INTRODUCTION TO

CALCULUS 1

Faculty Of Science and Education

Department of mathematics
Busitema
Contents

Contents 1

1 POLYNOMIALS 2
1.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Combining Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.1 Sums and Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.2 Scalar Multiples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.3 Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.4 Quotients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 The Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Zeros and Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 DIFFERENTION 10
2.1 Direct Differentiation of Explicit Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Differentiation from First Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Product and Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8 Tangents and Normals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.9 Stationary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 INTEGRATION 28
3.1 Definite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1
Chapter 1

POLYNOMIALS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit assumes that the students have already understood the basic ideas regarding
dividend, divisor, quotient and remainder in arithmetic in earlier units. Also, they
are familiar with the concept of numbers. They also know factorization of numbers
into prime factors in arithmetic.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• clarify basic concepts of variables constant, algebraic expression and their nu-
merical values, and zeroes of a polynomial;

• explain the meanings of degree of a polynomial, monomials and binomials, co-

efficients and constant terms;

• develop the skill of performing fundamental operations on polynomials;

• clarify the meaning of the statement of the remainder theorem;

• to use remainder theorem to factorize polynomials.

1.3 Introduction
The most common type of algebraic function is a polynomial function. A polynomial
in x is a sum of multiples of powers of x. If the highest power of x is n, then the
polynomial is described as having degree n in x.

2
Definition A general polynomial of degree n in the variable x is written as

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

where an ̸= 0. The numbers ai are called coefficients, with an the leading coefficient
and a0 the constant term.
Zero degree: f (x) = a Constant function
First degree: f (x) = ax + b Linear function
Second degree: f (x) = ax2 + bx + c Quadratic function
Third degree: f (x) = ax + bx + cx + d Cubic function
3 2

1.4 Combining Polynomials

1.4.1 Sums and Differences
Polynomials are added or subtracted by combining like terms.3

Example Let Work out

(a) f (x) + g(x)

(b) f (x) − g(x)

Solution
(a)

f (x) + g(x) = (2x2 + x − 3) + (−x2 + 4x + 5)

= (2x2 − x2 ) + (x + 4x) + (−3 + 5)
= x2 + 5x + 2.

(b)

f (x) − g(x) = (2x2 + x − 3) − (−x2 + 4x + 5)

= (2x2 + x − 3) + (x2 − 4x − 5)
= (2x2 + x2 ) + (x − 4x) + (−3 − 5)
= 3x2 − 3x − 8.

1.4.2 Scalar Multiples

When a polynomial is multiplied by a scalar, each term is multiplied by that scalar.4

3
Example

(a) Let f (x) = 2x2 + x − 3. Find 10f (x)

(b) If p(t) = 4 − 5t and q(t) = 2 + t − 2t2 . Find 2p(t) − 3q(t)

Solution
(a)

10f (x) = 10(2x2 + x − 3)

= 10(2x2 ) + 10(x) + 10(−3)
= 20x2 + 10x − 30.

(b)

2p(t) − 3q(t) = 2(4 − 5t) − 3(2 + t − 2t2 )

= (8 − 10t) − (6 + 3t − 6t2 )
= 8 − 10t − 6 − 3t + 6t2
= 6t2 − 13t + 2.

1.4.3 Products
When one polynomial is multiplied by another, each term in one polynomial is mul-
tiplied by each term in the other.

Example If f (x) = 2x2 + x − 3 and g(x) = −x2 + 4x + 5. then find f (x)g(x)

Solution

f (x)g(x) = (2x2 + x − 3)(−x2 + 4x + 5)

= 2x2 (−x2 + 4x + 5) + x(−x2 + 4x + 5) − 3(−x2 + 4x + 5)
= (−2x4 + 8x3 + 10x2 ) + (−x3 + 4x2 + 5x) + (3x2 − 12x − 15)
= −2x4 + 7x3 + 17x2 − 7x − 15.

1.4.4 Quotients
The next example shows how to perform this division algorithm quickly and efficiently.
The long division diagram shows the division of 3x2 − 9x + 6 by 3x.
The steps in the diagram are:

1. Divide 3x2 by 3x to get x.

2. Multiply 3x by x and subtract from 3x2 − 9x + 6, yielding −9x + 6.

3. Divide −9x by 3x to get −3.

4
 4. Multiply 3x by −3 and subtract from −9x + 6, yielding a remainder of 6.

The result of the division is

Quotient = x − 3, Remainder = 6.

The expression can be written as

3x2 − 9x + 6 6
=x−3+ .
3x 3x
Simplifying,
3x2 − 9x + 6 2
=x−3+ .
3x x
Now follow the example below

Example Divide x3 + 1 by x − 2, expressing your answer in the form

R
q(x) +
x−2
where q(x) is a polynomial and R is a constant. Answer.

x3 +1
=⇒ x−2
= (x2 + 2x + 4) + 9
(x−2)

1.5 The Remainder Theorem

If f (x) is a polynomial of degree n and x − α is a divisor, then

f (x) R
= q(x) + ,
x−α x−α
where

• the quotient q(x) is a polynomial of degree n − 1

5
 • the remainder R is a constant.
This can also be rewritten as
f (x) = (x − α)q(x) + R.
where R = f (α). (Substituting x = α into f (x) = (x − α)q(x) + R shows that
R = f (α).)
If you consider the example above, the Remainder Theorem tells us that we could
have found the remainder without doing the division by simply substituting x = 2
into x3 + 1 to give 23 + 1 = 9.

Exercise
1. Find the quotient and remainder for:
3 −x+1
a. x x−2
2
b. x −4x+5
x+3

Task: Use the Remainder Theorem to check the remainders above.

