1. Describe the term "Descent with modification". Give examples to demonstrate.

-”Descent with modification” means that the existing species evolve and diversify from an
ancestor over time through the process of natural selection.
- Examples:
+Beetles on a diet - If there is a drought for two years. There are only a few plants left in the
area, which means less food for the beetles. Due to the food limit, the beetle's size is smaller
compared to the preceding generation of beetles.
+Human evolution: Fossil evidence shows humans evolving from primate ancestors and adapting
traits like larger brains over millions of years.
2. Describe the main relationship between species-species in the ecosystem.
- Predator-Prey: Predators hunt and kill prey for food as well as control the prey populations,
maintaining the ecosystem balance.
- Competition: Species compete against each other for limited resources.
- Commensalism: a relationship in which one organism benefits while the other is neither
helped nor harmed. Ex: barnacles that grow on whales
- Parasitism: A relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is harmed
but not necessarily killed. The organism that benefits is called the parasite, and the one that is
harmed is the host.
- Mutualism: a relationship in which both species benefit.
3. Summarize advantageous characteristics of flowering plants that make them the most
dominant group in the plant kingdom.
- Diversity: There are hundreds of thousands of flowering plant species, showing tremendous
diversity, growing nearly everywhere, from deserts to rainforests.
-Reproduction: Flowering plants have seeds covered by a seed case. They reproduce through
cross-pollination carried out by insects, birds, wind. They can also serve dual functions of
producing male and female reproductive cells and attracting pollinators.
-Photosynthesis: Green plants, including flowering plants, have the ability to produce the
oxygen necessary for all other organisms.
-Economic Importance: The usable plants among the flowering plants are the basis of human
existence, they are also an important economic factor.
-Rapid speciation - The ability to adapt, diversify rapidly led to ecological dominance.
4. Explain why natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently produces adaptive
change.
- Both genetic flow and genetic drift have contributions to adaptive change. However, they are
both inconsistent because as much as they contribute to the increase of allele frequency, they
could also eradicate some of the alleles through random instances and limitations of genes within
a population.
- On the other hand, natural selection proves to be consistently moving towards adaptive
evolution. It continuously contributes to the increase of allele frequency as it always yields
surviving alleles from a community or population of organisms. Hence, as the alleles survive
against differing environmental conditions, they consistently evolve to adapt in future
generations.
5. Describe the role of stomata and discuss factors that might affect their density and behavior.
*Roles:
-The main role of stomata is to allow the plant to absorb carbon dioxide, which is needed for
photosynthesis. In most plants, stomata are closed during the night and open during the day.
-Stomata also allows some plants to adapt to hot and dry conditions. Such plants close their
stomata during the day to avoid losing water. At night time, they open their stomata and take in
the carbon dioxide they require.
*Factors that can affect the density and behavior of stomata in plant leaves:
Water availability - When water is scarce, plants will often reduce stomata density and close
stomata more frequently to prevent excess water loss through transpiration.
CO2 levels - Higher CO2 promotes closing of stomata to balance CO2 uptake. This reduces
density over time.
Light intensity - Brighter light causes stomata to open more to allow intake of CO2 needed for
photosynthesis
Time of day - Stomata tend to open during the day for photosynthesis and close at night to retain
water
Altitude - Higher elevation plants have higher stomata density to absorb enough CO2 in thinner
air
Temperature - Heat triggers stomata to close to cool leaves by decreasing transpiration. Cooler
temps may increase opening of the stomata.
Leaf thickness - Thicker leaves with more mesophyll tissue allow opening of fewer, smaller
stomata while maintaining photosynthesis.
Leaf age - Older leaves often have higher stomata density than young leaves. Density declines
with leaf maturity.
6. Describe the evidence that steroid hormones have intracellular receptors, while water-soluble
hormones have cell-surface receptors.
Steroid hormones, such as cortisol and estrogen, are lipophilic and can diffuse across cell
membranes. They typically have intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus,
influencing gene expression and protein synthesis. In contrast, water-soluble hormones, like
insulin and adrenaline, are hydrophilic and bind to cell-surface receptors. These receptors initiate
rapid intracellular signaling cascades through second messengers, resulting in quick, short-lived
cellular responses. The distinction is based on the chemical nature of hormones and the location
of their receptors within target cells
7. Describe the function of erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, and fibrin.
-Erythrocytes: The main function of erythrocytes is to transport oxygen from lungs to the tissues
and CO2 from the tissues to the lungs.
-Leukocytes: Their function is to fight infections. Some are phagocytic, engulfing and digesting
microorganisms and debris from the body’s own dead cells (Defense and immunity) They can be
categorized into different types, including neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and
basophils. Each type has specific functions in detecting, attacking, and eliminating foreign
invaders such as bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms.
-Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are essential for blood clotting (hemostasis). When
there is a break or injury to a blood vessel, platelets adhere to the damaged area, become
activated, and release substances that initiate a series of reactions leading to the formation of a
blood clot. Blood clotting is crucial to prevent excessive bleeding.
- Fibrin: is a protein that plays a central role in the final stages of blood clotting. It is formed
from fibrinogen, which is activated by enzymes released during the clotting process. Fibrin
strands create a mesh-like structure that helps stabilize the blood clot, providing a framework for
the platelets and blood cells to adhere to and stop bleeding.
Blood clothinng process: When there is a vascular injury, the clotting cascade is initiated.
Fibrinogen is converted to fibrin, which forms a mesh, trapping blood cells and platelets to create
a stable blood clot
8. Describe the value of biodiversity in maintaining the global ecosystem
Ecological Balance: It supports a wide range of ecological functions, including the provision of
food, water, and materials, and the regulation of climate and air quality.
Food and Resources: Biodiversity helps living beings sustain food, fuel, fiber, and other
extractable commodities.
Cultural and Aesthetic Values: Biodiversity also has cultural and aesthetic values. It
contributes to recreational activities and the overall well-being of society.
Health and Nutrition: Biodiversity is essential for food security, nutrition, and access to water,
which are critical for our health.
Climate Regulation: Trees and other plants, part of our biodiversity, help tackle the global
challenge of climate change.