Quantum Computing –Introduction to Quantum Computing,

Moore’s law, Difference between Classical & Quantum

computing. Concept of qubits and its properties. Dirac
representation and matrix operations (Conjugate of a matrix
and Unitary matrix), Examples: Row and Column Matrices and
their multiplication (Inner Product) and Quantum
Superposition. Quantum Gates: Single Qubit Gates: Quantum
Not Gate, Pauli – X, Y and Z Gates.

Lab Practice: (3 Hours)

Lab exercise 1: Quantum Gates- Construction of Quantum gates using Infosys or
IBM portals
09-Oct-25 1
Introduction to Quantum Computing
Quantum computing is a fundamentally new type of computation that harnesses the
principles of quantum mechanics, such as superposition and entanglement, to solve
complex problems far beyond the capabilities of even the most powerful classical
computers.
Richard Feynman – Is it possible to build computers that use the laws of quantum
mechanics to compute?

09-Oct-25 2
09-Oct-25 3
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Richard Feynman for they satisfy
the laws of quantum
09-Oct-25
mechanics…” 4
 Introduction
❖ Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on developing
computing methods based on the principle of quantum theory.
❖ Quantum Physics explains the nature and behavior of energy and
matter on the quantum (atomic and subatomic) scale.
❖ Elementary particles such as protons, neutrons and electrons can
exist in two or more states at a time.
❖ This fundamental behavior is utilized in designing the quantum
computation processing units.
❖ Quantum computing uses a combination of bits of 1’s, 0’s and both 1
and 0 at a time to perform computational tasks with greater
efficiency.
❖ In Quantum computing, the information is encoded in quantum
system such as atoms, ions or quantum dots.
09-Oct-25 5
Moore’s law
In 1965, Gordon E. Moore—co-founder of Intel—postulated that “the number of
transistors in an IC chip doubles about every eighteen months”. This is also known as
Moore's Law.
Moore made this statement based on noticing emerging trends in chip manufacturing
industry and his prediction became the golden rule known as Moore's Law. Moore
predicted that it would continue to improve at an exponential rate for every 2 years.

09-Oct-25 7
 The present limit is approximately 108 transistors per chip and the typical size of
circuit components is of the order of 100 nanometers. That means, we have reached
the atomic size for storing a single bit of information and quantum effects have
become unavoidably dominant.
Taking all these factors into consideration, it is necessary to look for alternative
ways of computing methods. One such alternative is quantum computing. Quantum
computers are based on quantum bits (qubits) and use quantum effects like
superposition and entanglement to their benefit, hence overcoming the problems of
classical computing.
09-Oct-25 8
 Key points classical computing Differences quantum computing
Basis of computing Large scale multipurpose computer High speed computer based on quantum
based on classical physics. mechanics.
Information Bit-based information storage using Quantum bit-based information storage using
storage voltage/charge. electron spin or polarization.
Bit values Bits having a value of either 0 or 1 can Qubits have a value of 0, 1 or sometimes linear
have a single value at any instant. combination of both, (a property known as
superposition).
Number of The number of possible states is 2 which The number of possible states is infinite since it
possible states is either 0 or 1. can hold combinations of 0 or 1 along with
some complex information.
Output Deterministic (repetition of computation Probabilistic (repetition of computation on
on the same input gives the same output) superposed states gives probabilistic answer)
Gates used for Logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) Quantum gates (X, Y, Z, H, CNOT etc.)
processing
Operations Operations use Boolean Algebra. Operations use linear algebra and are
represented with unitary matrices.
Circuit Circuit implemented in macroscopic Circuits implemented in microscopic
implementation technologies technologies.
Data processing Data processing is carried out by logic Data processing is carried out by quantum logic
09-Oct-25 and in sequential order. at parallel instances. 9
09-Oct-25 10
 Types of Brackets with their names 〉

Brac | ket
The four main types of Brackets are
Parentheses ( ), also called round
Brackets;
Square Brackets [ ], also called box
Brackets;
Curly Brackets { }, also known as Braces;
and
Angle Brackets 〈 〉, also called chevrons.
Parentheses are used for extra
information, square Brackets for editorial
changes, curly Brackets in math and
programming, and angle Brackets for
coding and some math notations.
09-Oct-25 11
 Concept of bit and qubit and its properties of quibits
Bit: A digital computer stores and processes information using bits which can be either
0 or 1. Physically, a bit can be anything that has two distinct configurations: one
represented by “0”, and the other represented by “1”. It could be a system with two
distinct and distinguishable possibilities. In modern computing and communications,
bits are represented by the absence or presence of an electrical signal, encoding “0” and
“1” respectively.