1.6 Zeros and Factors

If p(x) is a polynomial and α is a number, then
1. α is a zero of the polynomial p(x) if p(α) = 0.
2. α is a root of the equation p(x) = 0 if it is a solution of p(x) = 0.
3. x − α is a factor of p(x) if there is a polynomial q(x) with p(x) = (x − α)q(x).
For Example,
• x = 2 is a zero of the polynomial x2 − 5x + 6 as 22 − 5 × 2 + 6 = 0.
• x − 2 is a factor of x2 − 5x + 6 as x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 2)(x − 3).

1.7 Factor Theorem

If f (α) = 0, then x − α is a factor of f (x).
Proof
The remainder theorem shows that p(x) can be written as
f (x) = (x − α)q(x) + R
and that R is equal to f (α). If f (α) = 0, then R = 0 and x − α is a factor of f (x).

Example

6
 (a) Check that 2 is a zero of the cubic polynomial p(x) = x3 − 2x2 − x + 2.
(b) Use this to find one factor of p(x).
(c) Use the division algorithm to find the other factors of p(x).
Answer.
a. p(2) = 23 − 2 × 22 − 2 + 2 = 8 − 8 + 2 − 2 = 0. So 2 is a zero.
b. The factor theorem shows that x − 2 is a factor of p(x).
c. Using the division algorithm:
x2 −1
x − 2 x3 −2x2 −x +2
− x3 −2x2
−x +2
− −x +2
0
This shows that
x3 − 2x2 − x + 2 = (x − 2)(x2 − 1).
The quadratic factor x2 − 1 can be factored as well. The complete factorisation is
x3 − 2x2 − x + 2 = (x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1).
Theorem
If a polynomial p(x) has integer coefficients and an integer zero, then the zero is a
factor of the constant term.
Example Find an integer zero for the polynomial p(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 6
Answer.
The constant term 6 has factors ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6.
Check to see if any are zeros:
p(1) = −6, p(2) = 4, p(3) = 30, p(6) = 264
p(−1) = −1, p(−2) = 0, p(−3) = −6, p(−6) = −132
There is only one integer zero: x = −2. The polynomial has factors
x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 6 = (x + 2)(x2 − 3).
Exercise
Each polynomial below has an integer zero. Find this zero, then factorise the poly-
nomial as much as possible.
a. x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
b. x3 − 3x + 2
c. x3 − x2 − 5x − 3
d. x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1
e. x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 2

7
END OF CHAPTER ONE EXERCISE

Question 1
(a) Given the polynomial f (x) = 5x5 + 4x4 –3x3 + 2x2 –x + 6 and
g(x) = 3x4 –5x3 + 2x2 + 9, Find (i) f (x) + g(x) (ii) f (x)–g(x).

(b) Given polynomials f (x) = 2x3 + 4x2 –2x–8 and g(x) = x3 − 2x2 + 3x + 5,
Find (i) f (x) + g(x) (ii) f (x)–g(x).

Question 2
(a) Given the polynomial f (x) = 5x3 + 2x2 + 9 and g(x) = 4x4 –3x3 + 2x2 –x + 6, Find
f (x) × g(x).

Question 3
Find coefficient of x3 in the expansion (2x3 + x2 –5x + 6)(2x + 4).

Question 4
Find the remainder when 2x3 + x2 + 5x–4 is divided by 2x − 1.

Question 5
Show that x = −2 is a root of the equation 2x3 –x2 –8x + 4 = 0. Hence find the other
roots.

Question 6
Find the remainder when (a) f (x) = x3 + 3x2 –4x + 2 is divided by x–1. (b) f (x) =
3x3 + 2x–4 is divided by x–2. (c) f (x) = 2x3 + 4x2 –6x + 5 is divided by x–1. (d)
8x3 + 4x + 3 is divided by 2x − 1.

Question 7
The polynomial x4 + px3 –x2 + qx–12 has factors x + 1 and x + 2. Find the values of
p and q, hence factorize the polynomial completely.

8
Question 8
When f (x) = x3 –ax + b is divided by x + 1, the remainder is 2 and x + 2 is a factor.
Find a and b.

Question 9
The function f (x) = x3 + px2 –5x + q has a factor x–2 and has a value of 5 when
x = −3. Find the values of p and q.

Question 10
The polynomial x4 + px3 –x2 + qx–12 has a factor x2 + 3x + 2. Find the value of p
and q and hence factorise completely.

Question 11
If 4x3 + ax2 + bx + 2 is divisible by x2 + k 2 , show that ab = 8.

9
Chapter 2

DIFFERENTION

2.1 Direct Differentiation of Explicit Functions

An explicit function is a function written so that the dependent variable is expressed
directly in terms of the independent
√ variable. Examples of such functions are
y = 3x + 5, y = x + 5x − 6, y = 2x + 4 etc.
2

An explicit function is written in the form y = f (x). The derivative is obtained using
standard differentiation rules.

Examples
If y = xn (where n is a real constant)
then dx
dy
= nxn−1
This is called the power rule, and it is the main rule used in direct differentiation.
dy
Example 1: Find if y = 3x4 − 5x2 + 7.
dx
dy d d d
= (3x4 ) − (5x2 ) + (7)
dx dx dx dx
= 12x − 10x + 0
3

dy √ 1
Example 2: Find if y = x + .
dx x
y = x1/2 + x−1
dy 1
= x−1/2 − x−2
dx 2
1 1
= √ − 2
2 x x
dy
Example 3: Find if y = 6x−2 − 4x.
dx
dy
= 6(−2)x−3 − 4
dx
= −12x−3 − 4

10
Exercise
Differentiate the following.
(a) y = 3x3 − 2x + 120
(b) y = 20(x + 2)(x − 5)
(c) y = 2(x + 1)2 + 10
(d) y = 1 + x1

2.2 Differentiation from First Principles

The graph below shows how a function f (x) might change between x = a and x = b.

