on the Mediterranean world.
Ancient Egypt was the birthplace of one of the world’s oldest and long lasting
civilization. Centred along the Nile valley this advanced culture arose about
3000years ago and continued for over 2000 years in north-eastern Africa.
The contribution of ancient Egyptian in the development of world civilization was
outstanding and visible. They developed a civilized way of life. Ancient Egyptians
invented the writing system known as hieroglyphics. They also discovered
papyrus. In government they created the world’s earliest national despotic
government. They created basic forms of arithmetic, and calendar of a 365-day.
The belief life after death was developed by ancient Egyptians. For the tombs of
royal family ancient Egyptians developed a special burial system known as
pyramids. They also made great advance in a system of mathematic, effective
system of medicine and why of preserving died body intact through the process
known as mummification. In agriculture they introduced irrigation system.
Nubia was emerged in the present Republic of the Sudan. In 1500 BC they were
conquered by Egyptian. The Nubians also conquered and ruled Egypt. The
invasion of Egypt by Assyrian marked the end of Nubians rule over Egypt. Around
the 6th century BC, Kush expanded its territory in the southern direction. This made
Meroe as the centre of a new Nubian civilization. The time was referred to as the
golden age of the Nubian, hence the Meroetic civilization.

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Activity 5.3

A. Question based on facts:

A. Individual work
1. When did the civilization of Meroe ended?
2. Who destroyed the Merotic civilization?
3. What is the capital city of the Republic of Sudan?
B. Group work
1. Draw an outline Map of Africa and locate the countries of the
Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia.

Unit Summary

Ancient Egyptians developed one of the earliest world civilizations in the

northeast Africa. It was flourished on Nile river valley. They developed a
civilized way of life. Ancient Egyptian civilization was developed on the
base of well-organized state structure, towns, government, engineering,
religion, architecture and writing system. Many of ancient Egyptian
innovations and ideas were taken by the people who they conquered. The
ideas were also spread by means of trade using the merchants from foreign
land.
Nubia was also known as Kush, land of Kush, Napata or the Kingdom of
Meroe, refers to the vast lands that lie to the south of Egypt in the present
Republic of Sudan. The kingdom was one of the most ancient independent
kingdoms of Africa. Nubian’s history is closely linked with ancient Egypt.
Heavily engaged in commerce and iron working, Meroe had become a
major centre after Napata. Between middle of3rd century BC to the 1 st
century AD, Meroe’s greatness seems to have been 151
reached its height of
power. Through time, the Merotic civilization developed its own quality and
style. Meroe continued as a cultural, political and commercial centre until it
 was destroyed by the Aksumite state around 350A.D.

..

Glossary

Corveelabor: compulsory (free) labor service without payment.

Craftsman: skilled workman who practices a craft.

Hieroglyphic: ancient form of Egyptian writing system

Mummification: art of preserving dead body intact.

Nome: province

Nomarch: appointed provincial governors

Papyrus: a paper like writing material

Peasant: people who engaged on agriculture

Pharaoh: name for ancient ruler of Egypt

Pre-colonial: period before colonialism

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Pyramid: royal tomb in ancient Egypt

Temple: building for the worship of a god

Tomb: place dug in the ground for a dead body

REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT FIVE

I. True or False Items
Direction:Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if the
statement is wrong.
_______1. The art of preserving dead body intact was called hieroglyphics.
_______2.Ancient Egyptians believed in life after death.
_______3. The Merotic civilization was remembered for their iron weapons.
_______4. Ancient Egyptian economy was based on agriculture.
_______5. The Nubians were conquered by Egyptians around 1500B.C.
II. Matching Items
Direction: Match the following items from column “B” with column “A”
Column “A” Column “B”
______1. Memphis The
A. capital of Egypt during Middle
kingdom
______2. Napata B. The largest pyramid was found
______3. Thebes C. The capital of old kingdom
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______4. Giza D. Destroyed by king Ezana

______5. Meroe E. The capital of Nubia.
III. Multiple Choices
Direction: Choosing the correct possibleanswer and write the letter of your
correct answer on the provided space.
______1. The largest pyramids of ancient Egypt are located in:
A. Memphis B. Cairo C. ThebesD. Giza
_______2. The Nubian civilization emerged in:
A. SudanB. Ethiopia C. EgyptD. Mesopotamia
_______3. The political centre of the Kush was
A. Meroe B. Napata C. SennarD. Memphis

______4. The city of Meroe was destroyed by:

A. Aksumite state B. Egyptians C. RomansD. Persians
______5. Ancient Egypt was divided in to province which were called
A. nomesB. nomarch C. Viziers D. old kingdom
IV. Fill in the blank space with the correct word or phrase
1, the political center of the Old kingdom of Egypt was called_____________
2. The society of ancient Egypt was divided into________________________,
__________________ and _______________________classes.
3. The history of ancient Egypt was divided into_____________________,
_________________________ and _________________________ periods.
4. The well-known Egyptian voyages to the land of punt was conducted during the
time of_________________________________
5. The large royal tombs built for Pharaohs were called_____________________

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Check List

Put a tick (√) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can perform

I can

1. Outline the major contributions of the ancient

Egyptian civilization;
2. Point out the main features of ancient Nubia and
Mereo;
3 Compare and contrast the main features of pre-
colonial African states.

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Unit Six

States and Peoples of Ancient and Medieval Ethiopia

Unit learning outcomes
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the main features of the Aksumite kingdom;
 Discuss major historical events of Ethiopia during the Zagwe dynasty;
 Explain the main features of the Gondarian period;
 Describe the main features of the major Muslim Sultanates in Ethiopia;
 Analyze the practice of agriculture, trade, and taxation during ancient and
medieval Ethiopia.
 Appreciate the Ancient and Medieval civilizations of Ethiopia

Main contents

6.1. Aksum, Lalibela and Gondar

6.2. Islamic Sultanates
6.3. Population movements, interaction and integration (Gada and
Other indigenous organizations)
6.4. Economic base of states: agriculture, trade and trade routes,
Taxation
 Unit Summary
 Review Exercise

6.1. Aksum, Lalibela and Gondar

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

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 Explain the ancient history and civilization of Ethiopia;

 Show appreciation for Ancient and Medieval history/
civilizations of Ethiopia;

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top 10 words
 Heritage  illegitimate  Inscription  Legacy
 Nine Saints  Obelisk  Pilgrimage  Rock-hewn church
 Warrasheh  ZemeneMesafint
More Key Words
 Castle  Coin  Dynasty  Industriousness
 Itege  Peninsula  Jabarti  Monument

Aksumite state
Start-up question
 Is Aksum the first state in Ethiopian region? Why?
 What are the two main contemporary written sources of Aksumite state?
Introduction
Aksum was not the first state in Ethiopia. Punt and Damat were the two ancient
historical known states in Ethiopian region and the Horne of Africa. Punt was the
oldest state in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. Damat existed just before the rise
of Aksum. There were also other sites of pre-Aksumite civilization in Ethiopia like
Yeha, Coleo, Matara,Hawelti, Melazo and Adulis.

Sources about Aksum

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Our information about Aksum mainly was archaeology, inscriptions and written
sources. However, the Periplus of the Erithrean Sea and a book entitled
theChristian Topography were two main current documents from which accurate
information about Aksumite state is obtained.
The Origin ofAksum
Start-up questions
 Who was the king of Aksum according to the Periplus of the Erithrean Sea?
The Aksumite state was one of the ancient civilizations that arose in the Northern
part of Ethiopia. The present day city of Aksum was its centre. The extension of
trade, sedentary life and the trade facilitated the formation of Aksumite state.
The exact date when the kingdom of Aksum (or Aksumite state; also known as the
Aksumite Empire) emerged as a center of state had not been so far established.
Based on the existing sources scholars assumed that the Aksumite state was
emerged around the middle of the second century BC. This assumption was mainly
based onthe Periplus of the Erithrean Sea, which was written around 50AD by
unknown writer. It was a manual or handy book used by merchants. According to
the source Adulis was the port of the city of Aksum and the king of Aksum was
called Zoscales. The other document the inscription of Adulis was published in a

Focus
Just to avoid confusion on the use of Aksumite state, Aksumite Kingdom
and Aksumite Empire:
State: is organized political community with its apparatus of government
and territory in which this exists.
Kingdom: is a country ruled by a king or a queen
Empire: is a different group or possible countries under a single supreme
authority.

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book entitled the Christian Topography by a traveller called Cosmos

Indicopleustes.
Territorial Extent of Aksum
Start up question
 What was the cause for rivalries between Meroe and Aksum?
In the heyday Aksumite territories extended from the Red sea coast in the east to
the Nile valley in the west, and from the northern tip of what is today Eritrea in the
north as far as northernShewa in south. Between Meroe and Aksum there were
intense rivalries in order to dominate the Red Sea trade. Some of historical
evidence mentioned that Aksumites had controlled territory in parts of South
Arabia.