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Qubit is the physical carrier of quantum information. It is the quantum version of a bit,
and its quantum state can be written in terms of two levels, labelled |0⟩ and |1⟩.
| ⟩ this notation is known as ‘ket’ notation and 〈 | is known as ‘Brac’ notation. Both are
together called as Dirac notations ‘Ket’ are analogous to a column vector. They are also
called basis vectors and represented by two-dimensional column vectors as follows
𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 = 𝟏 =
𝟎 𝟏
The qubit can be in any one of the two states as well as in the superposed state
simultaneously. In quantum computation two distinguishable states of a system are
needed to represent a bit of data.
For example, two states of an electron orbiting a single atom. Spin up is taken as |1⟩ and
spin down is taken as |0⟩. Similarly ground state energy level is |0⟩ and excited state level is
|1⟩.

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 Superposition of two states
The difference between qubits and classical bits is that a qubit can be in a linear
combination (superposition) of the two states |0⟩ and |1⟩.
For ex, if 𝛂 and 𝛃 are the probability amplitudes of electron in ground state (ie, in |0⟩
state) and in excited state (ie, in |1⟩ state) then the linear combination of two states is
|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β|1⟩
The numbers α and β are complex but due to normalization conditions
|𝛂|𝟐 + |𝛃|𝟐 = 𝟏

Here |𝛂|𝟐 is the probability of finding |ψ⟩ in state |0⟩ and

|𝛃|𝟐 is the probability of finding |ψ⟩ in state |1⟩.
So, that when a qubit is measured, it only gives either ‘0’ or ‘1’ as the measurement
result – probabilistically.

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Consider the following example of qubit representation

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
ψ = 𝟎 + 𝟏 α= and 𝛃 =
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
|𝛂|𝟐 + |𝛃|𝟐 =
𝟐

This means that with 50% probability the qubit will be found in |0⟩ state as well as in |1⟩
state. The superposed states are also called as space states where as |0⟩ and |1⟩ are called
basis states.

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Properties of qubits
❖ Qubits make use of discrete energy state particles such as electrons and photons.
❖ Qubits exists in two quantum state |0⟩ and |1⟩ or in a linear combination of both
states. This is known as superposition.
❖ Unlike classical bits, qubit can work with the overlap of both 0 & 1 states.
❖ For ex, a 4-bit register can store one number from 0 to 15 (because of 2𝑛 =
24 =16), but 4-qubit register can store all 16 numbers.
❖ When the qubit is measured, it collapses to one of the two basis states |0⟩ or |1⟩
❖ Quantum entanglement and quantum tunnelling are two exclusive properties of
qubit.
❖ State of the qubits is represented using Bloch sphere.

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 Representation of Qubits by Bloch Sphere: (single qubit state)
Bloch sphere is an imaginary sphere which is used to represent pure single-qubit
states as a point on its surface. It has unit radius. Its North Pole and South Pole are
selected to represent the basis states namely |0⟩ and |1⟩.
North Pole represents |0⟩ (say spin up ↑)
and South Pole represents |1⟩ (say spin
down ↓). All other points on the sphere
represent superposed states (ie, state
space). Bloch sphere allows the state of a
qubit to be represented in spherical
coordinates ( 𝑖𝑒, 𝒓, 𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ɸ ). It is as
follows
09-Oct-25 17
The state qubit |ψ⟩ on the Bloch sphere makes an
angle θ with z-axis and its projection (azimuth)
makes angle ɸ with x-axis as shown. It is clear
from the fig that 𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝝅 and 𝟎 < ɸ < 𝟐𝝅 .
|ψ⟩ is represented as
|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β|1⟩
It can be proved that

|ψ⟩ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃/2) |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖ɸ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃/2) |1⟩ --- (1)