The gradient of the chord from (a, f (a)) to (b, f (b) is

As the width of the interval [a, b] decreases, the approximation

∆y f (b) − f (a)
= .
∆x b−a
becomes closer to the gradient of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = a, and
so to the derivative of f (x) at x = a.
If we put b = a + h, then the derivative of f (x) at x = a is given by the limit

dy ∆y f (a + h) − f (a)
= lim = lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x h→0 (a + h) − a

Definition
The derivative of y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a)) is given by the limit

dy f (a + h) − f (a)
= lim
dx h→0 h

Example: first principles at x = a

Find the derivative of y = x2 at x = a using first principles

11
 1. From the definition . . .
dy (a + h)2 − a2
= lim
dx h→0 h
2. Expanding, then simplifying and taking the limit . . .

dy (a2 + 2ah + h2 ) − a2
= lim
dx h→0 h
2ah + h2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 2a + h
h→0

= 2a

The derivative at x = a is dy
dx
= 2a.

Example: first principles without using x = a

Differentiate y = x2 + 4x + 2 using first principles

1. From the definition . . .

dy [(x + h)2 + 4(x + h) + 2] − [x2 + 4x + 2]
= lim
dx h→0 h

2. Expanding, then simplifying and taking the limit . . .

dy [x2 + (2h + 4)x + (h2 + 4h + 2)] − [x2 + 4x + 2]

= lim
dx h→0 h
2hx + (h2 + 4h)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 2x + h + 4
h→0

= 2x + 4

The derivative is dy
dx
= 2x + 4.

Example: cubic function

Differentiate y = x3 using first principles

1. From the definition . . .

dy (x + h)3 − x3
= lim
dx h→0 h

12
 2. Expanding, then simplifying and taking the limit . . .

dy (x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 ) − x3

= lim
dx h→0 h
3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 3x2 + 3xh + h2
h→0

= 3x2

The derivative is dy
dx
= 3x2 .

Example: rational function

Differentiate f (x) = x+1
x+2
using first principles

1. From the definition . . .

(x+h)+1 x+1
(x+h)+2
− x+2
f (x) = lim
′
h→0 h

2. Expanding, then simplifying and taking the limit . . .

(x + h + 1)(x + 2) − (x + 1)(x + h + 2)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 (x + h + 2)(x + 2)h
1
= lim
h→0 (x + h + 2)(x + 2)
1
=
(x + 2)(x + 2)
1
=
(x + 2)2

The derivative is f ′ (x) = 1

(x+2)2
.

Exercise
1. Use first principles to find the derivative of y = x2 − x at x = a.

2. Differentiate y = x4 using first principles.

3. Differentiate f (x) = x−1

x−2
using first principles.

13
2.3 Product and Quotient Rule
Product Rule
If y = uv, then the product rule is given by:
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx

Examples
Example 1: y = x2 sin x
Let u = x2 , v = sin x
du dv
= 2x, = cos x
dx dx
dy
= x2 cos x + 2x sin x
dx
Example 2: y = xex
dy
= x(ex ) + ex (1) = xex + ex
dx
Example 3: y = (x2 + 1)(x − 3)
dy
= (x2 + 1)(1) + (x − 3)(2x)
dx
Exercise
Use the product rule to differentiate the following.

(a) y = x2 (2x − 1)

(b) y = (x + 1)(x3 + 3)

(c) y = (x3 + 6x2 )(x2 − 1)

Quotient Rule
u
If y = , then the quotient rule is stated as:
v
dy v du − u dv
= dx 2 dx
dx v
x2
Example 1: y =
x+1
u = x2 , v =x+1

14
 dy (x + 1)(2x) − x2 (1)
=
dx (x + 1)2
sin x
Example 2: y =
x
dy x cos x − sin x
=
dx x2
3x + 1
Example 3: y =
x2
dy x2 (3) − (3x + 1)(2x)
=
dx x4
Exercise
Use the quotient rule to differentiate the following.

(a) y = x+2
x−1

x2
(b) g(x) = 2x+1

(c) y = 1
(x+1)2

(d) y = t
t2 −3

2.4 Chain Rule

If y = f (u) and u = g(x):
dy dy du
= .
dx du dx

Examples
Example 1: y = (3x + 2)4
Let u = 3x + 2, then y = u4
dy du
= 4u3 , =3
du dx
dy
= 4(3x + 2)3 × 3
dx
Example 2: y = sin(5x)
Let u = 5x, then y = sin u
dy du
= cos(u), =5
du dx
dy dy du
= . = cos(u).
dx du dx

15
replace u with 5x.
dy
= cos(5x) · 5 = 5cos(5x)
dx
Example 3: y = ex
2

Let u = x2 , then y = eu ,
du dy dy
= 2x, = eu , =⇒ = eu .2x
dx du dx
but u = 5x and so
dy 2
= ex · 2x
dx
Exercise
Use the chain rule to differentiate the following.
(a) (1 − x2 )7

(b) (x2 − 3x)2

(c) (3x − x3 )5

(d) (2x2 − 3x + 1)3

2.5 Parametric Equations

If x = f (t) and y = g(t):
dy dy/dt
=
dx dx/dt

Examples
Suppose we wish to find dy
dx
when x = t3 − t and y = 4 − t2 .

x = t3 − t y = 4 − t2
dx dy
= 3t2 − 1 = −2t
dt dt
From the chain rule we have

dy
dy
= dt
dx
dx dt
−2t
=
3t2 − 1
Example 1:
Find dx
dy
if x = t2 , y = t3

16
 dx dy
= 2t, = 3t2
dt dt
dy 3t2 3t
= =
dx 2t 2
Example 2:
Find dx
dy
if x = cos t, y = sin t
dx dy
= − sin t, = cos t
dt dt
dy
= − cot t
dx
Example 3:
Find dx
dy
if x = 2t, y = t2
dy 2t
= =t
dx 2
Exercise

(a) Given x = 3t − 1 and y = t(t − 1), determine dy

dx
in terms of t.