Figure 6.1 Fig. Aksumite Empire

Aksumite state structure and Society
Start-up question
 Who was the largest majority of the Aksumite social classes?
Aksum as a kingdom was powerful states with a well distinguished social
structure. The king and royal family came at the top. Below the king were

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provincial officials who ruled over the provinces and collected [Link] were
also priest and other religious officials.
Apart from thesethe Aksum society constituted different social classes which were
divided on occupational basis. The vast majority of Aksumite society was the
peasants while the rest include artisans, merchants and slaves.
Economy
Start-up question
 What was the important factor for the prosperity ofAksumite economy?
Agriculture constituted the base of Aksumite economy. Beside agriculture the state
also had a considerable income from internal and international trade. Trade was
important factor for the wealth of the Aksumite economy because it yields much
income to the state.
The kings of Aksum used the port of Adulis for their international trade on the Red
Sea [Link] most important export items were ivory, tortoise-shell, slaves, gold
and live animals. Import items include textiles, glassware, jewellery, copper sheets,
drinking vessels and other products.
The Aksumites dominated the red sea trade and maintained trade relation with
Egypt, the Mediterranean region, Arabia, Syria and India.
Aksumite Coins
Start-up question
 What can you learn from Aksumite coins?
One of the important achievements of the Aksumite period is the minting of
[Link] the 3rd century AD to 7th century AD the Aksumite kings minted and
issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for international trade. It
was one of the first African governments to issue its own coins. The coins were
decorated with Geez and Greek inscriptions, the busts of the kings and other

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symbols. Those before the introduction of Christianity to Aksum had crescent and
disc and those after introduction of Christianity were identified by their cross.

Figure 6.2 Aksumite gold coins

Military power
Start-up question
 Why the Aksumite state controlled territory in Southern part of Arabian
Peninsula?
Aksum built strong military power using the income from red sea trade to protect
trade and trade routes from rivals. They have ship making technology at Adulis.
With this army they also expended their territory. On a number of occasions
Aksum had overseas territories in Southern parts of Arabian Peninsula, in the
present day [Link] was probably in a desire to extend their domination over
the territories on both sides of the Red Sea to secure trade.
External Relation
Aksumite established closer diplomatic and commercial relations with Greco-
Roman world, the Middle East, Near East and other countries on the Indian Ocean.

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Introduction of Christianity
Start-up question
 How was Christianity introduced to Aksum?
In the 4th century AD, the Aksumite state experienced a very remarkable king
called Ezana (r.320-350 A.D.) Christianity introduced during his time around 330
AD. But he was not the first Ethiopian to accept Christianity. The one responsible
in converting king Ezana and his friends was a young Syrian named Fremnatos
(Abba Salama).Therefore, Fremnatos became the first Bishop of Ethiopia and
Ezana the first Christian King to accept Christianity. Since then the Christianity
became the state religion in Aksum and secured the royal support. The introduction
of Christianity had diplomatic advantage. It was instrumental for the development
of strong relations with the Byzantine Empire.
Expansion of Christianity
Start-up question
 When did the Nine Saints arrive to the city of Aksum?
At the beginning, Christianity was restricted to the court of Ezana in [Link]
on with the coming of some monks known as the Nine Saints towards the end of
5th century A.D, Christianity spread to the broad masses. They came probably from
Syria, Lebanon and Cyprus. The contributions of the Nine Saints were:
 They built different churches
 They translated the Bible into Geez
 They introduced monastic life
 They convert many people into Christianity
Legacies of Aksumite Civilization
Start-up question
 Why Aksumites werebuilt obelisks?

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Aksumite state controlled local and international trade. This trade brought an
immense wealth to Aksum. With this income the Aksumite kings built large
palaces and [Link] all magnificent achievement of Aksumite statewas
construction of monumental stelae (or obelisks.) They may be erected for religious
purpose or as a tomb of the kings.

Figure 6.3 one of the standing obelisks and Broken remains of the largest obelisk of Aksum

Focus
The largest obelisk is 33 meters long and found at Aksum broken and fallen
down. Fascist Italy taken the second largest obelisk of 25 meters to Rome in
1937 and know returned to his mother country very recently. The third largest
obelisk, which stands up in Aksum, is 24 meters high. The obelisk in Aksum
was registered by UNESCO as world heritage and became centres of tourist
attractions in Ethiopia today. In general remains of Aksumite temples, iron
tools, obelisks, ornaments, coins and tombs were signs of the advanced
technology of Aksumite civilization. However, preserving all ancient
historical heritage of Ethiopia are the responsibility of the present generation.

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The Decline of Aksum

Start-up question
 What was the major external factor for the downfall of Aksumite Empire?
The power and wealth of the AksumiteEmpire began to decline in the early
decades of the 7th [Link] and external factor were responsible for the
decline of Aksumite kingdom.
External factor: the expansion of Muslin Arabs to the Red Sea led maritime
conflict between the Muslim Arabs and Aksum over the control of Red Sea
[Link] lost their control of maritime trade. The economic decline results in
the collapse of the defence system of the state.
Internal factors: the loss of income from the international trade weakened the
economic power as a result the Aksumite rulers failed to establish strong control
over the internal rebellion.
The ZagweDynasty
Start-up questions
 Who was the founder of the Zagwe dynasty?
The Zagwe dynasty took political power in northern Ethiopia after the downfall of
Aksum. The dynasty was founded by Cushitic speaking Agawpeople. The Zagwe
dynasty was formed around 1150 A.D. The founder was said to be Merera
(MeraTaklaHaymanot). It was emerged in the district of Bugna in Lasta, more
exactly at a place called Adafa (its first political centre). Near Adafaexisted
Roha(laterrenamed Lalibela, after Lalibela, one of its greatest king.)
Territorial Limits of the Zagwe
In the north, it includes most of the highland provinces of the Aksumite Kingdom.
In the south, their power was extended at least as far south asnorthern Shewa. Inthe
west their presence reached up to Lake Tana. But in the east its limit was not
clearly known.
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Figure 6.4 Sketch Map of the Zagwe kingdom

Economy
Start-up question
 What was the economic base of the Zagwe kingdom?
The economy of the Zagwe dynasty was based on agriculture. The peasantry
formed the majority of the population. Trade brought additional income. Besides
cultural contacts there were also trade relations with Egypt and other
[Link] sea and land routes were [Link] by sea was conducted
largely through Zeila(Somali coast), which gradually became the main port of the
kingdom. The Dahlak Islands on the Red sea was also served as other outlet.
The main important export items were slaves, ivory, and rare spices. While
imported items includes cotton, silver and copper vessels and newly minted coins.
The Reign of Lalibela and Church Building
Start-up question
 Who was the Zagwe king that built 11 rock-hewn churches in Lalibela?
The Zagwe rulers engaged more on church construction. The reign of Lalibela
marked the peak of the Zagwe dynasty.

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The Zagwe rulers are left their deepest imprint on Ethiopian historythrough their
architectural achievements in the construction of eleven rock-hewn churches in
Lalibela, named after one of the more famous of their King Lalibela. These
churches are known as monolithic churches, because they were chiselled out of a
living single rock. They were recognized by UNESCO as part of world’s cultural
heritage and become a known centre of tourism in Ethiopia. According to different
sources, the main purposes of construction of the beautiful churches of Lalibela
were in fact a planned attempt to reproduce other holy city of Jerusalem in
Ethiopia. Roha was considered to be substitute for Jerusalem.

Figure 6.5The well known Lalibela rock-hewn churches

The Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia’s architecture and painting. The
construction of Churches were signifies religious, architectural, artistic, economic
and literal revival of the ancient Aksumite civilization.
Cultural tradition of the Aksumite state was not interrupted but continued during
the Zagwe dynasty.
 Christianity continued to be state and official religion of the country.
 Geez continued to serve as a church and writing language.
 Relation with the Muslim rulers of Egypt was continued.
 Religious pilgrimage to the Holy Land of Jerusalem was reached its peak
during the Zagwe dynasty.