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Using this equation, we can represent |ψ⟩ for different 𝜽 and ɸ as follows
Case-1: let 𝜽 = 0 and ɸ = 0, then eq (1) becomes
|ψ⟩ = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟎/𝟐) |𝟎⟩ + 𝒆𝒊0 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟎/𝟐) |𝟏⟩
ψ = cos 0 |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖0 sin 0 |1⟩ ===➔ |ψ⟩ = |0⟩ + 0
∴ | ψ ⟩ = |0⟩

09-Oct-25 19
 Using this equation, we can represent |ψ⟩ for
different 𝜽 and ɸ as follows
Case-2: let 𝜽 = 𝜋 and ɸ = 0, then eq (1) becomes

|ψ⟩ = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽/𝟐) |𝟎⟩ + 𝒆𝒊ɸ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽/𝟐) |𝟏⟩ − − (1)

|ψ⟩ = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝅/𝟐) |𝟎⟩ + 𝒆𝒊0 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝅/𝟐) |𝟏⟩

ψ = 0 + |1⟩
|ψ⟩ = |1⟩

09-Oct-25 20
 Case-3: let 𝜽 = 𝜋/2 and ɸ = 0, then eq (1) becomes

|ψ⟩ = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽/𝟐) |𝟎⟩ + 𝒆𝒊ɸ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽/𝟐) |𝟏⟩ − − − (1)

|ψ⟩ = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝅/(𝟐 × 𝟐)) |𝟎⟩ + 𝒆𝒊0 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝅/(𝟐 × 𝟐) |𝟏⟩

1 1
ψ = |0〉 + |1⟩
2 2

|𝟎〉+|𝟏⟩
=➔ ∴ | ψ ⟩ =
𝟐

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 Using this equation, we can represent |ψ⟩ for
different 𝜽 and ɸ as follows
Case-4: let 𝜽 = 𝜋/2 and ɸ = 𝜋, then eq (1) becomes

|ψ⟩ = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽/𝟐) |𝟎⟩ + 𝒆𝒊ɸ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽/𝟐) |𝟏⟩ − − − (1)

|ψ⟩ = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝅/(𝟐 × 𝟐)) |𝟎⟩ + 𝒆𝒊𝝅 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝅/(𝟐 × 𝟐) |𝟏⟩
1 1
ψ = 0 − |1⟩
2 2

𝟎 −|𝟏⟩
=➔ |ψ⟩ =
𝟐

In the above discussion we have represented only single qubit state. Bloch sphere is a
nice visualization of single qubit states.

09-Oct-25 22
Representation of Multiple Qubits (Two qubits and Extension to N qubits)
Two qubits:
Consider two qubits. They can be in any one of four possible states represented as
|00⟩, |01⟩, |10⟩ and |11⟩.
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
|00⟩= 𝟎 |01⟩= 𝟏 |10⟩= 𝟎 |11⟩= 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

The state qubit is (ie, linear combination of these four)

|ψ⟩ = 𝜶𝟎𝟎 |𝟎𝟎⟩ + 𝜶𝟎𝟏 |𝟎𝟏⟩ + 𝜶𝟏𝟎 |𝟏𝟎⟩ + 𝜶𝟏𝟏 |𝟏𝟏⟩
For 2 qubit system we have 4 complex amplitudes namely 𝜶𝟎𝟎 , 𝜶𝟎𝟏 , 𝜶𝟏𝟎 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜶𝟏𝟏 .
According to normalization condition
|𝜶𝟎𝟎 |𝟐 + |𝜶𝟎𝟏 |𝟐 + |𝜶𝟏𝟎 |𝟐 + |𝜶𝟏𝟏 |𝟐 = 𝟏
09-Oct-25 23
Similarly, if there are 3 qubits there will be 8 complex amplitudes.

In general, for N qubits, there will be having 2𝑁 complex amplitudes. This means that a
basis state is represented by a number 0 to 2𝑁−1 .
The superposition state is represented as
𝟐𝑵−𝟏

|ψ⟩ = ෍ 𝜶𝒙 |𝒙⟩
𝒙=𝟎
Qubit has two quantum states similar to the classical binary states. The qubit can be
in any one of the two states as well as in the superposed state simultaneously.