(b) Aparabola has parametric equations x = t2 and y = 2t, evaluate dy

dx
when t = 12 .

2.6 Implicit Differentiation

Consider the equation of the circle x2 + y 2 = 4 with centre (0, 0) and radius 2.
This is an example of an implicit relationship between x and y.
Solving this relationship for y gives y explicitly in terms of x, that is as the subject
of a formula with x as the independent variable.
√
x2 + y 2 = 4 ⇒ y 2 = 4 − x 2 ⇒ y = ± 4 − x 2
√ √
the tangent line to x2 + y 2 = 4 at ( 2, 2), can now be found by
The gradient of √
differentiating y = 4 − x2 , giving . . .
√
dy −x − 2
=√ =q √ = −1
dx 4 − x2 4 − ( 2)2
It may be difficult or impossible to solve an implicit relationship between x and
y in such a way as to make y the subject of a formula with x as the independent
variable.
In these cases we use the technique of implicit differentiation to find dx
dy
.

17
Example: implicit differentiation
To find dy
dx
directly from the implicit relationship x2 + y 2 = 4 . . .

1. Assume that y is a function of x, writing it as y(x).

2. Differentiate both sides of x2 + y 2 = 4, e.g.

d 2 d d
x2 + y 2 = 4 ⇒ (x + y 2 ) = (4) ⇒ 2x + (y 2 ) = 0
dx dx dx
dy dy dy x
2x + 2y = 0 ⇒ 2y = −2x ⇒ =−
dx dx dx y

The derivative can now be used to find the gradient

√ √ of the tangent line at any
point on x + y = 4. For example, at the point ( 2, 2) :
2 2

√
dy x 2
= − = − √ = −1
dx y 2

Example
Use implicit differentiation to find dy
dx
of the equation of the ellipse x2 + xy + y 2 = 1.
Answer

1. Assume that y is a function of x, writing it as y(x).

2. Differentiate both sides of x2 + xy + y 2 = 1, e.g.

d 2 d
x2 + xy + y 2 = 1 ⇒ (x + xy + y 2 ) = (1)
dx dx
d d dy dy
2x + (xy) + (y 2 ) = 0 ⇒ 2x + (y + x ) + 2y =0
dx dx dx dx
dy dy 2x + y
(2x + y) + (x + 2y) =0⇒ =−
dx dx x + 2y
Exercise
Find dx
dy
if

(a) x2 + y 2 = 16

(b) x2 + xy + y 2 = 10

(c) x3 + 2x2 y + y 2 = 10

18
Example: normal to an ellipse
Use implicit differentiation to find the gradient of the tangent line at the general
2 2
point P (x, y) on the ellipse x4 + y16 = 1. Then find the equation of the normal line at
√ √
( 2, 2 2).
Answer
1. Rewrite the equation of the ellipse as 4x2 + y 2 = 16.

2. Assume that y is a function of x, writing it as y(x).

3. Differentiate both sides of 4x2 + y 2 = 16, e.g.

d d
4x2 + y 2 = 16 ⇒ (4x2 + y 2 ) = (16)
dx dx
d 2 dy
8x + (y ) = 0 ⇒ 8x + 2y =0
dx dx
dy 4x
=−
dx y
The gradient of the tangent line at P (x, y) is − 4x
y
.
The gradient of the normal at P (x, y) is
1 y y
 
−  4x  = −1 × − =
−y 4x 4x
√ √
The equation of the normal at ( 2, 2 2) is y = 12 x + c, for√some number c.
√ √
Substituting ( 2, 2 2) into this equation shows√ that c = 3 2 2 , and that the equa-
√ √
tion of the tangent line at ( 2, 2 2) is y = 2x + 3 2 2 .

2.7 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

Definitions
Displacement is the distance of an object from a fixed reference point in a specified
direction. If s(t) represents displacement at time t, then:

s = f (t)

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time:

ds
v=
dt
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time:
dv d2 s
a= = 2
dt dt
19
Examples
Example 1: If s = t3 − 4t, find the velocity and acceleration.
ds
v= = 3t2 − 4
dt
dv
a= = 6t
dt
Example 2: If s = 5t2 , find the velocity and acceleration.
ds
v= = 10t
dt
dv
a= = 10
dt
Example 3: If s = sin t, find the velocity and acceleration.
ds
v= = cos t
dt
dv
a= = − sin t
dt
Other Questions

1. (a) The distance, s meters of a particle from a fixed point is given by s =

t2 (t2 + 6) − 4t(t − 1)(t + 1), where t is the time in seconds. Find the
velocity and acceleration of the particle when t = 1s.
Solution

s = t2 (t2 + 6) − 4t(t − 1)(t + 1)

