Quantum Computing
Lecture Notes Overview
Introduction to Quantum Computing
Quantum Computing is an area of computing
focused on developing computer technologies
based on the principles of quantum theory. Unlike
classical computers that use bits (0 or 1), quantum
computers use qubits that can exist in multiple
states simultaneously due to superposition.
• Based on quantum mechanics principles.
• Uses qubits instead of classical bits.
• Enables parallel computation through
superposition.
Why Quantum Computing?
• Classical computers struggle with problems like:
– Factoring large integers (RSA encryption)
– Searching large databases
– Simulating quantum systems (e.g., molecules)
• Quantum computers can solve certain problems exponentially
faster using quantum algorithms like Shor’s and Grover’s.
✓ Exponential Speedup: Solves some problems much faster than
classical computers.
✓ Quantum Simulation: Models complex quantum systems, useful in
chemistry and physics.
✓ Cryptography: Can break classical encryption (e.g., RSA) using
Shor’s algorithm.
✓ Optimization & AI: Accelerates searching and training in machine
learning.
Key Concepts in Quantum Computing
a. Qubit (Quantum Bit)
• Basic unit of quantum information
• Can exist in a state:
∣ψ⟩=α∣0⟩+β∣1⟩
where
b. Superposition
• A qubit can be in a combination of both ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩ states
• Enables parallelism
c. Entanglement
• Strong correlation between qubits
• Measurement of one affects the state of another
d. Measurement
• Observing a qubit collapses it to either ∣0⟩ or ∣1⟩
• Probability based on the amplitudes α and β
Qubit: Superposition of |0⟩ and |1⟩.
Superposition: Qubit in multiple states.
Entanglement: Correlated qubits.
Measurement collapses the quantum state.
Mathematical Foundations
• Vectors represent qubits.
• Matrices as quantum gates (unitary).
• Tensor product for multi-qubit systems.
• Dirac Notation: |ψ⟩ and ⟨ψ|.
What is a Qubit?
• A qubit (quantum bit) is the fundamental unit of quantum
information, analogous to the bit in classical computing.
While a classical bit can be either 0 or 1, a qubit can exist in a
superposition of both states simultaneously.
Quantum Gates
Entanglement in Quantum Mechanics
• Quantum entanglement is one of the most fascinating
and counterintuitive features of quantum physics. It
describes a special connection between quantum
particles where the state of one particle instantly
affects the state of another, no matter how far apart
they are.
Definition:
• Two or more quantum particles are said to be
entangled if their states are interdependent — the full
state of the system cannot be described by just
describing each particle separately.
Bloch Sphere Representation of a
Qubit
What is the Bloch Sphere?
• The Bloch Sphere is a geometric representation of a
single qubit's quantum state as a point on the surface
of a unit sphere in 3D space.
• It provides visual intuition for how qubits behave
under quantum gates.
• The Bloch sphere is a geometric representation of the
aforementioned “quantum states” on the surface of a
3d unit sphere, which helps researchers understand the
data of the given superposition of a quantum state in a
nice, mathematically sound way..
• Only pure states (i.e., unit-length vectors) lie on the
surface; mixed states lie inside the sphere.
Bloch Sphere
First understand quantum state mathematically:
This is the most general form of a two-level quantum state (our levels in this
case are 0 and 1, of which we can represent any superposition of the two).
Quantum states are shown geometrically as vectors
We use a specific type of notation called bra-ket notation in quantum
mechanics to represent vectors in a more condensed form.
The symbol “|>” denotes a column vector, and is known as a “ket”. The “bra”
(<|) form of a vector is just the conjugate transpose of the original, shown
below:
Measurement problem: In quantum computing, when we
measure/record the value of a qubit, like a bit, we actually either get only a 0 or 1.
What happened the “superposition” of both values?
They were, in fact, there all along, but as soon as we decided to record or merely
observe the state of the qubit, it immediately reverted back to either 0 or 1,
which we ended up physically measuring. This is known as the measurement
problem of quantum mechanics, where as long as we don’t observe a quantum
state, it exists in a superposition of potential values, but as soon as we measure it,
we only see one specific value.