09-Oct-25 24
 Dirac representation and Matrix operations
In Quantum mechanics, Brac-Ket notation is a standard notation for describing
quantum states. The notation | ⟩ is known as ‘ket’ notation and 〈 | is known as ‘Brac’
notation. Both are together called as Dirac notations.
Matrix representation of 0 and 1 states
Consider a quantum state ψ in a vector space represented by |ψ⟩. The notation |⟩
indicates that the object is a vector and is called a ket vector. The examples of such
ket vectors are like |ψ⟩, |ɸ⟩ and |u⟩ etc.

The wave function could be expressed in ket notation as |ψ⟩, (ket Vector),ψ is the
wave function.
Hence, any arbitrary state can be represented as
𝜶
➔ |ψ⟩ = 𝜷 or |ψ⟩ = 𝜶 |0⟩ + β |1⟩
09-Oct-25 25
 The ‘ket’ vector typically represented as a column vector and ‘Brac’ vector typically
represented as a row vector. The matrix for of the states |0⟩ and |1⟩ as follows;

𝟏 𝟎
|0⟩ = , |1⟩ = − − − − − ket notations
𝟎 𝟏
〈0| =[1 0] 〈0|= [0 1] − − − − Brac notations
Operators and matrices
An operator is a mathematical rule that transform a given function into another
function. Consider an operator ‘A’ transforms the vector 𝒂 to another vector | ⟩, it
can be written as ෡ 𝒂 = |𝒃〉
𝑨
There are different types of operators like Linear operator, Identity operator,
Null operator, Inverse operator, Singular & non-singular operator etc.

09-Oct-25 26
 Identity operator I
The identity operator is an operator which, operating on a function, leaves the
function unchanged i.e. 𝐼 𝒂 = 𝒂 It is given in matrix form by 𝑰 = 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏
This is also called as identity matrix. There will be no change when I operate on
either |0⟩ state or |1⟩ state. It is explained as follows
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
𝑰𝟎 = = 𝑰 𝟎 = |𝟎〉
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
Similarly
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑰𝟏 = = 𝑰 𝟏 = |𝟏〉
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏

Identity matrix acts as number 1. It is always a square matrix.

09-Oct-25 27
 Conjugate matrices
If the elements in a matrix A are complex numbers, then the matrix obtained by the
corresponding conjugate complex elements is called the conjugate of A and is
denoted by 𝑨∗ . For example,
𝟎 𝒊 𝟎 −𝒊
𝑨= 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑨∗ =
−𝒊 𝟎 𝒊 𝟎
𝟏 𝒊 ∗ 𝟏 −𝒊
𝑨= 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑨 =
−𝒊 𝟏 𝒊 𝟏
Transpose matrices
If columns and rows of a matrix A are interchanged then the resultant matrix is
transpose of A and represented as 𝑨𝑻
𝟎 𝟏 ∗ 𝟎 −𝒊
𝑨= 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑨 =
−𝒊 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎

𝟏 𝟐𝒊 𝟏 𝟒𝒊 + 𝟏
09-Oct-25 𝑨= 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑨𝑻 = 28
𝟒𝒊 + 𝟏 𝟎 𝟐𝒊 𝟎
 Hermitian matrices
The transpose of complex conjugate of a matrix is known as Hermitian operator and

the resultant matrix is known as Hermitian matrix. It is represented by 𝑨ϯ

Let A be a matrix, A* be its complex conjugate and 𝑨∗ϯ is its transpose then its

Hermitian matrix is 𝑨ϯ = 𝑨∗ϯ .

𝟏 𝟐𝒊 ∗ 𝟏 −𝟐𝒊 𝟏 −𝟒𝒊 + 𝟏
𝑨= 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑨 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑨ϯ =
𝟒𝒊 + 𝟏 𝟎 −𝟒𝒊 + 𝟏 𝟎 −𝟐𝒊 𝟎

09-Oct-25 29
 Unitary matrices
Matrix A is said to be unitary if it produces an identity matrix I when multiplied by
its conjugate transpose 𝑨 𝑨ϯ = 𝑰

In other words, A is a unitary matrix if its conjugate transpose is equal to its

reciprocal, i.e.,
𝑰 𝟏
𝑨ϯ = = = 𝑨−𝟏
𝑨 𝑨
we can show that
𝟏 𝟏+𝒊 𝟏−𝒊
𝑨=
𝟐 𝟏−𝒊 𝟏+𝒊

09-Oct-25 30
 Column and Row Matrices and their inner product
The Column Vectors are called ket Vectors denoted by |ψ〉 and are represented by
Column Matrices.
The Row Vectors are called Brac Vectors denoted by |ɸ⟩ and are represented by
Row Matrices.
𝛂𝟏
Let us consider a ket vector represented in the form of a column matrix. |ψ〉= 𝛃
𝟏

The Row Matrix is represented as |ψ〉= 𝛂∗𝟏 𝛃∗𝟏

𝛂𝟏 ϯ
Here, 𝛃𝟏 = 𝛂∗𝟏 𝛃∗𝟏

Thus, the Brac is the complex conjugate of ket and vice versa.