= t4 + 6t2 − 4t(t2 − 1)
= t4 + 6t2 − 4t3 + 4t
ds
Velocity = = 4t3 + 12t − 12t2 + 4
dt
When t = 1: v = 4 + 12 − 12 + 4 = 8ms−1
a= dv
dt
= 12t3 + 12 − 24t
When t = 1: a = 12(1)3 + 12 − 24(1)2 = 0ms−2
(b) A particle moves along a straight line OX so that its displacement x meters
from the origin, O at time t second is given by x = 4t3 − 18t2 + 24t. Find:
(i) when and where the velocity of the particle is zero.
Solution
dx
v= = 12t2 − 36t + 24
dt

20
 For v = 0:
12t2 − 36t + 24 = 0
t2 − 3t + 2 = 0
(t − 1)(t − 2) = 0
Either t = 1 or t = 2. The velocity is zero when t = 1s or t = 2s.
When t = 1: x = 4(1)3 − 18(1)2 + 24(1) = 4 − 18 + 24 = 10m. When
t = 2: x = 4(2)3 − 18(2)2 + 24(2) = 32 − 72 + 48 = 8m.
(ii) its acceleration at these instants.
Solution
dv
a= = 24t − 36
dt
When t = 1s, a = 24 − 36 = −12ms−2 .
When t = 2s, a = 48 − 36 = 12ms−2 .
(iii) its velocity when its acceleration is zero.
Solution
Acceleration is zero when dvdt
= 0. Velocity v = 12( 32 )2 − 36( 23 ) + 24 =
12( 94 ) − 54 + 24 = 27 − 54 + 24 = −3ms−1 .
the particle is moving in opposite direction.
(c) The distance s m of a particle from a fixed point is given by s = t2 (t2 +6t+
6) where t is the time. Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle
when t = 1s.
Solution

s = t2 (t2 + 6t + 6) = t4 + 6t3 + 6t2

ds d
Velocity v = = (t4 + 6t3 + 6t2 )
dt dt
= 4t3 + 18t2 + 12t
At t = 1s:
dv d
Acceleration a = = (4t3 + 18t2 + 12t)
dt dt
= 12t2 + 36t + 12
At t = 1s: a = 12(1)2 + 36(1) + 12
a = 60ms−2

2.8 Tangents and Normals

Definitions
A tangent to a curve at a given point is a straight line that touches the curve at
that point and has the same gradient as the curve there.

21
 The gradient of the tangent at a point is given by:
dy
mtangent =
dx
A normal to a curve at a given point is a straight line perpendicular to the
tangent at that point.
The gradient of the normal is the negative reciprocal of the gradient of the
tangent:
1
mnormal = −
mtangent

Examples
Example 1: Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x2 at x = 1.
dy
= 2x
dx
m = 2(1) = 2
Example 2: Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = 3x2 at x = 0.
dy
= 6x
dx
m=0
Example 3: Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x3 at x = 2.
dy
= 3x2
dx
m = 3(2)2 = 12

Example 4
Use implicit differentiation to find the gradient of the tangent line to the general point
P (x, y) on the ellipse x2 + xy + y 2 = 1. Then find the equation of the tangent line at
(1, −1)
Answer
1. Assume that y is a function of x, writing it as y(x).

2. Differentiate both sides of x2 + xy + y 2 = 1, e.g.

d 2 d
x2 + xy + y 2 = 1 ⇒ (x + xy + y 2 ) = (1)
dx dx
d d dy dy
2x + (xy) + (y 2 ) = 0 ⇒ 2x + (y + x ) + 2y =0
dx dx dx dx
dy dy 2x + y
(2x + y) + (x + 2y) =0⇒ =−
dx dx x + 2y

22
 The gradient of the tangent line at (1, −1) is :
dy 2x + y 2−1
=− =− = −1
dx x + 2y 1−2
The equation of the tangent line is : y = −x + c, for some number c.
Substituting (1, −1) into this equation shows that c = 2, and that the equation of
the tangent line at (1, −1) is y = −x + 2.

Example 5: normal to an ellipse

Use implicit differentiation to find the gradient of the tangent line at the general
2 2
point P (x, y) on the ellipse x4 + y16 = 1. Then find the equation of the normal line at
√ √
( 2, 2 2).
Answer
1. Rewrite the equation of the ellipse as 4x2 + y 2 = 16.
2. Assume that y is a function of x, writing it as y(x).
3. Differentiate both sides of 4x2 + y 2 = 16, e.g.
d d
4x2 + y 2 = 16 ⇒ (4x2 + y 2 ) = (16)
dx dx
d 2 dy
8x + (y ) = 0 ⇒ 8x + 2y =0
dx dx
dy 4x
=−
dx y
The gradient of the tangent line at P (x, y) is − 4x
y
.
The gradient of the normal at P (x, y) is
1 y y
 
− = −1 × − =
4x 4x

− 4x
y
√ √
The equation of the normal at ( 2, 2 2) is y = 12 x + c, for√some number c.
√ √
Substituting ( 2, 2 2) into this equation shows√ that c = 3 2 2 , and that the equa-
√ √
tion of the tangent line at ( 2, 2 2) is y = 2x + 3 2 2 .
Exercise
1. Find the gradient of a tangent line to,
(a) x2 − xy + y 2 = 1at(1, 1)
(b) x + y = 2xyat(1, 1)
2. Find the equation of the normal to:
(a) x2 + y 2 = 8at(2, 2)
y2
(b) x2 + 2
at(1, 2)

23
2.9 Stationary Points
Turning/ stationary points
A point on a curve such that its gradient is zero, dx
dy
= 0, is called a stationary point.
At this, the tangent to the curve is horizontal and the curve is ’flat’.
There are three types of stationary points:

• Minimum point

• Maximum point

• Point of inflexion

Minimum point
This is obtained at the lowest point of the curve (valley like). In this, the gradient of
the curve is negative to the left of the turning point and positive to the right.
To the left of P At point P To the right of P
In summary we have dy
dx
< 0(-) dy
dx
=0 dy
dx
> 0(+)
When using the second derivative to investigate whether the turning point is a
d2 y
minimum: at point P, dx 2 > 0 (positive value).