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Dawn Fall of the Zagwe Dynasty

Start-up question
 What are the main reasons for the downfall of the Zagwe dynasty?
Two factors were accountable to the down fall of the Zagwe Dynasty. These are:
1. Internal factors:there is no peaceful political succession with the death of the
reigning king.
2. External factor: the Semitic-speaking peoples of Tigre and Amhara were
organized strong political [Link] Tigray theChristian church spread anti-
Zagwe information’s who claimed the Zagwe as usurpers (illegitimate rulers.)The
resistance to the Zagwe was rooted in the legend of the supposed queen of Sheba.
Their goal seems to have been to bring back the former the so called “Solomonic
dynasty.”
Eventually an Amhara chief Yekuno-Amlak, being supported by the Christian
church, overthrew the last Zagwe king; Yetbarek in [Link] marked the end
ofZagwe dynasty and the “restoration of the Solomonic dynasty,”
Gondarine Period
Start-up questions
 Why it was called Gondarine period?
 Who founded Gondar?
The highland Christian kings had tradition of mobile capital from one region to
anther throughout the medieval period. One exception to this rule was
DebreBerhan, founded by Zara Yacob in 1454.
The Gondarianperiod (1636-1769) refers to the period during which the rulers of
the Christian kings ruled from a new capital called Gondar.
Gondar was founded as a fixed capital by King Fasiledes (r.1667-1682) in1636.
Gondar then used as the capital of Ethiopia for more than 200 years. Gondar

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became the political, economic and cultural centre because the Christian kings
began to stay long in the city.
One of the greatest achievements of Gondar was in architecture. Gondar was
known by the ruins of wonderful castles and palaces built by a series of emperors
since its foundation. Churches, bridges and swimming pools were constructed.

Figure 6.6 Fasiledes Castle

The Period between 1636 and 1706 can be considered as the Golden Age of
Gondar. In other words, during the times of the first three successive kings i.e.
Fasiledes (r.1632-1667), YohannesI (1667-1682) and Iyasu I (r.1682-1706.)
Gondar enjoyed a period of glory and luxury. The ruling class led a luxurious life
in the beautiful palaces and castles.
The establishment of Gondar marked a new chapter in the country’s urban history.
Gondar developed certain urban features very soon and witnessed a fantastic
population [Link] population composed of different religious, cultural, local
and foreign communities.
Due to its increasing commercial importance, Gondar becomes the centre of active
[Link] daily and weekly market held in the city becomes a meeting point for the
people from surrounding areas for the exchange of their respective product. This
facilitated intense urban-rural interaction and interdependency.

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The trade was mostly dominated by the Ethiopian Muslims, known as the
[Link] of various crafts were provided by other occupational groups like the
Bete Israel(Felasha).
Gondar usually was divided into several zones or quarters. They had a separate
living area for the Muslim communities which still called AddisAlem. The
Felashaalso settled at the outskirts of the [Link] addition foreign communities
mainly Armenians, Greeks and Indians were conducting trade in Gondar with their
own living quarter.
The Decline of the Royal power

Start-upquestion
 Who was the last strong king before Gondar inter to political disorder?
The last powerful king before the Gondar enters to political disorder and social
unrest was Iyasu I (Iyasu the Great). The assassination ofIyasu I in 1706 once
again opened apolitical disorder as a result of plot, poisoning and power
[Link] warlords became the most powerful and began to exercise the
power in the name of weak central kings. Gondar also engaged in conflict over
religious principles or doctrines.
ItegeMentewab
Start-up question
 Who was Mentewab?
After the death of King Bakafa in 1730 once again royal power began to decline.
His son and successor Iyasu II, Iyasu the little, (r.1730-1755) was a minor when he
come to power. The mother of Iyasu II and wife of Bakafa, ItegeMentewab began
to rule on behalf of her [Link] was becomedominate and prominent
woman in the politics of the last stage of the Gondarian period. She was supported

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by her brother, RasWeldeLeul. The exercise of real power by Mentewab and Weld
Leul undermined the power of Iyassu II.
Iyasu II in 1755 was succeeded by his son Iyoas (r, 1755-1769).Mentewab and her
brother controlled real power. So, RasBitwededWeldeLeul was more powerful
than the king. The title of RasBitweded was more important. To manipulate the
king as they wanted, the regional lords began to aspire and compete for that
[Link] absence of a powerful successor to the throne resulted in the rise of
Mentewab and WeldeLeul. The gradual concentration of power in the hands of
RasBitweded led to the decline of the King’s power.
The ZemeneMesafint (The Era of Warlords)(1769-1885)
Start-up questions
 Do you know what the term “Zemene” and a “Mesafint” are?
The ZemeneMesafint is a period in history of Ethiopia which more or less started
with the death of Iyoas in 1769 and lasted with the rise of Tewodros II in1855.
The Amharic term “Zemene” refers to a certain period or duration in history. In
English its equal term is “era.” Amharic term “Mesafint” its English literal version
is “prince or lord.”Prince means son or close relatives of a king or queen. The
literal meaning of ZemeneMesafint is, therefore, the “Era of princes or Era of
Warlord.” The king in Gondar was a puppet or symbol. The kings merely reigned;
they did not rule.
RasWeldeLeul was died in 1767. His death was followed by power struggle
between ItegeMentewab (thegrandmother of reigningkingIyoas) and Wabi (the
mother of reigning king Iyoas). Mentewab was from Quara and supported by her
kinsmen from Quara. Wabi on the other hand was from Wolloand wanted to
maintain her rule in the name of her son, KingIyoas. She was supported by
Oromosalready stationed in Gondar.

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Beginning of ZemeneMesafint
Start-up question
 Who was Ras Michael Sehul?
Mentewab, in an attempt not to lose the power, invited the Tigrean warlord, Ras
Michal Sehul to maintain peace and order in Gondar. He arrived at Gondar in
1769. But Ras Michael Sehul created another political crisis by killing the reigning
king, Iyoasin 1769 which marked the beginning of [Link] Michael
become a “king maker” (i.e., he had the power to bring kings to the throne and
depose them as he wished). Extreme action taken by Ras Michael made him
unpopular and led to the creation of union against him. In 1771, the rulers of
Gojjam, Wollo and Lastadefeated Ras Michael at the battle of Sabrakusa. Ras
Michael forced to return to Tigray.
Between 1771 and 1786, various regional lords competed to become the next
RasBitweded and indirectly control royal power. In 1786, the post of RasBitweded
was occupied by an Oromo family, the warraSheh, commonly known as the Yejju
dynasty. Ali Gwangul(or Ali I) is believed to be the founder of the dynasty. They
made Debre Tabor their seat of power and acted as guardians of the kings at
Gondar.
 In 1730, king Bakafa died and was succeeded by his son Iyasu II. But actual
power was in the hands of Mentewab and her brother WeldeLeul.
 In 1755, Iyasu II died and was succeeded by his son Iyoas. Mentewab and
WeldeLeul continued to exercise actual power as usual.
 In 1767, WeldeLeul died. Mentewab and Wabi competed for power. Ras
Michael Sehul arrived at Gondar upon Mentewab invitation.
 In 1769, Ras Michael Killed Iyoas and that marked the beginning of
ZemeneMesafint.
 In 1771, Ras Michael was defeated and back to Tigray
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 In between 1771 and 1786, regional warlords competed to assume the

position of RasBitweded
 In between 1786 and 1853, the Yejju lords controlled the position of
RasBitweded and acted as guardians of the puppet kings at Gondar. The
Emperors in Gondar merely reigned; they did not rule.
The Main Features of ZemeneMesafint
Start-up questions
 What were the main features of ZemeneMesafint?
The main features of ZemeneMesafint were:
 Religious( doctrinal) division  Continuous civil war
 Political division  Social disorder and others
 Weak central authority
Throughout the ZemeneMesafint various regional lords fought for the following
reasons. These were;
 to take the position of RasBitweded
 to expand their territories
The endless civil wars of the ZemeneMesafint harmfully affected the development
of Ethiopia by reducing productivity. It greatly affected the life of peasants, trade
and industriousness (hardworking), which become one important cause the
country’s backwardness.
The ZemeneMesafint was ended in 1855 by Tewodros II who get rid of powerful
regional lords in four major battles.

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Activity 6.1
Question based on facts:
A. Individual work
1. List the major external and internal factors for the downfall of Aksum
and Zagwe dynasty.
2. Complete the table below by writing the items of export and import of
Aksum and Zagwe
Aksum Zagwe
Export Import Export Import

B. Group Work
1. Have you ever seen the picture of the Aksumite obelisks, Rook-hewn
churches of Zagwe and the castles of Gondar? Sketch it on your exercise
book
2. Organize the class into three groups and let them to collect pictures
showing the legacies of Aksumite, Zagwe and Gondariancivilization and
present their finding in the class.
3. Organize the class into three groups and let them to write report on the
economic and cultural importance of the Lalibela church, obelisks of
Aksum and castles of Gondar after visiting the national museum Of
Ethiopia.

