Lesson 1 Hypertext

Reading and writing does not only mean perceiving the world around us. The process of
perceiving embodies the relationship of a text and another text. Likewise, it deals with reading from the
viewpoint of a research question and actively using what you read to develop your own analysis and
argumentation and eventually collect materials that you can use in your on writing. Reading and writing
goes beyond finding the linkage of the evidences and corresponding texts and identifying and
interpreting possible uncertainties and flaws in the reasoning of the author. It also means understanding
that texts are always developed with a certain context, thus its meaning and interpretation are affected
by a given set of circumstances. Moreover, reading now involves a relatively new way of reading a text
online as brought by the advent of the internet and technology. Today, let us practice our reading skills
as we discuss hypertext.

In the previous lesson, you have learned that organization, coherence, and cohesion, language
use, and mechanics play a very significant role in developing a well-written text. Having unity in writing
helps the readers to easily understand what the text is about without having to re-read it. Language use
enables writers to communicate ideas effectively without confusing the reader. An effective language is
specific, concise, familiar, correct, and in appropriate levels. Mechanics refers to the rules of the written
language such as capitalization, punctuation, spelling, and even grammar. Having a well-written text
makes it easier for you to express your work to the readers. After learning the properties of a well-
written text, it is important to connect it to hypertext so that it will be easier for you to use connections
to other locations that you may find interesting and useful with your readings.

Digital devices, browsers, and other similar technology have made it very easy for readers to
obtain the information they want, in the sequence that they prefer. This is through the use of links
which takes the reader into another text.

Hypertext is a non-linear way to present information and is usually accomplished using “links”.
Such links help the readers navigate further information about the topic being discussed and may also
lead to other links that can direct the readers to various options. Hypertext also allows the readers to
create their own meaning out of the material given to them and learn better associatively.

Hypertext is text displayed on a computer display or other electronic devices with references to
other text that the reader can immediately access. Hypertext documents are interconnected by
hyperlinks, which are typically activated by a mouse click, keypress set, or by touching the screen.
Rather than remaining static like traditional text, hypertext makes a dynamic organization of information
possible through links and connections (called hyperlink).

The World Wide Web (www) is a global hypertext system of information residing on servers
linked across the internet.
 Hypertext is the foundation of World Wide Web enabling users to click on link to obtain more
information on a subsequent page on the same site or from website anywhere in the world.

The term hypertext was coined by Ted Nelson in 1963.

Hypertext allows readers to access information particularly suited to their needs. Example, if a
reader still needs more background on a particular item that a text is discussing, such as when a reader
does not know a particular term being used, the reader can choose to highlight that term and access a
page that defines the term and describes it.

Conversely, a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), colloquially termed a web address, is a reference
to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it.
URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages (http) but are also used for file transfer (ftp), email
(mailto), database access (JDBC), and many other applications. 6

Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar. A typical
URL has this form:

Today, links are not just limited to text or documents but may also incorporate other forms of
multimedia such as images, audio, and videos that stimulate more senses. This is called hypermedia.

Why hypertexts?

 In a hypertext system, the reader is free to navigate information by exploring the connections
provided.

 Hypertext is very different way of presenting information than the usual linear form.

 Text no longer flows in a straight line through a book. Instead, it is broken down into many
smaller units (lexias, to borrow a term from literary criticism), each addressing a few issues.

 It acts as a bridge between two basics, opposite, and complementing elements that may be
called gender of knowledge representation: free and shortcut.

Lesson 2 Intertext
Intertextuality or intertext is one method of text development that enables the author to make
another text based on another text. It happens when some properties of an original text are
incorporated in the text that is created by another author. One good reason why it occurs is perhaps the
second writer is greatly affected or influenced by the first writer leading to a combination of imitation
and creation.
Intertext Defined

Intertext or intertextuality is technically defined as a process of text development that merges

two more processes such as imitation and creation in doing a text. It involves imitation because the
author as highly influenced by another author comes up with his own version of the text consciously or
unconsciously incorporating the style and other characteristics of the text done by that author.

Elaboration on Intertextuality

Intertextuality has rooted from the work of a Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913).
Meanwhile, the term itself was first used by Bulgarian-French philosopher and psychoanalyst Julia
Kristeva in the 1960s.

Intertextuality is said to take place using four specific methods namely: retelling, pastiche,
quotation, and allusion.
Lesson 3: Techniques in Organizing Information
What is reading?

• Reading is a decoding process.

• Reading is a comprehension process.

• Reading is a connected discourse between the reader and the text.

• It uses your knowledge, experience, and thinking to get meaning.

• It is an act of getting additional information on a specific topic

Components & Stages of Reading

Components of Reading

• Author

• Reader

• Text

Stages of Reading:

• Pre-Reading - provides an overview that can increase reading speed and efficiency. Also
called previewing or surveying

• During Reading - reader grasps the meaning of the text from his/her schema

• Post - Reading - provide students a way to summarize, reflect, and question what they
have just read.

Reading Strategies

1. Prediction - is a guess about what will happen or what the text contains.

• Based on:

⚬ Title and headings

⚬ Prior knowledge

⚬ Pictures and diagrams

• It helps you anticipate ideas and stay engaged.