09-Oct-25 31
 Inner product
The inner product of two vectors U and V in the complex space is a function that
takes U and V as inputs and produces a complex number as output.
In terms of Dirac notation, the inner product is given as ⟨𝑼|𝑽⟩ = 𝑪
In matrix form U and V are written a |U〉= 𝒙𝟏 |V〉= 𝒚
𝒙𝟐
𝒚𝟏 𝟐
Their inner product is written as ⟨𝑼|𝑽⟩ , but ⟨𝑼| is equal to conjugate transpose of |𝑽⟩

ie., ⟨𝑼| = |𝑼∗ 〉−𝟏 = |U〉ϯ = 𝒙𝟏∗ 𝒚∗𝟏

𝒙𝟐
∴ 𝑼𝑽 = 𝒙∗𝟏 𝒚𝟏∗ 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙∗
𝒙
𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒚∗
𝟏 𝒚𝟐

The square root of the inner product of a vector with itself is also called as norm or

the length of the vector. It is given by |𝑼| = ⟨𝑼|𝑼⟩

09-Oct-25 32
 𝟑+𝒊 𝟑𝒊
Ex: Find the inner product of |U〉= 𝒂𝒏𝒅 |V〉=
𝟒−𝒊 𝟒
First, we shall find the conjugate transpose of |U⟩
𝟑−𝒊
|𝑼∗ 〉=
𝟒+𝒊
|U〉ϯ = 𝟑 − 𝒊 𝟒 + 𝒊

∴ 〈𝐔| = |U〉ϯ = 𝟑 − 𝒊 𝟒 + 𝒊
𝟑𝒊
𝑼 𝑽 = 𝟑−𝒊 𝟒+𝒊
𝟒

𝑼 𝑽 = 𝟑 − 𝒊 ∗ 𝟑𝒊 + 𝟒 + 𝒊 ∗ 𝟒
𝑼 𝑽 = 𝟗𝒊 + 𝟑 + 𝟏𝟔 + 𝟒𝒊

𝑼 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟑𝒊 + 𝟏𝟗
09-Oct-25 33
 Orthogonality
If the inner product of two vectors is equal to 0 then they are said to be orthogonal
(or perpendicular) to each other.
If 𝑼 𝑽 = 0 then |U〉 and |V〉 are perpendicular.
Consider,
𝟏 𝟎
|0〉 = , and |1〉 = − − − − − ket notations
𝟎 𝟏
〈𝟎| = [𝟏 𝟎] and ⟨𝟏| = [𝟎 𝟏] − − − − Brac notations
𝟎
𝟎𝟏 = 𝟏 𝟎 =𝟎 𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 |𝟎⟩ 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒕𝒐 |𝟏⟩
𝟏
The most important property of the inner product of a vector with itself is equal to
one ie, ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = 1
This is known as normalization condition. The physical significance of normalization
is that the "probability amplitude" of the quantum system
09-Oct-25 34
 Orthonormality
If each element of a set of vectors is normalized and the elements are orthogonal
with respect to each other, we say the set is orthonormal.
Consider the set |0〉 = 𝟏 , and |1〉 =
𝟎
− − − − − ket notations
𝟎 𝟏
𝟏
𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏 𝟎 =𝟏 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅
𝟎
𝟎
𝟎𝟏 = 𝟏 𝟎 =𝟎 𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍
𝟏
𝟎
𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎 𝟏 =𝟏 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅
𝟏
𝟏
𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎 𝟏 =𝟎 𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍
𝟎
Hence set of |0〉 and |1〉 is orthonormal
From the above relations, if states |0⟩ and |1⟩ are said to be orthonormal, if
1. |ψ⟩ and |ɸ⟩ are normalized.
09-Oct-25
2. |ψ⟩ and |ɸ⟩ are orthogonal to each other. 35
 Probability |0〉 =
𝟏
|1〉 =
𝟎
Let us consider a Quantum State 𝟎 𝟏
|ψ⟩ = 𝛂 |0⟩ + 𝛃 |1⟩
𝟏 𝟎
|ψ⟩ = 𝛂 +𝛃
𝟎 𝟏
The inner product ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ is given by 𝜶
⟨ψ|ψ⟩= 𝜶∗ 𝜷∗ 𝜷 = 𝜶 ∗
𝜶 + 𝜷∗
𝜷
𝜶∗ 𝜶 + 𝜷∗ 𝜷 = |𝜶|𝟐 + |𝛃|𝟐