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6.2. Islamic Sultanates

Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
 Describe the political, social and economic structures of ancient
and medieval Islamic states in Ethiopia;

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top 4 words
 Mahkzumite  Sultan  Walasma  Sultanate

Start-up questions
 What is the word sultanate?
 When was the first contact of Ethiopia and Islam?
Sultanate is a Muslim state ruled by a Sultan. Sultan is an Islamic title given to a
Muslim ruler.
When Prophet Mohammed began his mission, the rulers of Mecca, called the
Quaryash, created problem on him and his [Link] in 615 A.D, he sent
Muslim refugees to [Link] Aksumite king by the name Ella Saham, permitted
them to live peacefully until they returned to their country in 628 A.D.
By the beginning of the 8th century A.D, Islam made its appearance in Ethiopia and
the Horn of Africa. Trade and Islam were the main factors for the emergence of
Muslim Sultanates in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. Along the trade routes from
Zeila, market centres emerged. Gradually, the centres become centres of Muslim
[Link], Shewa, Ifat, Adal, Fatagar, Dawaro, Arababini,Dara, Sharka,
Bali and Hadya were some of the Muslim Sultanates of the region.
Unlike northern Africa and other regions, in Ethiopia the process of conversion
was not followed by Arabization. This was because Arabs did not open war of

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conquest against Ethiopia and the Ethiopian converts remained with their nation
and ethnic identity.
Gateways of Islam in Ethiopia and the Horn
The two main gateway of Islam to the Ethiopian region and the Horn were:
I. The Dahlak Island in the Red sea:
Islam could not able to penetrate deep in to the interior of Ethiopia on this direction
because of the existence of strong Christian community. On this direction Islam
was firmly established on the Red Sea coast and by the 10th century a Muslim
sultanate of Dahlak was emerged.
II. The port of Zeila on the Gulf of Aden:
Zeila was the most important gateway for the spread of Islam into interior part of
Ethiopian region as far as Eastern Shewa, Wollo, Bale, Arsi , and Harar.
The Sultanate of Shewa
Start-up question
 Who was the founder of The Sultanate of Shewa?
Since the 9th century AD a serious of Muslim sultanate began to emerge. The
earliest was the sultanate of Shewa which was founded around 896/7 [Link] the
Mahkzumite dynasty. Its location was on the left of the West Awash River in
lowland of Shewan plateau. Its rulers used the title Sultan. It worst enemy was Ifat.
The sultanate of Shewa was defeated by the Ifat Sultanate around 1280.
The Sultanate of Dahlak
Start-up question
 When was the Sultanate of Dahlak formed?
The Muslim Sultanate of Dahlak was formed in the 10 th century AD. It was
emerged after when the Arabs established their settlement on the Dahlak Island
after they destroyed Adulis in 702 A.D. Its economy was based on trade.

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The Sultanate of Ifat

Start-up question
 Who founded the Sultanate of Ifat?
Another sultanate was Ifat which was ruled by the Walasma Dynasty. It was
emerged towards the end of 13 th [Link] founder of the dynasty was Umar
Walasma. It was located around northeast of the Shewan plateau. It was the
strongest Muslim sultanate in the region towards the end of 13 th and first half of the
14th [Link] monopolized the Zeila [Link] was strategically located along the
trade routes. Its source of power was mainly the control of trade routes.
The Muslim Sultanate of Adal
Start-up question
 Who was the well known leader of Adal?
The Muslim Sultanate of Adal was formed in the late of 14 th century by the
descendents of Walasma ruling family on the Harar plateau. The relationship
between the Christian state and Muslin Sultanates (Adal) were not always
peaceful. Centuries of confrontation led to famous revolt of Imam Ahmad Ibrahim
(traditionally nicknamed “Ahmed Gragn; the Left-Handed”).They made strong war
of resistance againstChristian state until 16th century.

Figure 6.7 Muslim states in the Time of ' AmdaSeyon'

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The Economy of Muslim Sultanates

The main economic bases of these Muslim sultanates were agriculture and profit
from the rich long distance trade of Zeila.
The Christian rulers were equally demanded in controlling the trade route to and
coming from [Link] major trade routes connecting the port of Zeila to the
interior had been the rootof conflictbetween the Christian kings and the rulers of
Ifat. In 1332 A.D King AmadeSeyon(r. 1314-1344) defeated the combined army
of Ifat. King AmadeSeyon was the most expansionist Christian highland king of
the medieval period.
Common features of Muslim Communities
Some of common characters of the Muslim communities that formed in the region
were that their sultans (rulers) exercised both religious and political power. Their
population was made up of Muslim. Their economy was mainly depended on
trade. Most of the Sultanates were located in the South Eastern lowlands.

Activity 6.2
Questions based on the facts:
A. Individual work
1. Write short notes of on the following Muslin states:
 Ifat  Shewa  Dahlak  Adal
2. List the two main gateways of Islam to Ethiopia.
3. List the Muslim Sultanates that formed along the Zeila Trade route.
B. Things to do
1. Draw a sketch map of Ethiopia and the Horn and locate the Muslim
Sultanates that emerged along the Zeila trade route,

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6.3. Population movements, interaction and integration (Gadaand

otherindigenous organizations)
Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able t
 Deduce that there has been integration and interaction among the
Ethiopian people since long time;

There are words that you should try to learn for this lesson
Top 5 words
 Chaffe  Guddifacha  Waqa
 Gada  Moggassa

The Afar and Somali Population Movement

Start-up question
 What is population movement?
 What causes a population movement of Afar and Somali?
Population movement is the movement of people from one place to another with
the intentions to settle in the new location. The Afar and Somali population
movement had started earlierthan that of the Oromo population movement. The
Afar and Somali moved from the southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn
towards to the Harar [Link] that caused their movement were: drought,
famine and land pressures.
The Oromo Population Movement
Start-up question
 To which linguistic family group do the Oromo belong?
The Oromos belong to the Cushitic speaking language family. The movement and
expansion largely took place from around 1522 to 1618.

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Original Home land of the Oromo

Start-up questions
 Where is the original homeland of Oromo?
According to recent studies, the Oromo place of origin is supposed to be the south
eastern highland. MaddaWalabu was the political and religious centrebefore and
during their movement. MaddaWalabu was located on the Bale-Sidamo borderland

Figure 6.8 Map showing the location of the original homeland of Oromo
Causes of the Movement
Start-up question
 How demographic factor caused the Oromo population movement?
The Oromo population movement was a historical event that took place in the 16 th
century. It was one of the greatest population movements in the Horn of Africa.
The Oromo population movement fully changed the demographic composition of
Ethiopia. The Oromo people played important roles in the socio-political and
economic life of the country in the following centuries.

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It is believed that human, (wars and disturbance), natural, (climatic change) and
demographic (increase in human and animal population) factors have combined to
effect movement of Oromos to different places in search of better land.
Oromo Institutions and Social Organization
Start-up question
 What is the Gada system?
The term “Gada” refers to time or term (i.e., period of rule)through which the Gada
classes [Link] system was the socio-political structure by which Oromo
public life was administered. The basic rule of the Gada system was that only male
joined the [Link] were not allowed to be members of those age- grades.
According to the Gada system, the Oromo society was organized into ten groups
(grades). Each age-grade had duration of eight [Link] full ten Gadacycle was
divided into two five levels or [Link] first five grades covered 1-40 years
while the second five grades were from 41-80 years. In the first five grades the
Oromo male youngsters were taking military, political and ritual training (i.e.
considered as the period of schooling). The six age grade (41-48) is called gade.
This was stage of assuming a position of leadership.
The Gada Officials
Start-upquestion
 Who was the commander of war?
Leaders were elected democratically and periodically for a specific period of time.
There were civilian, military and religious [Link] were also peaceful
transfers of political power from one Gada class to the other every eight years.
All power rested on the chaffee which means Gadaassembly. It was the source of
[Link] Boku( AbbaGada) a acted as a civilian leader and the spokesman of
the assembly. The military leader or commander was called AbbaDula. Abba Sera,
was in charge of the traditional Oromo laws.
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Economy
The Oromos exercised a mixed economy before they started the movement. They
practiced pastoralism, and sedentary agriculture. However, following their
movement and expansion they become largely sedentary agriculturists.
Religion
Start-up question
 Who was the highest priest in the Oromo traditional religion?
Initially the Oromo’s were neither Christian nor Muslims. They followed their own
traditional religion. They believed in one chief god known asWaqa(the sky god).
The spiritual leader of theOromo traditional religion was known as Qallu. After the
movement and expansion the great majority of them adopted Christianity and
Islam based on the area they moved.
Directions of the Oromo Population Movement and Expansion
Start-up questions
 To which confederacies does the Guji Oromo belong?
The Oromo society was grouped into two major tribal groups namely: the Borana
and Barentu Confederacies. Most of the Oromo clans now trace their root to one of
these tribal [Link], Tulama, southernBorana and Guji clans believe that
they are descendents of [Link] Barentu consisted of the Karayu, Marawa, Ittu,
Humbana, Akachu, Wollo and Arsi [Link] movement in the Ethiopian region
was set on two directions. Barentu moved out in a north-easterly direction. The
Borana followed a north-westerly direction and moved out in the direction of
Kenya and Somalia.
Factors for the success of Oromo Population Movement and Expansion
 What helped the Oromo to occupy such a large area?
Factors for the success can be credited to several reasons. These were:

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 The mutual weakness of the Muslim states and the Christian kingdom by the
war of previous years.
 Training and military organization given by the Gada system.
 The tradition of adopting non-Oromo people called Moggassa.
The process of adoption of non-Oromo gave the Oromo additional manpower for
their expansion. Moggassa was the system of assimilation of non-Oromo people
who were conquered in the process of the movement. There was also a system
Called Guddifacha. This was a system in which an Oromo family adopts a non-
Oromo individual (child), a system which still current among present day Oromo’s.
After adoption, the conquered people had the same rights like the clan members.
Interaction and Integration as the result of Population Movement
Since long time there has been integration and interaction among Ethiopian people
as a result of population movement and commercial relation. With the Oromo
population movement and expansion ethnic, linguistic and cultural inter-mixing
took place between the Oromo and other peoples in the Ethiopian region. The
Oromo settled on new lands as far as southern Tigray, southeastern Gondar and
parts of Gojjam. Thus, Oromo communities become the human and material
bridges of cultural interaction and integration between the Southern and northern
parts of Ethiopia They gave Oromo names to most of the new places they
occupied.
The population movement resulted in the partial or complete relocation of many
ethnic groups. Many ethnic groups either disappeared from their ancestral lands or
were assimilated by the Oromo, Somali and Afar.

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Activity 6.3
Question based on facts:
A. Individual Work
1. Describe the Gada system.
2. Name the two major Oromo confederacies.
3. Describe the Chaffee.
B. Group Work
1. Organize class into three groups and let students discuss causes,
consequence and factors for the success of the Oromo population
movement.
2. Make a short list of Oromo clan names that belonged to Barentu and
Borana Confederacies and complete the following table.
Borana Barentu

6.4. Economic base of states: agriculture, trade and trade routes,

taxation
Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
 Explain the role that agriculture, trade and taxation play for
national development.

These are the wordsyou should try to learn for this lesson
Top 5 words
 Amole  Caravan  Trade
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 Afkala  Negadras
More Key Words
 ..

Start-up questions
 What is trade?
 Is it possible for people to live without trade interaction? Why?
Trade is a basic economic activity involving the buying and selling of goods and
services. Local trade was a type of exchange of goods among peoples of the some
region. It was conducted at open market held once in a week at a fixed day.
Long distance trade was a type of trade carried between different regions, markets,
peoples and goods. It combines both import and export trade.
Long Distance Trade in Ethiopia
Start-up question
 Who were the two dominate merchants in Ethiopian in the 19th century?
Long distance trade revived in Ethiopia in the 19 th century. Muslim dominated the
long distance trade in [Link] and Afkala were the two most dominant
merchants of the long distance [Link] Muslim merchants of the north Ethiopia

were called the Jabarti. The Oromo Muslim Merchants in the South Western
Ethiopia were called the Afkala
The long distance trade in 19th centuryEthiopia was carried out by caravan
merchants who moved long distances in large [Link] leader of the commercial
caravan was called Negadras. The term Negadras in Amharic literally means
“head of the merchants” (fromnegade, or merchants, and ras, or head.)

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Items of Trade
Start-up question
 What were the major export items of the period?
Ivory,musk, gold, skins and hide, wax, incense, coffee, and slave were the major
export items in the 19th century. South Western Ethiopian region was the major
area of supply of export [Link] major import items to Ethiopia from outside
include copper, brass, cartridge, firearms, cloths and other different tools.
Markets and Trade Routes
Start-up question
 What is trade route?
The market was the basic institutions of the trade all over the country. Markets of
the 19th century Ethiopia classified in to local market and major market.
The major markets were markets where the import-export trade items were
available. They were located along themajor trade routes.
Trade routes are line of trade that join the major markets and areas of supply.
The major trade routes of 19th century consisted of two main trade routes. They
connected the market centers along the North-South and East-West. The starting
points of both lines were the South Western part of Ethiopia.
One of this line connected peoples and states of southern region with the north part
of [Link] line started from Bonga,the political center of the Kaffa kingdom.
Some of the major market along this trade route includes: Bonga(Kaffa),
Jiren(Jimma), Sakka( LimmuEnarya), AssendaboWollega), Basso(Gojjam), Darita
(Begemder).
The route from Darita joined Gondar where it split into two lines. One line moved
westwards to Sudan through Metemma, while the other proceeded northward
through Adwa (Tigray) and reached Massawa on the Red Sea coast. This route was
the most important in the export-import of 19th century Ethiopia. The second trade
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route linked East-West. Major market along the East-West trade route were Soddo
(Gurage), Ankobar and AliyuAmba (North Shewa), Dire Dawaand Harar
(Hararge). In this line of trade Zeila and Berbera were used as outlet of the trade.

Fig. 6.9 Trade Route in the 19th century

Medium of Exchange
Start-up question
 What was the chief medium of exchange in the 19th long distance trade?

One of the chiefly used medium of exchange in the 19 th century Ethiopia was bars
of salt called Amole. Maria Theresa was other important medium of exchange. It
was a silver coin named after the Austrian queen. It was imported into Ethiopia
towards the end of 18th century by foreign merchants.

Focus
Trade was carried out partly by barter (i.e. exchange of goods with goods) and
partly with the aid of currency of various kinds. There is no uniform medium of
exchange during this time
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Importance of trade and trade routes in Interaction and Integration

Trade and trade routes used as a major means of economic relations among
different peoples of Ethiopia. It was the major factor for peaceful interactions and
integration. In addition of exchange of goods, people also interchange views,
values, cultures, customs and ideas. Trade used as a means of economic ties and
interdependence among these states and peoples.
On the other hand, trade served as one major sources of income to rulers. As trade
routes led their ways a cross different areas keeping security of merchants and
collecting taxes becomes very important. With the incomes from trade in order to
strengthen their economic and political power, rulers imported firearms.
One of the most important contributions of the trade and trade routes was the
political and religious changes among the Oromo of Gibe states that formed the
Oromo kingdom. Through merchants and trade they also accepted Islam.
Rulers began to collect taxes in the form of money with the introduction of money.
It also increases the income of state. Furthermore, long distance trade tied together
the politically and ethnically diverse states and peoples of Ethiopia.

Activity 6.4
Questions based on the facts:
A. Individual Work
1. Define the following terms
 Trade  Local trade 188Local market
 Major market  Long distance trade  Trade route
B. Things to do:
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Unit Summary
Aksum emerged as a state in Northern Ethiopia. Thus, Aksum is not the
oldest state because there are a number of pre-Aksumite states. Coins,
inscriptions and ruins of buildings are some of our main living testimonies
for the existence of well advanced civilization. Aksumite declined in its
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power when the Muslims destroyed the port Aduils.
The Zagwe period was best remembered for its rock hewn churches. The
 ..

Glossary
Afkala: Muslim Oromo merchants of Caravan: a group of merchants
southwest moving together for safety.
Amole: Salt bar used as medium of Castle: a large strong building, built
exchange by a ruler.

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Dynasty: a succession of hereditary Qallu: spiritual leaders of the Oromo

rulers of the same line descent. traditional religion
Gada: a period of rule in Oromo Rock hewn church: church chiseled
society out of a living single rock
Guddifacha: a system of adopting a Sultan: Islamic title to Muslim rulers
child. Sultanate: Muslim states ruled by
Heritage: the full range of our sultan
inherited traditions, Walasma: ruling dynasty of Ifat
monuments, objects and culture Warrasheh:yejju dynasty formed by
Industriousness: hard working Ali Gwangul
Inscriptions:words cut on a stone, ZemeneMesafint: era of prices or
example a monument, or stamped on Warlords
a coin or medal
Jabarti: Muslim merchants in
Northern Ethiopia
Legacy: historical heritage left us
from past

Mahkzumite: rulers of Shewa Muslim

Sultanate
Mogessa: system of assimilation of
non-Oromo people
Negadras: traditional title for the
heads of the caravan merchants
Obelisk: a tall stone monument
Peninsula: is a land form surrounded
by water
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REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT SIX