2. Skimming

• reading rapidly to get a general overview.

• You focus on:

• Title, headings, subheadings

 • Introduction and conclusion

• First and last sentences of paragraphs

• Styles of Skimming:

• Previewing – is getting an idea of what is all about without reading the main
body of the text.

• Overviewing- getting a general look at a complex text (intro, conclusion,

first/last sentences).

• Surveying - quickly running through sections from first to last.

3. Scanning - reading quickly to find specific information.

• You look for:

⚬ Names

⚬ Figures

⚬ Dates

⚬ Key terms

• You do NOT read every word.

4. Comprehensive Reading

• Comprehensive reading: full processing of the text for full understanding.

• Focuses on comprehension.

• Example uses of this is when you have to study for exams, write reports or essays, and
answer detailed questions.

Levels of Comprehension

• Literal Comprehension - Understanding information directly stated in the text (facts,

main ideas, sequence).

• Inferential Comprehension - Making inferences, drawing conclusions, predicting

outcomes, and determining what the text means.

• Applied Comprehension - Using your experiences and prior knowledge to evaluate the
text.

5. Critical Reading

• analyzing the claims in a text.

• Uses critical thinking skills:

 ⚬ Analysis, Interpretation, Inference, Explanation, Open-mindedness, and
Problem-solving

• You question both the text and your own understanding.

Lesson 4: Explain critical reading as reasoning

Critical reading is engaging in analytic activity which involves the reader by asking questions about the
text and the author’s claim. Critical readers are doing the process of evaluating, analyzing, and
interpreting the assertion of the hidden meaning of the entire text.

On the other hand, reasoning as defined in Merriam-Webster dictionary, is an act of giving statements
for justification and explanation. It is the ability of someone to defend something by giving out reasons.

Therefore, when reading critically, it is necessary to question the different arguments used by the
author, as any problem can weaken the authenticity of the conclusion.

Remember that critical reading is not meant to criticize but to assess the validity of textual evidence.

Steps Used in Critical Reading as Reasoning

by Maxine Rafaella C. Rodriguez and Marella Therese A. Tiongson

1. Identifying assertions

 Identify by a common type of assertion such as fact, convention, opinion, and preference

2. Formulating a counterclaim

 Counterclaims are made to rebut a previous claim

3. Determining evidence

 Evidence is the details given by the authors to support his/her claims

When you write your counterclaim, you are expressing unfavorable statements. Therefore, it is needed
that you use hedges, which are words or phrases that give a courteous tone.

Different forms of hedges

Modals: may, could, would, should, might, certain, must, etc.
Frequency adverbs: usually, generally, commonly
Probability adverbs: probably, possibly, presumably
Lesson 5: Assertions
What is an Evaluative Statement?

It is a statement that states one's sound judgement about something through writing which is supported
by reasons and evidences. It also presents the strengths and weaknesses of something based on a set of
criteria which needs to be factual, substantial, and unbiased.

How to Formulate an Evaluative Statement:

To formulate an evaluative statement, one needs to read the entire text carefully and critically to
understand and to check for possible fallacies in the argument presented by the writer. Just like any
other writing, the formulation of the evaluative statements is done in the same way except that the
statement is about your own judgment of the text’s content and properties. You may formulate your
evaluative statements in two ways such as formulating assertions and counterclaims. Meanwhile, you
will be formulating meaningful counterclaims at the second part of this module.

The question now is, how are you going to form evaluative statements? It’s very simple! Just remember
the following pointers:

1. Begin with the positives before you point out the negatives. Remember that your evaluative
statement should be factual, substantial, and unbiased. When giving your negative feedback, it should
not sound insulting on the part of the evaluatee (one who is evaluated).

2. Suggest a solution/s or suggestion/s on how to improve the written material being evaluated and
provide justification how these will work.

3. Keep your feedback concise and precise.

4. Be careful in giving your feedback. Since evaluations pass judgment onto works of authors, they must
be written and expressed with care and much diligence.

ASSERTION AND ITS TYPES:

A good critical reader does not only understand the meaning of a reading material but also logically
evaluates whether the claims of the writer are true or false. Assertions serve as a primary way for the
readers to consider and possibly agree with the claims presented by the writer in an expository writing.

Assertions are declarative sentences that give one’s belief about something else as if it is true though it
may not be. It is expressed as an argument. Usually, these assertions contain languages that expresses
evaluation such as useful, significant, important, insightful, detailed, up-to-date, comprehensive,
practical, impressive, etc.

For example, you were asked to answer the question, “Do you believe education should continue
regardless of the situation we are facing right now?” and you would give your opinion or argument
about it. Afterwards, you would make an assertion whether you agree or disagree with the issue, thus,
take a stand and support it with your reason/s.
There are four types of assertions which are classified according to the degree of certainty they can be
judged as true or false.

1. FACT - is a statement that can be proven objectively by direct experience, testimonies of witnesses,
verified observations, or the results of research.

Example: According to experts, seawater contains high amounts of minerals such as sodium, chloride,
sulphate, magnesium, and calcium.