This could also be written as |𝝍|𝟐 = 𝝍 𝝍∗ .

Thus, the above equation represents Probability Density. As per the principle of
Normalization
|𝝍|𝟐 = 𝝍 𝝍∗ = ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = 1 = |𝜶|𝟐 + |𝛃|𝟐

Thus, it implies |ψ⟩ is normalized.

09-Oct-25 36
 Pauli Matrices
These are the 2 × 2 complex matrices introduced by Pauli in order to account for the
interaction of the spin with an external electromagnetic field. They are given by
𝟎 𝟏
𝝈𝟏 = 𝝈𝑿 = 𝑿 =
𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 −𝒊
𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝒀 = 𝒀 =
𝒊 𝟎
𝟏 𝟎
𝝈𝟑 = 𝝈𝒁 = 𝒁 =
𝟎 −𝟏
Properties of Pauli matrices:
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
Square Pauli matrices gives identity matrix I 𝑿𝟐 = = =𝑰
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Similarly,
𝟎 −𝒊 𝟎 −𝒊 𝟏 𝟎
𝒀𝟐 = = =𝑰
𝒊 𝟎 𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
09-Oct-25
𝒁𝟐 = = =𝑰 37
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
 Pauli matrices are unitary matrix

𝑋𝑋 ϯ = 1 𝑌𝑌 ϯ = 1 𝑍𝑍 ϯ = 1
Pauli matrices are Hermitian:

Let Y be a matrix, 𝒀∗ be its complex conjugate and 𝒀ϯ is its transpose.

If 𝒀 = 𝒀ϯ then the matrix is Hermitian.
0 −𝑖
𝑌=
𝑖 0
0 𝑖
𝑌∗ =
−𝑖 0
0 −𝑖
𝑌ϯ =
𝑖 0

𝒀 = 𝒀ϯ
09-Oct-25 38
 Operation of Pauli Matrices on 0 and 1 states 𝑿=
𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎
Three Pauli matrices X, Y and Z operates on states |0〉 and |1〉 as follows
X operating on |0〉 and |1〉. 𝟎 =
𝟏
𝟎
0 1 1 0
𝑋0 = = = |1〉
1 0 0 1 𝟎
𝟏 =
𝑋 0 = |1〉 𝟏

𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
𝑿𝟏 = = = |𝟎〉
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝑿 𝟏 = |𝟎〉
Since X inverts each input (ie, |0〉 becomes |1〉 and |1〉 becomes|0〉).
It is also called as bit-flip gate.
If a superposed qubit goes through X gate, the result will be
𝟎 𝟏 𝜶 𝜷
𝑿𝝍 = 𝜷 = = 𝜶|𝟏〉+𝛃|0〉
𝟏 𝟎 𝜶

09-Oct-25 𝑿 𝝍 = 𝜶|𝟏〉+𝛃|0〉 39
 Y operating on |0〉 and |1〉 𝒀=
𝟎 −𝒊
𝒊 𝟎
0 −𝑖 1 0+0 0 0
𝑌0 = = = =𝑖 = 𝑖|1〉
𝑖 0 0 𝑖+0 𝑖 1 𝟎 =
𝟏
𝟎
𝒀 𝟎 = 𝒊|𝟏〉
𝟎 −𝒊 𝟎 𝟎−𝒊 −𝒊 𝟏
𝒀𝟏 = = = = −𝒊 = −𝒊|𝟎〉 𝟏 =
𝟎
𝒊 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎+𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