Maximum point
This is obtained at the highest point of a curve (mountain like). In this case, the
gradient of the curve is positive to the left and negative to the right of the turning
point.
To the left of Q At point Q To the right of Q
In summary, we have dy
dx
> 0(+) dy
dx
=0 dy
dx
< 0(-)
When using the second derivative to investigate whether the turning point is a
maximum: at point Q, the gradient of the derived function is negative.

Point of inflexion
In this case, the gradient has the same sign on each side of the stationary point.
To the left of P At point P To the right of P
In summary dy
dx
> 0(+) dy
dx
=0 dy
dx
> 0(+)
To the left of P At point P To the right of P
Or dy
dx
< 0(-) dy
dx
=0 dy
dx
< 0(-)
When using the second derivative to investigate whether the turning point is a
d2 y
point of inflexion: at point P, the gradient of the derived function is zero ( dx 2 = 0).

However, the second derivative can also be zero at a maximum or minimum point.
For this reason, we must examine the sign of dx dy
at each side of the point.

24
Example 6
(a) Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve y = x3 + 3x2 + 1 and
determine their nature.
Solution
y = x3 + 3x2 + 1
dy
dx
= 3x2 + 6x
At stationary point dy
dx
=0

3x2 + 6x = 0
3x(x + 2) = 0

Either 3x = 0 ⇒ x = 0
Or (x + 2) = 0 ⇒ x = −2
When x = 0: y = (0)3 + 3(0)2 + 1 = 1
(x, y) = (0, 1)
When x = −2: y = (−2)3 + 3(−2)2 + 1 = 5
(x, y) = (−2, 5)
Hence stationary points are (0, 1) and (−2, 5).
Determining the nature of stationary points.
x -1 0 1
For point (0, 1): dy
dx
-3 0 9 The stationary point (0, 1)
Gradient negative 0 positive
is minimum.
Alternatively (using the second derivative):
d2 y
dx2
= 6x + 6
At point (0, 1):
d2 y
dx2
= 6(0) + 6 = 6 (> 0) Hence the stationary point (0, 1) is minimum.
x -2.5 -2 1
For point (−2, 5): dy
dx
3.75 0 -2.25 The stationary point
Gradient positive 0 negative
(−2, 5) is maximum.
Alternatively (using the second derivative):
d2 y
dx2
= 6x + 6
At point (−2, 5):
d2 y
dx2
= 6(−2) + 6 = −6 (< 0) Hence the stationary point (−2, 5) is maximum.

(b) Find and distinguish between the nature of the turning points of the curves

(i) y = x3 − x2 − 5x + 6

25
 Solution
y = x3 − x2 − 5x + 6
dy
dx
= 3x2 − 2x − 5
At stationary point dy
dx
=0

3x2 − 2x − 5 = 0
(x + 1)(3x − 5) = 0

Either (x + 1) = 0 ⇒ x = −1
Or (3x − 5) = 0 ⇒ x = 53
When x = −1: y = (−1)3 − (−1)2 − 5(−1) + 6 = 9
(x, y) = (−1, 9)
When x = 35 : y = ( 35 )3 − ( 53 )2 − 5( 35 ) + 6 = − 13
27
(x, y) = ( 53 , − 13
27
)
Hence stationary points are (−1, 9) and ( 35 , − 13 27
).
Determining the nature of stationary points.
x -2 -1 0
For point (−1, 9): dx dy
11 0 -1 The stationary point
Gradient positive 0 negative
(−1, 9) is maximum.
Alternatively (using the second derivative):
d2 y
dx2
= 6x − 2
At point (−1, 9):
d2 y
dx2
= 6(−1) − 2 = −8 (< 0) Hence the stationary point (−1, 9) is maxi-
mum.
x 1 5
3
2
For point ( 3 , − 27 ): dx
5 13 dy
-4 0 3 The stationary
Gradient negative 0 positive
point ( 3 , − 27 ) is a minimum.
5 13

Alternatively (using the second derivative):

d2 y
dx2
= 6x − 2
At point ( 53 , − 13
27
):
d2 y
dx2
= 6( 3 ) − 2 = 10 − 2 = 8 (> 0) Hence the stationary point ( 53 , − 13
5
27
) is
minimum.
(ii) y = x4 + 2x3
Solution
y = x4 + 2x3
dy
dx
= 4x3 + 6x2
At stationary point dy
dx
=0

4x3 + 6x2 = 0
2x2 (2x + 3) = 0

26
Either 2x2 = 0 ⇒ x = 0
Or (2x + 3) = 0 ⇒ x = − 32
When x = 0: y = (0)4 + 2(0)3 = 0
(x, y) = (0, 0)
When x = − 23 : y = (− 23 )4 +2(− 32 )3 = 81 16
−2( 27
8
) = 8116
− 54
8
= 81
16
− 108
16
= − 16
27

(x, y) = (− 32 , − 16
27
)
Hence stationary points are (0, 0) and (− 32 , − 27 16
).
Determining the nature of stationary points.
x -1 0 1
For point (0, 0): dx dy
2 0 10 The stationary point
Gradient positive 0 positive
(0, 0) is an inflexion point.
Alternatively (using the second derivative):
d2 y
dx2
= 12x2 + 12x
For (0, 0):
d2 y
dx2
= 12(0)2 + 12(0) = 0
Hence the stationary point (0, 0) is an inflexion point.
x -2 − 32 -1
For point (− 2 , − 16 ): dx
3 27 dy
-8 0 2 The station-
Gradient negative 0 positive
ary point (− 32 , − 27
16
) is minimum.
Alternatively (using the second derivative):
d2 y
dx2
= 12x2 + 12x
At point (− 32 , − 16
27
):
d2 y
dx2
= 12(− 2 ) + 12(− 32 ) = 12( 94 ) − 18 = 27 − 18 = 9 (> 0)
3 2

Hence the stationary point (− 32 , − 16 27

) is minimum.