2. CONVENTION - is a way in which something is done similar to traditions and norms. Its truthfulness
can be verified only by reference to historical precedents, laws, rules, usage, and customs. Something to
note about conventions is that they may sound factual due to their being derived from 8 customs, but
because they are socially accepted ways of doing things, they cannot be verified objectively by
measurements.

Example: Seawater is classified as a heterogenous and homogenous mixture.

3. OPINION - is a statement based on facts but is difficult to objectively verify because of the uncertainty
of producing satisfactory proofs of soundness. Opinions result from ambiguities; the more ambiguous a
statement, the more difficult it is to verify. Thus, they are open to disputes.

Example: Swimming in seawater is the best activity to refresh and relax your mind, body, and soul.

4. PREFERENCE - states a personal choice in which the writer is under no obligation to support or prove
the truthfulness of the statement. They are subjective and cannot be objectively proven or logically
attacked.

Example: I love to make frequent trips to places with seawater than those without it.

Lesson 6: Counterclaims
Formulating Counterclaims

To be an effective critical thinker, it is not enough just to be able to identify claims and assertions. The
ability to analyze an argument is essential to understanding the text more deeply, but understanding the
claim is not the only facet of the argument. You must also learn how to analyze the counterclaims and
evidence provided by the text. Being able to recognize and formulate counterclaims in reaction to an
argument is a characteristic of a good critical reader.

Counterclaims are claims made to rebut a previous claim. To rebut means to contradict someone’s
statement through a formal argument. They provide a contrasting perspective to the main argument.

To be able to locate counterclaims to an argument, remember the following:

1. Show competence and familiarity with the writer’s topic.

2. Examine different perspectives and not just passively accepting the writer’s claim.

3. Consider the topic, and make sure you are willing to engage different viewpoints from your own.
4. Clarify your personal position on the topic.

In this example of counterclaim, Mang Tonyo now needs to support his refusal to provide Mildred with a
smartphone. He should be ready to give solid, substantiated reasons for his refusal to provide something
that the family has been spending for all those years. This may include evidence of the family’s inability
to send her and her siblings to a private school, and that his budget is not sufficient enough to afford a
brand new smartphone since the family income has suffered due to COVID-19.

Four Elements of Argument

1. CLAIM - is a statement that asserts facts based on one’s understanding about a particular topic or
issue.

In the given example, Martha asking his father to buy her a smart phone is an example of a claim.

2. COUNTERCLAIM - is just the opposite of claim. It is a statement that contradicts one’s claim and is
usually proven and supported by both reasons and evidences.

Mang Tonyo’s negative response to Martha’s claim is an example of counterclaim.

3. REASON - is the part of an argument where a statement offers an explanation behind a party’s claim.
Martha’s offering of valid reasons to convince Mang Tonyo that she needs the smart phone is an
example of reason.

4. EVIDENCE - is the statement that proves the truth of a claim and generally leads to the conclusion of
an argument.

Martha provides evidence of the necessity of using smartphone as part of the new normal life in the time
of corona virus is an example of evidence.
Lesson 7: Determining Textual Evidences
As a critical reader, you should be able to recognize and formulate counterclaims about what was read.
Counterclaims refer to claims that refute previous claim in your readings. It is necessary to locate
evidences provided by the text to prove one’s counterclaim.

To clarify one’s position on giving counterclaims, you also learned how to formulate evaluative
statements. Reading texts should be examined carefully by identifying evidences that support the
author’s claim, finding evidences that support the claim and evaluate if it is worthy for sharing.

After learning these skills in formulating evaluative statement, you must learn to determine textual
evidences to validate assertions and counterclaims made about a text read.

Textual evidence is defined as the details given by the author in order to support his/her claims. It
reveals the position of the writer and makes the reading 8 more interesting. Evidences are details that
strengthen, add variety or weight to any argument.

Let’s take this paragraph as a sample essay about the poem:

Harlem by Langston Hughes gives me the feeling, or mood of anger and depression. It
feels like the idea of deferring dreams is hurtful and maybe even causes one to become resentful before
eventually being overcome by anger. I know this because the poem uses the words “foster like a sore,”
which gives me a feeling of pain. Further, describing deferred dreams as if they “stink like rotten meat”
is an unpleasant image, giving me the feeling of resentment. Finally, when the poem end with “Or does
it explode?” makes me think of a person who boils over in anger.

Here, the author claimed that the poem gives him the feeling of anger and depression. He uses exact
words from the poem like foster like a sore, stink like rotten meat, or does it explode which are directly
relevant to his idea of anger and depression. Thus, we can say that the writer’s claim in this essay is valid
and relevant.

In addition, finding textual evidence on a read text helps you make inferences using concrete evidences
on your claim. To support one’s claim, you should explicitly cite the ideas that support your claim in your
writings.

There are different ways on how you can present textual evidence in your writings. It can be through
paraphrasing or restating the text in your own words, through summarizing or stating in a shorter way
the text and other relevant details to support the idea, through referencing or mentioning a specific
section in the text, and through quoting or directly restating a part of the text.