I. True or False Item
Direction: Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if the statementis
wrong and writes your correct answer in the space provided in front of each
statement.
_____1.Islam made a great penetration into interior of the Ethiopia and the Horn of
Africa through the port of Zeila.
_____2. The last king of the Zagwe dynasty was called YekunoAmlak.
_____3.Zoscales was the king of Aksum.
_____4. Addis Alem was established in Gondar as a living quarter for the Muslims
_____5. The political center of Yejju rulers was Debre Tabor.
II. Matching
Direction: Match column “B” with column “A’
Column A Column B
1 Adulis A Trade outlet along Ethio-Sudanese boarder
2 Zeila B The port of Aksum
3 Adefa C. The main port during Zagwe
4 Metemma D Lalibala
[Link] Choices
Direction: Answer the following questions by choosing the correct answer and
write the letter of your answer in the provided space
_____1. The king of Aksum who welcomed the Muslim refugees was
A. Ezana B. Caleb C. Zoscales D. Ella Saham
______2. The Muslim state which organized the Muslim resistance against the
Christian Kingdom was
A. Ifat B. Bali C. Hadiya D. Shewa

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______3. The Oromo social, political, economic and religious organization was
based on the
A. Monarchical B. Gada system C. Qallu institution D. Waqa
______4. Gondar was founded as political center by
A. Iyasu I B. Yohannes I C. Fasiledes D. ItegeMentewab
_____5The leader of the caravan merchants was known as
A. Negadras B. Jabarti C. Afkala D. King
III. Fill in the blank spaces
Direction: Fill in the blank space with the correct word or phrase
_____1. A very influential woman in the last part of Gondarianperiod
was___________
_____2.The monastic life to Ethiopia was introduced by__________
_____3.The coins used by the Aksumite kings were made of
___________,______________ and ___________
_____4. The period of political disintegration from 1769-1855 was known
as________________
______5. The sultanate of Ifat was founded by_______________
______6. The founder of the Zagwe dynasty was______________

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Check List

Put a tick (√) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can perform

I can

1
Explain the ancient history and civilization of Ethiopia;
2 Describe the political, social and economic structures
of ancient and medieval Islamic states in Ethiopia;
3 Deduce that there has been integration and interaction
among the Ethiopian people since long time;
4 Explain the role that agriculture, trade and taxation
play for national development.

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Unit Seven

Contemporary Global Issues

Unit Learning Out Comes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the idea of environment;

 Explain the impacts of people on their surrounding;
 Identify major global and local environmental problems;
 Reflect their roles as citizens in solving local environmental problems;
 Analyze the socio-economic and psychological effects of terrorism;
 Explain the causes and effects of human trafficking.

Main contents

7.1Environmental Issues
7.2Demographic ‘overload’
7.3Terrorism
7.4Human Trafficking
 Unit Summary
 Unit Review Exercise

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7.1 Environment
Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
 Examine human activities impact on their surrounding
environment

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top 10 Key words
 Biodiversity  Global warming  Pollution
 Chlorofluorocarbons  Methane  Ultraviolet ray
 Environmental pollution  Ozonelayer depletion  Solid waste
 Pollutant
More Key words
 Geo sphere  Solid waste  Sewage
 Living things  Melting ice  Recycle

7.1.1 Understanding the environment

Start-up Questions
 What is environment?
Environment:is the real world that has living as well as nonliving things of
surrounding on the earth. It also refers to a particular geographical area. The plants,
air, soil, water, animals, human beings and other living things exist in the
environment.
Environment plays an important role in healthy living and the existence of life on
the earth. Earth is a home for different living species and we all are dependent on
the environment for food, air, water and other needs. Therefore, it is important for
every individual to save it by tackling the different environmental problems.

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7.1.2 Environmental problems

Major environmental problems include pollution, global warming, ozone layer
depletion, waste disposal, and loss of biodiversity. Governments and
environmentalists address these issues through advocacy, education and activism.
These issues are summarized as follow:-
I. Pollution
Start-up Questions
 How human activities affect the surrounding environment
 List the major environmental problems in your localities
 What is pollution?
 What are the causes of pollution?
 Mention against of water pollutants
Pollution: is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment. There are
three major types of pollutions. These are: water, air and land pollutions.
A. Water pollution
This occurs when harmful substances – often chemicals or microorganisms
contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean or other body of water, degrading water
quality and rendering it toxic. Water is very important for life and other uses like:
 Domestic use: for drinking, cooking washing and cleaning
 Industrial use: as raw material, for cleaning and cooling
 Agricultural use: for crop production and animal rearing
 Energy source: for hydroelectric power generation
 Navigation purpose: for transporting people and goods
 Environmental health: for waste removal and purification
 Recreational use: for sport activities such as swimming, motor boat
competition etc.

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 Economic value: as source of fish and different minerals such as salt,

gold, copper, petroleum etc.
Causes of Water pollution
Water bodies can be contaminated by various pollutants. These water pollutants
are numerous infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, and parasites) that contaminate
the water through sewage, human waste, and animal excreta. These pollutants are
briefly discussed as follow: -
[Link] sewage: this includes household’s wastes like food wastes, synthetic
detergents used for washing clothes and cleaning bathrooms and latrinesand
water based paints.
[Link] effluents the industrial wastes
are discharged in the adjoining rivers and
Figure 3Water pollution Caused by industrial
streams through flush lines of factories. waste
The textiles, sugar and fertilizers
factories, oil refineries, drugs
manufacture, rubber, fibers, the paper
industries and the chemical factories all
produce Chemical pollution. Figure 7.1 Air pollution caused by industrial
waste
[Link] source: use of excessive
fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides can be source water pollution. Increased use
fertilizers have become essential for high yielding crop plants. Excess of nitrates
used as fertilizers seep into ground water is carried into lakes and pond. On
entering the drinking water supply system these create several health problems.
[Link]: these include insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides, herbicides and
soil fumigants. These contain chlorinated hydrocarbons,organophosphates,
metallic salts, carbonates, acetic acid derivatives etc. many pesticides are non-

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degradable. They pass through the food chains and accumulate in fatty tissues
thus causing several health hazards.
[Link] pollution: power plants and nuclear power stations are the main sources
of thermal pollution of water where water is used for cooling and becomes hot.
The hot water on entering the main water body raises its temperature, which kills
fishes and other aquatic animals and increases the rate of respiration in aquatic
plants.
[Link] oils: Underground water particularly in cities and industrial areas is no
purer and safe. The sources of underground water pollution are sewage, seepage,
pits, industrial effluents, septic tanks, fertilizers and pesticides, garbage etc.
Ways of reducing water pollution
 Reduce the use of chemicals when cleaning
 Dispose medication properly
 Avoid the use of pesticides and herbicides
 Avoid water polluting recreational activities
 Avoid disposing items into the toilet
A. Air pollution
Air pollution is the mixture of solid particles
and gases in the air. Carbon dioxide
emissions, chemicals and smokes from
factories, dusts are air pollutants. Air
pollutants are gases and particles that harm
people or other life, damage materials or Figure7.2. Air pollution caused by
vehicles
reduce visibility. Air pollutants can be natural
and human made. Some air pollution comes from natural volcanic eruptions, forest
fires and hot springs. Most of air pollutants are the result to human activities.

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Effect of air pollution on Plants

 Oxides of nitrogen and fluorides reduce crop yield.
 Smog bleaches and blaze foliage of important leafy plants.
 Hydrocarbons cause premature yellowing, fall of leave and buds,
discoloration and curling of sepals and petals.
 Smoke dust cover the leaf surface and reduce photosynthetic capacity of
plants.
 Ozone damages cereals, fruits, and cotton crop.
Effect of air pollution on Human beings
The effect of pollutants on animals and man are as follows: -
 Ozone causes dryness of mucous membranes, changes eye vision and
causes headache
 SO2 cause drying of mouth, scratchy throat, smarting eyes and disorders
of respiratory tract.
 SO3, CO and NO2 diffuse into blood stream and reduce oxygen
transport.
 CO damages cardio vascular system
 Cotton dust leads to respiratory disorders e.g. bronchitis
 Smoking of tobacco causes cancerous growth in lungs.
Ways of reducing air pollution
• Riding a bike or walking instead of driving.
• Taking a bus
• Buying a car that has greater fuel efficiency.
• Buying fewer things that are manufactured using fossil fuels

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B. Land pollution
Start-up Questions
 What is land pollution?
 Describe the causes and consequences of land pollution on the
environment.
Land pollution is a result of damping garbage, waste and other toxin making the
landcontaminated. Land pollution is a major problem around the world and is
caused by a variety of [Link] of the main causes of soil pollution include:
Deforestation: in deforested areas, there is less water in the air to be returned to
the soil. This then causes dryer soil and the inability to grow crops.
Agricultural activities: in order to meet the increasing demand of food for
population, chemical fertilizers and pesticides are being used, and this led to the
toxicity of soil.
Industry mining: most industries are dependent on extracting minerals from the
earth. Whether it is iron ore or coal the bi-products are contaminated and cause soil
pollution.
Rapid urbanization and illegal dumping of waste: urban area, huge amount of
waste and lack of waste management procedure is the cause for soil /land pollution
The following are some ways of reducing land pollution
 Materials like paper, glass and plastics can be recycled.
 Metals should be recovered from scrap and disposed materials.
 Use of chemical fertilizers be reduced by the use of bio fertilizers and
manures.
 Use of pesticides can be reduced by adopting biological control of pests.
 Use of cattle dung and agricultural wastes in biogas plants should be
encouraged