27
Chapter 3

INTEGRATION

Definition of Integration
Integration is the reverse of differentiation. Given the derivative of a function, the
process of finding the original function is the reverse of differentiation, f is said to be
an antiderivative of f ′ . If F (x) is a function of x such that dx
d
[F (x)] = f (x), then we
define integral of f (x) with respect to (w.r.t) x to be the function F (x) and we write
f (x) dx = F (x). In general, if f is a continuous function, then f (x) dx = F (x) + c,
R R

where c is the constant of integration.

Rules of Integration
Rule 1: Constant functions
The integral of a constant function k is given by k dx = kx + c, where k is any
R

constant.

Examples
1. −7 dx = −7x + c
R

2. dx = 13 x + c
R 1
3

3. 0 dx = 0x + c = c
R

Exercises
R√
1. 3 dx

2. − 10
R
7
dx
R √3
3. 2
dx

28
Rule 2: Power Rule
xn+1
The power rule states that xn dx = + c, provided that n ̸= −1.
R
n+1

Examples
x1+1 x2
1. x dx = +c= +c
R
1+1 2

x2+1 x3
2. x2 dx = +c= +c
R
2+1 3

x−4+1 x−3
3. dx = x−4 dx = +c= +c
R 1 R
x4 −4+1 −3

Exercises
R√
1. x dx

2.
R 1
√
x
dx

3.
R 1
√ 7 x
dx

Rule 3: Constant Times a Function

This rule states that kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx, where k is any constant.
R R

Examples
2
1. 4x dx = 4 x dx = 4 x2 + c = 2x2 + c
R R

√ 3/2
2. 3 x dx = 3 x1/2 dx = 3 x3/2 + c = 2x3/2 + c
R R

6
3. 20x5 dx = 20 x5 dx = 20 x6 + c
R R

Exercises
1.
R 5
√
x
dx
√
2. 5 3 x dx
R

3.
R 10
√ 4
x5
dx

Rule 4: Addition or Difference

If f (x) dx and g(x) dx exist, then [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx.
R R R R R

29
Examples
3x2
1. (3x − 5) dx = 3 x dx − 5 dx = − 5x + c
R R R
2

x3 5x2
2. (x2 + 5x − 4) dx = + − 4x + c
R
3 2

6x3 2x−1 7x2 7x2

3. (6x2 − 2
− 7x − 5) dx = − − − 5x + c = 2x3 + 2
− − 5x + c
R
x2 3 −1 2 x 2

Exercises
R √
1. ( x + √1
x
− 9x + 13) dx
R  x4 −3x3 +x 
2. x
dx
R 
3. 6x2 − 2
x2
− 7x − 5 dx

Rule 5: Power Rule Exception

The integral of 1
is the natural logarithm of x: dx = x−1 dx = ln x + c.
R 1 R
x x

Examples
1. dx = ln x + c
R 1
x

Exercises
1.
R ln x
x
dx

2. 1
R
x(1+ln x)
dx
R 2x3 −3x2 +4x−5
3. x2
dx

Rule 6: Exponential Function

eax
The integral of an exponential function eax is given by = + c, where a is
R ax
e dx a
a constant.

Examples
ex
1. = + c = ex + c
R x
e dx 1

e−x
2. = + c = −e−x + c
R −x
e dx −1
3x
3. 4e3x dx = 4 e3 + c
R

30
Exercises
1.
R −6x
e dx

2. 30e−2x dx
R

3. (e3x + 3x2 ) dx
R

3.1 Definite integrals

Definite integrals can be recognised by numbers written to the upper and lower
right of the integral sign. Here we explain how to evaluate definite integrals. The
quantity Z b
f (x) dx
a

is called the definite integral of f (x) from a to b. The numbers a and b are known as
the lower and upper limits of the integral. To see how to evaluate a definite integral
consider the following example.

Example
Find
R4 2
1 x dx.

Solution
First of all the integration of x2 is performed in the normal way. The result is usually
enclosed in square brackets and the limits of integration are written on the right
bracket: " #4
Z 4
x3
x dx =
2
+c
1 3 1
Then, the quantity in the square brackets is evaluated, first by letting x take the
value of the upper limit, then by letting x take the value of the lower limit.
" #4
x3
+c = (evaluate at upper limit) − (evaluate at lower limit)
3 1

43 13 64 1
! !
= +c − +c = − = 21
3 3 3 3
Note that the constants of integration cancel out.

Example
Find
R3
−2 x3 dx.

31
Solution
#3
(3)4 (−2)4
" ! !
Z 3
x4
x dx =
3
= −
−2 4 −2
4 4
81 16 65
= − = = 16.25
4 4 4

Example
R π/2
Find 0 cos x dx.

Solution
Z π/2
π
 
π/2
cos x dx = [sin x]0 = sin − sin(0)
0 2
=1−0=1

Exercises
1. Evaluate
a) 01 x2 dx, b) 23 c) d) e)
1 R2 2 R4 3 R1
x3 dx.
R R
x2
dx, 1x dx, 0x dx, −1

2. Evaluate x + 7x2 dx.

R4
3

3. Evaluate a) b) c) x2 dx, d) 5x3 dx.

R 1 2x R 2 −x R1 R1
0 e dx, 0 e dx, −1 −1
R π/2
4. Find 0 sin x dx.