𝒀 𝟏 = −𝒊|𝟎〉

If a superposed qubit goes through Y gate, the result will be

𝟎 −𝒊 𝜶 𝟎𝛂 − 𝒊𝜷 −𝒊𝜷
𝒀𝝍 = 𝜷 = = = −𝒊𝛃|0〉+𝒊𝜶|𝟏〉
𝒊 𝟎 𝒊𝜶 + 𝟎𝛃 𝒊𝜶

𝒀 𝝍 = −𝒊𝛃|0〉+𝒊𝜶|𝟏〉

09-Oct-25 40
 Z operating on |0〉 and |1〉 𝒁=
𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 −𝟏
1 0 1 1+0 1
𝑍0 = = = = |0〉
0 −1 0 0−0 0 𝟎 =
𝟏
𝟎
𝒁 𝟎 = |𝟎〉
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎+𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝒁𝟏 = = = = −𝟏 = −|𝟏〉 𝟏 =
𝟎
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟎−𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟏

𝒁 𝟏 = −|𝟏〉

If a superposed qubit goes through Y gate, the result will be

𝟏 𝟎 𝜶 𝟏𝛂 + 𝟎𝜷 𝛂
𝒁𝝍 = 𝜷 = = −𝛃 = 𝜶|𝟎〉 − 𝛃|1〉
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎𝜶 − 𝟏𝛃

𝒁 𝝍 = 𝜶|𝟎〉 − 𝛃|1〉

09-Oct-25 41
 Quantum Gates
A quantum gate is a very simple
computing device that performs
quantum operation on qubits.
Quantum gates are one of the
essential parts of a quantum
computer and are the building
blocks of all quantum algorithms.
Quantum gates are mathematically represented as transformation matrices
which operate on inputs to give outputs.
There are different types of quantum gates. Single-qubit gates and multiple qubit
gates. These gates can flip a qubit from 0 to 1 as well as allowing superposition
states to be created.
09-Oct-25 42
09-Oct-25 43
 Single-Qubit Gates 𝟎 =
𝟏
𝟎
Single qubit inputs are |0⟩ to |1⟩ and can be represented by
matrix forms as 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 = 𝟏 = 𝟏 =
𝟏
𝟎 𝟏
Single Qubit Gates are X- gate, Y-gate, Z- gate, H –gate, S-gate, T-
gate.

09-Oct-25 44
 Single Qubit Gates are X- gate, Y-gate, Z- gate, H –gate, S-gate, T-gate.

09-Oct-25 45
X – Gate or Quantum Not Gate

X-gate is the single qubit input gate and is

also called as Pauli X – gate or quantum
NOT gate.
0 1
The Matrix form of X is given by 𝑋 =
1 0
Action of the X-gate on inputs: When X gate
operates of inputs |0⟩, |1⟩, |ψ⟩ ;

When X operates on |𝟎⟩ and |𝟏⟩ the output

will be inverted (ie,|𝟎⟩ becomes |𝟏⟩ and |𝟏⟩
becomes |𝟎⟩)

09-Oct-25 46
 0 1 1 0 𝑋 0 = |1〉 𝟎 𝟏
𝑋0 = = = |1〉 𝑿=
𝟏 𝟎
1 0 0 1
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
𝑿𝟏 = = = |𝟎〉 𝑿 𝟏 = |𝟎〉 𝟎 =
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎

Since X inverts each input it is also called as bit-flip gate. 𝟎

𝟏 =
𝟏
If a superposed qubit goes through X gate, the result will be
𝟎 𝟏 𝜶 𝜷
𝑿𝝍 = 𝜷 = = 𝜶|𝟏〉+𝛃|0〉 𝑿 𝝍 = 𝜶|𝟏〉+𝛃|0〉
𝟏 𝟎 𝜶
Gate representation is
Truth table is