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II. Global warming

Global warming is the long-term heating of earth's climate system observed, due to
human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping
greenhouse gas levels in Earth's [Link] followings are some of the factors
that cause global warming
The increment of carbon monoxide: it is the most single factor in global
warming. It is caused by road vehicles, by burning fossil fuels, and emissions from
industries. Since developed countries are using much of industries, they are the
major cause for the increment of carbon monoxide.
Chlorofluorocarbon: its main cause is toxic gases that released out of refrigerator
and from industrial emission. It is the most damaging of the greenhouse gases. This
toxic gas contributes for the increment of the temperature of the earth.
Methane: is released from decaying of organic matter such as waste damps,
animal dung’s, and farm land. “Koshe area”, around Ayer Tena, was a large open
land fill which receives Addis Ababa’s waste. This area regularly emits methane
gas to the surrounding environment and causes accidental fire.
Effects of global warming
Global warming has tremendous effects on living things as well as on the
environment. Some of its effects are:
 Melting ice caps and glaciers. This in turn results rise of sea level and
the flooding of low-lying areas
 The rise of sea temperature. This also causes loss of biodiversity.
 Depletion of ozone layer. This effect also increases global temperature
and various diseases on human beings and other living things.

III. Ozone layer depletion

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Start-up Questions
 What is ozone layer depletion?
 Describe the importance of ozone layer for living things?
Ozone is naturally occurring molecule containing three molecules of oxygen. The
ozone layer is found in the stratosphere. It is a layer of gas which absorbs much of
the sun’s ultraviolent radiation, preventing it from reaching the earth and created
when ultra-violate radiation strikes the stratosphere (the upper atmosphere),
dissociating of oxygen molecules to atomic oxygen. Ozone is an important type of
atmospheric gas which protects a dangerous sun light is known as ultraviolet ray.
Nowadays it is discovered that earth’s protective ozone layer is becoming thinner
and at some points making holes. Chemicals known as ChloroFluroCarbon (CFC),
used in the cooling system of refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners are the
primary causes of ozone [Link] effects of ozone layer depletion on our
health and environment are: Skin cancer, breathing problem, losing acquired
immunity of a person, andincreasing in air temperature.
IV. Waste disposal
Start-up Question
 What is waste disposal?
 What are the effects of improper waste management?

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Do You Know this?

Once you throw away your trash, you probably do not give it a second thought.
But where does the trash go? The trash from the wastebasket probably will be
picked up by a collection service and taken to a landfill, where the trash will be
dumped with thousands of tons of other trash and covered with a layer of soil.
What would happen if rainwater ran down into the landfill, and leached a harmful
chemical, such as paint thinner, and it seeped into the groundwater? Suddenly, the
trash that was not bothering any- one is causing an environmental problem.

Disposing of waste has huge environmental impacts and can cause serious
problems. Some waste will eventually rot, but not all, and in the process it
maysmell, or generate methane gas, which is explosive and contributes to
thegreenhouse effect.
The following are some of waste management mechanisms.
Buying Less: As a consumer, you can influence manufacturers to reduce solid
waste. If you buy products that have less packaging and products that last longer or
that can be used more than once, manufacturers will produce more of those
products to satisfy the demand of the consumer
Recycling: in addition to reducing waste, we need to find ways to make the best
use of all the materials we throw away. It is the process of reusing materials or
recovering valuable materials from waste or scrap. Making products from recycled
materials usually saves energy, water, and other resources.
Composting: can also be an effective way of handling waste from food-processing
plants and restaurants, manure from animal feed- lots, and municipal sewage

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sludge. If all biodegradable wastes were composted, the amount of solid waste
going to landfills could be reduced.
V. Loss of Biodiversity
Start-up Questions
Discuss the followings in group and present your findings for the class.
 What is biodiversity?
 What kinds of human activities cause the loss of biodiversity in your
localities?
Biodiversity is a term that describes the varieties of life on the Earth. It refers to
wide varieties of the ecosystems and living organisms: such as, animals, plants,
their habitats and their genes.
Biodiversity is innumerable plants, animals and microbes physically and
chemically unit theatmosphere(the mixture of gases around the Earth),geosphere
(the solid part of the Earth),andhydrosphere (the Earth’s water, ice, and water
vapor) into one environmental system which makes it possible for millions of
species including people to exist.
The major causes of biodiversity loss are: deforestation, over population, pollution
and global warming. It has long been feared that human activities are causing
massive extinctions of biodiversity. Unless measures are taken, the loss of
biodiversity will continue.
Some of the measures to be taken to save biodiversity are: habitat restoration, seed
banking, and preserving nature, reduce climate change, purchase sustainable
product and so on.

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Activity 7.1A

A. Individual work: Define the following terms

1. Environment
2. Pollution
3. Global warming
4. Waste disposal
5. Biodiversity
B. Group discussion
Discuss on the following question in small groups and present your
discussion outcome through your group representative.
1. Describe the human activities impact on the surrounding
environment
2. Carefully observe major environmental problems and the effort
made in your localities and report to the class
3. Make a simple observation on the reuse and recycle of used
materials in your localities and report to the class.

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7.1.3 Protecting the Environment

Competencies: At the end this lesson you will be able to:
 Examine the importance of community participation in solving
environmental problems;
 Reflect their roles and identities as environmental actors in their localities

These are words/ phrases you should try to learn for this lesson
Top 5 words
 Afforestation  Reducing
 Recycling  Reusing
 Reforestation
More Key words
 Environmental actor  Environmental problem

Start-up Questions
 What are the different methods of protecting the environment?
 Explain how community participation plays an important role for the
protection of the environment?
 Describe your role in protecting the environment in your locality.
Environmental protection is the practice of conserving the natural environment.
Now a day, individuals, organizations and governments are engaged on
environmental protection. Environmental protection has invaluable benefits on
conserving existing natural environment repairing the damage and reversing
trends. Governments, organizations and individuals are making various efforts and
contributing a lot in protecting the environment. Some of the community
participation which are essential for the protection of the environments are
engaging afforestation and reforestation program, educating people about how to

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protect the environment and reducing, reusing and recycling plastic materials and
others.

A. Reforestation and afforestation

Start-up Questions
 What is reforestation and afforestation?
 How do you engage in reforestation and afforestation activitiesin your
localities to protect the environment? Discuss
Afforestation: is the establishment of forest or stand of trees in area where there
were no previous trees cover. Many government and nongovernment organizations
directly engage in afforestation program to create forests and increase carbon
capture.

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Reforestation: is planting trees on land once they were covered by plant but from
which the trees have been removed. Or it is the process of putting trees in the
ground in an area where trees used to be covered.

Activity 7.1 B
A. Individual work: Define the following terms
1. Afforestation
7. 2.
2. Reforestation
B. Group discussion
Discuss on the following question in small groups and present
your discussion outcome through your group representative.
1. Describe on the importance of community participation
in solving environmental problem
2. Explain your roles as an environmental actor in your
localities
Demographic Overload
Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

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 Discuss the impacts of uncontrolled population growth on natural

environment

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top 5 words
 Demography  Population growth
 Desertification  Uncontrolled population
 Population control
More Key words
 Environmental problem  Utilization of resources

Start-up Questions
 What is demography?
 Describe demographic ‘overload’?
 Explain the impact of uncontrolledpopulation on the natural
environment and present your discussion to the whole class.
The Effect of Uncontrolled Population Growth on the Natural Environment
Uncontrolled population is the area where the proportion of urban population has
increased faster than the nation's average rate of population growth. When there is
uncontrolled population growth in a given country, the demand for resources will
be so great. This causes improper resources utilization. This is a threat to the
environment and obstacle to the development of a country.
When population grows rapidly trees are cut in great quantity. Since the majority
of Ethiopian population depends on wood for fuel, construction of houses, and
various tools and equipment. This rapid population growth contributes to the
destruction of forests. Demographic load therefore, causes deforestation.

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The Earth’s natural resources can be depleted and destroyed if there is no

population control mechanism. Population overload is a challenge that causes
environmental problems like deforestation and desertification, the decrease of
farmland, water pollution, the depletion of ozone layer, and the greenhouse effect.
Thus, population control helps alienate environmental problems. Over population
is a negative solution for everyone plants, animals, land, water, and humans.