Mathematicians and researchers devised a way to predict with a certain degree of
accuracy what they will measure given a quantum state- they decided to
assign probabilities of measuring either a 0 or 1. We represent these probabilities
as coefficients of the 0 and 1 state-vectors.
Linear Combination:
Thus, with the 0 and 1 state-vectors and their corresponding probability
amplitudes, we can represent any two-level quantum state.
• The sum total of the probabilities of any situation must add up to 1
• This is known as the normalization constraint, since all two-level systems
must obey this quality to function as a qubit. A quick note: this notation
applied to complex numbers is known as the “squared modulus”, shown here
for a complex number “z”:
• Interestingly, setting the above squared modulus of z equal to 1 actually
provides us with a unit circle of radius 1 in the Cartesian plane!
• Let’s dive a bit deeper into these complex numbers, which are the coefficients of
our basis state-vectors 0 and 1, used to represent the “amplitudes” (a term that
reflects their positive and negative natures given that they’re complex) of the
probability of measuring them. We recall Euler’s identity:
•
• Let’s use our identities for the polar coordinates of “x” and “y” to rewrite
the complex number “z” we used before in polar form, as such:
• Now redefining our “alpha” and “beta” coefficients with our new polar
form, we now have a polar representation of our quantum state:
• There is a concept in quantum computing known as “global phase”, where if
two quantum states in polar form (which we described above) differ only by a
factor of some “e^(i(theta))”, then they are considered indistinguishable for
the time being and can be treated as the same mathematically.
• Given that it is thus mathematically unaffected, let’s multiply our quantum
state by such a global phase. We define a new state Psi’ where:
Applying the namesake “normalization constraint” to our quantum state gives:
This last equation is just a 3d sphere in real space!
• We first recall the spherical coordinate system, which defines points based
on their angle relative to the x, y, and z axes along with their distance from
the origin.
• With spherical coordinates defined as such:
• Given the angles theta and phi restricted as such:
•
We finally get the general form of a quantum state lying in the Bloch
sphere, using half angles as discussed:
• Also note that we can linearly combine the 0 and 1 kets like before using
the laws of vector addition to show a quantum state vectorially:
• Example:
Quantum Circuits
• A quantum circuit consists of qubits and
quantum gates applied in sequence.
• Circuit depth and gate fidelity affect
performance.
• Output is obtained after measurement.
Important Quantum Algorithms
Quantum vs Classical
• Bits vs Qubits.
• Deterministic vs Probabilistic.
• Limited vs Massive parallelism.
• Simple vs Complex error correction.
Quantum Hardware Technologies
•Superconducting Circuits – IBM, Google
•Trapped Ions – IonQ, Honeywell
•Photonic Systems – PsiQuantum
•Topological Qubits – Microsoft (experimental)
Applications of Quantum Computing
• Cryptography (Post-Quantum Security)
• Drug discovery and molecular simulation
• Optimization in logistics, finance, energy
• Machine learning and data classification
• Weather and climate modeling
Quantum Tools and Platforms
•IBM Quantum Experience (Free cloud
access)
•Microsoft Quantum Development Kit (Q#)
•Google Cirq (Python library)
•Qiskit (Python SDK by IBM)
Double-slit experiment
The double-slit experiment in quantum physics demonstrates wave-particle duality,
showing that particles like electrons and photons exhibit both wave-like (interference
patterns) and particle-like (discrete spots) behaviors depending on whether their path is
observed. When light or electrons are sent through two slits one at a time, an interference
pattern forms on a detector over time, indicating wave behavior, but each individual
particle is detected as a single spot, showing particle behavior. However, if the experiment
includes a detector to determine which slit the particle went through, the interference
pattern disappears, and the particles behave like ordinary particles, hitting the detector in
two distinct bands.
Watch the video:
[Link]
References
• Nielsen & Chuang: Quantum Computation and
Quantum Information.
• Scott Aaronson: Quantum Computing Since
Democritus.
• IBM Qiskit Tutorials and MIT OCW.