Applications of Integral Calculus

Integration can be used to determine the area between curves and also to solve busi-
ness problems.

Finding the area between a curve and the x-axis

For a function f that is continuous over [a, b], the area between y = f (x) and the x
axis from x = a to x = b can be found using definite integrals as follows:
• For f (x) ≥ 0 over [a, b]; Area = f (x) dx
Rb
a

• For f (x) ≤ 0 over [a, b]; Area = − f (x) dx

Rb
a

Example
Find the area bounded by f (x) = 6x
h − x and
2
iy =h 0 for 1 ≤3 x
i ≤h4. i
x3 13
Solution: Area = 1 6x − x dx= 3(x) − 3 = 3(4) − 3 − 3(1)2 − = 48 −
R4 2 2 2 4
3
24 = 24squnits

32
Finding the area between two curves
If f and g are continuous and f (x) ≥ g(x) over the interval [a, b], then the area
boundedR by y = f (x) and y = g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b is given by,
Area = ab f (x) − g(x) dx

Example
Find the area bounded by the graphs of f (x) = 12 x + 3, g(x) = −x2 + 1, x = −2 and
x = 1.
Solution:
R 1 h 1  i
,dx = −2 2
x + 3 − (−x 2
+ 1) dx

#1
1 13 12 (−2)3 (−2)2
" ! !
Z 1 
x3 x2

= x + x + 2 dx =
2
+ + 2x = + + 2(1) − + + 2(−2)
−2 2 3 4 −2
3 4 3 4
1 1 8 4 4
   
= + + 2 − − + − 4 = + 8.25
3 4 3 4 3

Integration
Since integration is the inverse process of differentiation, it follows that:
• Velocity is the integral of acceleration.
• Displacement is the integral of velocity.
When we integrate, we must introduce a constant of integration. In mechanics:
• The constant from integrating acceleration is the initial velocity.
• The constant from integrating velocity is the initial displacement.
Symbolically, Z
v(t) = a(t) dt + v0 ,
Z
s(t) = v(t) dt + s0 ,
where v0 is the initial velocity and s0 is the initial displacement.

Example 4
A particle moves in a straight line such that its acceleration is
a(t) = 10 − 8t (t ≥ 0).
At time t = 0, the particle is at point O and its velocity is
v(0) = −6 ms−1 .

33
 (a) Find an expression for the velocity at time t.
(b) Find an expression for the displacement from O at time t.
(c) Find when the particle comes to instantaneous rest and its distance from O.
(d) Find the speed when t = 2.5 and determine whether it is increasing or decreas-
ing.

Solution
(a) Integrating acceleration:
Z
v(t) = (10 − 8t) dt = 10t − 4t2 + C.

Using v(0) = −6, we get C = −6, so

v(t) = 10t − 4t2 − 6.

(b) Integrating velocity:

Z
4
s(t) = (10t − 4t2 − 6) dt = 5t2 − t3 − 6t + C.
3
Since s(0) = 0, we have C = 0, hence
4
s(t) = 5t2 − t3 − 6t.
3

(c) Instantaneous rest occurs when v(t) = 0:

10t − 4t2 − 6 = 0,
2t2 − 5t + 3 = 0,
(2t − 3)(t − 1) = 0.
Thus t = 1 or t = 32 . Since t ≥ 0, the relevant time is
t = 3 s.
Substituting into s(t),
4
s(3) = 5(3)2 − (3)3 − 6(3) = 27 m.
3

(d) When t = 2.5,

v(2.5) = 10(2.5) − 4(2.5)2 − 6 = −6 ms−1 .
The acceleration at t = 2.5 is
a(2.5) = 10 − 8(2.5) = −10 ms−2 .
Since velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions, the particle is deceler-
ating.

34
Example 5
A particle is thrown vertically upwards from the top of a cliff 40 m above sea level.
If its initial velocity is 5 ms−1 , find:
• the maximum height reached,

• the time taken to reach the sea.

Assume the acceleration due to gravity is

a(t) = −9.8 ms−2 .

The acceleration is constant and given by

a(t) = −9.8.

Integrating to find velocity,

Z
v(t) = −9.8 dt = −9.8t + C.

Given the initial velocity is 5 ms−1 , we have

v(0) = 5 =⇒ C = 5,

so
v(t) = −9.8t + 5.
Integrating again to find displacement,
Z
s(t) = (−9.8t + 5) dt = −4.9t2 + 5t + C.

Since the particle starts 40 m above sea level,

s(0) = 40 =⇒ C = 40,

hence
s(t) = −4.9t2 + 5t + 40.

Maximum height The particle reaches maximum height when the velocity is zero:

−9.8t + 5 = 0,
5
t= = 0.5102 . . . s.
9.8
Substituting this value into the displacement equation,

s(0.5102) = −4.9(0.5102)2 + 5(0.5102) + 40,

s = 41.2742 . . . ≈ 41.2 m.

35
Time to reach the sea The particle reaches sea level when s(t) = 0:

−4.9t2 + 5t + 40 = 0.

Using the quadratic formula,

q
−5 ± 52 − 4(−4.9)(40)
t= ,
2(−4.9)
√
−5 ± 25 + 784
t= ,
−9.8
√
−5 ± 809
t= .
−9.8
This gives
t = −2.392 . . . or t = 3.413 . . .
The negative solution has no physical meaning, so

t = 3.41 s.

END

36