Activity 7.2

A. Individual work: Define the following terms

1. Demography
2. Uncontrolled population
3. Natural environment
B. Group discussion
Discuss on the following question in small groups and present your
discussion outcome through your group representative.
1. How uncontrolled population affect the natural environment?
Discuss in group.
2. Make a simple observation in your localities and report the
impact of population growth on the natural environment to the
class

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7.3 Terrorism
Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
 Describe the meaning and impacts of terrorism on socio-economic
development and human life.

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top 5 words
 Crime of terrorism  Terrorism  Social disruption
 Socio economic development  Terrorist act  Threat
More Key words
 Chaos  Disorder  Freedom
 Conspiracy  Endanger  Instability

Start-up Questions
 What is terrorism?
 What are the consequences of terrorism on socio-economic development
and human life?
Terrorism is commonly understood to refer to acts of violence that target civilians
in the pursuit of political or ideological aims. It is the deliberate act of endangering
the lives or properties of people, denying the freedom of a person or a group of
person. Terrorism includes criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state
of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political
purposes. It includes “unlawfully and intentionally” causing, attempting or
threatening to cause:
a. death or serious bodily injury to any person;
b. Serious damage to public or private property, including a place of public
use, a State or government facility, a public transportation system, an
infrastructure facility or the environment;

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c. Damage to property, places, facilities, or systems.

Terrorism touches every aspects of economic, social, cultural, and political lives of
the people. Terrorism brings every types of violence to the society, loss of lives,
social disruption, environmental loss, destructions of properties, damage to the
infrastructure, loss of confidence, fear anxiety, depression and so on.

Activity 7.3

A. Individual work: Define the following term

1. Terrorism
B. Group discussion
Discuss on the following question in small groups and present your
discussion outcome through your group representative.
1. Describe the economic, social and psychological impacts of
terrorism

7.4 Human Trafficking

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
 Explain causes and consequences of illegal human trafficking

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top 5 words
 Child trafficking  Poverty
 Exploitation  Trafficking victims
 Human trafficking 213
More Key words
 Anxiety  Emotional health
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Start-up Questions
 What is human trafficking?
 Describe child trafficking?
 What do you think about the consequences of child trafficking for the
victim?
 Explainthe causes and consequences of human trafficking
Human Traffickingis the transportation, recruitment or harboring of people
through force, threat or coercion for the purpose of exploitation. It is currently
catching the attentions of most governments and international organizations
because of its severe health consequences and subsequent social crisis.
7.4.1. Causes of Human Trafficking
There are various causes for human trafficking. Some of them are: -
 Poverty, war, natural disaster and search for a better life
 Demand for cheap labour
 Human trafficking generates a huge profit (for the trafficker)
 Cases of human trafficking’s are difficult to identify.
Human trafficking in Ethiopia has occurred internally and externally in the form of
adult and child labour and sex trafficking. There were also some reports of organ
trafficking and other closely related human rights violations, such as child
marriage, and exploitative intercountry adoption.

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Child Trafficking can be defined as any person under 18 years’ old who is
illegally recruited, transported, harboured, or received by threats, force, and
coercion or inducing fear of the purpose of exploitation, either within or outside
the country.
7.4.2. The consequences/Effects of Human Trafficking
Trafficking victims may suffer physically and psychologically like inhumane
living condition, poor sanitation, inadequate nutrition, poor personal hygiene,
physical and emotional attacks by the hands of their traffickers, dangerous work
place condition and occupational hazards. In addition, victims may suffer from
problems like feelings of sever guilt, stress and disorder, depression, fear, anxiety
and Substance abuse (alcohol and narcotic)
Being the poorest region in the world, is the most venerable region from which
substantial number of victims have been recruited for both continental and
intercontinental transaction.
In Ethiopia trafficking has impacts internally and externally in the form of adult
and child labor and sex trafficking due to pull factors (e.g. demand for cheap
labour) and push factors such as (poverty, political instability, gender
discrimination)

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Activity 7.4

A. Individual work: Define the following terms

1. Human trafficking
2. Child trafficking
B. Group discussion
Discuss on the following question in small groups and present your
discussion outcome through your group representative.
1. Describe the causes and consequences of human trafficking

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UNIT SUMMARY
 Environment: Environment is the real world that has living as well as
non-living things of surrounding on the earth.
 Pollution: is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment
 There are three major types of pollutions. These are: water, air and land
pollutions.
 The major causes of water pollution are sewage waste, industrial waste,
and agricultural pollutants
 Air pollution is the mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Car
emissions, chemicals and smokes from factories, dusts are pollutants.
 Land pollution is a result of damping garbage, waste and other toxin
making the land contaminated
 Ozone is naturally occurring molecule containing three molecules
 Disposing of waste has huge environmental impacts and can cause
serious problems
 When there is uncontrolled population growth in a given country, the
demand for resources will be very high.
 Terrorism is the deliberate act of endangering the lives or properties of
people, denying the freedom of a person or a group of person.
 Terrorism affects the socio-economic status of a person and the country
 Human trafficking is transporting, recruiting, harbouring a person by
threat and force for the purpose of exploitation

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Glossary
Afforestation:is planting trees Environment: it is the natural world
formerly not covered with trees. as a whole or in particular
geographical area especially as
Bio diversity: it refers to wide
affected by human activities.
varieties of the ecosystems and
living organisms: such as, Global warming: The slow increase
animals, plants, their habitats and in the temperature of the earth
their genes. caused partly by the greenhouse
effect, increasing the amount of
Carbon monoxide: it is the most
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
single factor in global warming.
It causes by road vehicles, by Human trafficking: is illegally
burning fossil fuels, and transporting, recruiting,
emissions from industries harbouring of people by threat,
coercion for the purpose of
Child trafficking: is illegally
exploitation
transporting, recruiting,
harbouring a person under the Methane: released from decaying of
age of 18 years old by threat, organic matter such as waste
coercion for the purpose of damps, animal dung’s, and farm
exploitation land

Chlorofloro carbon: a family of Ozone: is a kind of oxygen that exists

chemical containing chlorine high in the earth’s atmosphere

Demography: is the composition of Reforestation: is planting trees on

human population land once they were covered by

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plant but from which the trees

have been removed

Terrorism: is the act of endangering

the lives and properties of people

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REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT SEVEN

I. True or False
Direction: Write “True” if the statement is correct and write “False” if
it is incorrect
_____1. Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment.
_____2. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers helps to reduce land pollution.
_____3. Supporting terrorist act is not a crime of terrorism
_____4. Recycling used materials helps to protect the environment
_____5. Human trafficking is helpful for the promotion of peace and development.
II. Matching
Direction: Match the items in column “A” with items in “B”
A B
____ 1 Reforestation A. The composition of human population
____ 2 Demography B. Planting trees formerly not covered
____ 3 Human trafficking C. The act of endangering peoples’ lives
____ 4 Afforestation D. Illegal transporting of people
____ 5 Terrorism E. Planting trees on land once they were
covered
III. Multiple choices
Direction: Choose the correct answer from the given options.
_____1. Which one of the followings is a method to reduce air pollution?
A. the burning of wood and coal C. the use of public transport
B. causing wild fire D. burning solid waste
_____2. One of the following has a positive influence on the environment
A. Deforestation C. Overpopulation
B. Pollution D. Conservation
_____3. The following are the major factors, that affect wild animals EXCEPT:

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A. Over grazing C. deforestation

B. Afforestation D. illegal hunting
_____4. Which one of the followings is a crime of terrorism?
A. endangering the lives and properties of a person or a group of person
B. contributing one’s own talent for the development of the country
C. respecting national symbol and anthem
D. cooperation to advance national unity and integrity
_____5. The following are the main sources of soil pollution EXCEPT:
A. Fertilizers B. sewages C. Pesticides D. Solid waste
IV. Fill in the blank: Fill the following blanks with appropriate word(s)
1. __________is a kind of oxygen that exists high in the earth’s atmosphere
2. __________________ is the mixture of gas around the earth
V. Short answer: Give short answers for the following questions.
1. List the effects of ozone layer depletion?
2. Describe the consequences of terrorism on socio-economic development

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Check List

Put a tick (√) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can perform

I can

1 Examine human activities impact on the

surrounding environment
2 Explain the importance of community
participation in solving environmental problems

3 Reflect my role and identity as environmental

actor in my locality

4 Discuss the impact of uncontrolled population

growth on natural environment

5 Describe the meaning and impacts of terrorism

on socioeconomic development and human life

6 Explain the causes and consequences of illegal

human trafficking

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SOCIAL STUDIES
STUDENT TEXT BOOK

GRADE 7

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