Input Output
𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟎 + 𝟏 𝟏 + 𝟎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
(+)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟎 − 𝟏 𝟏 − 𝟎
09-Oct-25 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 47
(-)
 Y – Gate
Y-gate is the single qubit input gate. This is also
called as Pauli Y – gate. The matrix form of Y gate
𝟎 −𝒊
is 𝒀 =
𝒊 𝟎
Action of Y gate on inputs : When Y operates on |0〉 and |1〉. 𝒀=
𝟎 −𝒊
0 −𝑖 1 0+0 0 0 𝒊 𝟎
𝑌0 = = = =𝑖 = 𝑖|1〉
𝑖 0 0 𝑖+0 𝑖 1 𝟏
𝟎 =
𝒀 𝟎 = 𝒊|𝟏〉 𝟎
𝟎 −𝒊 𝟎 𝟎−𝒊 −𝒊 𝟏
𝒀𝟏 = = = = −𝒊 = −𝒊|𝟎〉 𝟎
𝒊 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎+𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 =
𝟏
𝒀 𝟏 = −𝒊|𝟎〉
If a superposed qubit goes through Y gate, the result will be
𝟎 −𝒊 𝜶 𝟎𝛂 − 𝒊𝜷 −𝒊𝜷
𝒀𝝍 = 𝜷 = = = −𝒊𝛃|0〉+𝒊𝜶|𝟏〉
𝒊 𝟎 𝒊𝜶 + 𝟎𝛃 𝒊𝜶
09-Oct-25
𝒀 𝝍 = −𝒊𝛃|0〉+𝒊𝜶|𝟏〉 48
 Y-Gate representation is

Truth table is

Input Output
0 i1
1 −i 0
1 1 i i
0 + 1 1 − 0
2 2 2 2
(+)
1 1 i i
0 − 1 1 + 0
09-Oct-25 2 2 2 2 49
(-)
 Z– Gate
Z-gate is the single qubit input gate. This is
also called as Pauli Z – gate. The matrix form
𝟏 𝟎
of Z gate is 𝒁 =
𝟎 −𝟏
Action of Z gate on inputs: When Z operates
on |0〉 and |1〉 the phase will change. Hence
this is also called as phase-flip gate

1 0 1 1+0 1
𝑍0 = = = = |0〉
0 −1 0 0−0 0
𝒁 𝟎 = |𝟎〉
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎+𝟎 𝟎
𝒁𝟏 = = =
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟎−𝟏 −𝟏
𝟎
= −𝟏 = −|𝟏〉
09-Oct-25
𝟏 50
𝒁 𝟏 = −|𝟏〉
 If a superposed qubit goes through Y gate, the result will be 𝟏 𝟎
𝒁=
𝟎 −𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝜶 𝟏𝛂 + 𝟎𝜷 𝛂
𝒁𝝍 = 𝜷 = = −𝛃 = 𝜶|𝟎〉 − 𝛃|1〉 𝟏
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎𝜶 − 𝟏𝛃 𝟎 =
𝟎

𝒁 𝝍 = 𝜶|𝟎〉 − 𝛃|1〉 𝟏 =
𝟎
𝟏

The truth table for Z gates is as follows;

Input Output
0 0
1 −1
1 1 1 1
0 + 1 0 − 1
2 2 2 2
(+)
1 1 1 1
0 − 1 0 + 1
2 2 2 2
09-Oct-25 51
(-)
 Hadamard Gate (H-gate)
It is a single qubit gate and is also
gate to superposition. H gate acts
on single qubit input and produce
superposition state output. Matrix
form of H gate and its symbol is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑯=
𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏

09-Oct-25 52
Action of H gate on
inputs:
Let us find out what
happens when
Hadamard gate
operates on a qubit
that is in the |0⟩ state

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏+𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑯𝟎 = = = = (|𝟎〉 + |𝟏〉)
𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟐 𝟏−𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝑯=
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 −𝟏

|𝟎〉 + |𝟏〉 𝟏
𝑯𝟎 = 𝟎 =
𝟐 𝟎

𝟎
𝟏 =
𝟏
09-Oct-25 53
Let us find out what happens when Hadamard
gate operates on a qubit that is in the |1⟩ state. 𝑯=
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎+𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑯𝟏 = = = = 𝟎 − 𝟏)
𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟎−𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟎 =
𝟏
𝟎

𝟎 − |𝟏〉
𝑯𝟏 = 𝟏 =
𝟎
𝟐 𝟏
If a superposed qubit goes through H gate, the result will be
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝛂 𝟏 𝛂+𝛃 𝛂+𝛃 𝛂−𝛃
𝑯ψ = 𝛃 = = 𝟎 + 𝟏
𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐 𝛂+𝛃 𝟐 𝟐

𝟎 + |𝟏〉 𝟎 − |𝟏〉
𝑯ψ =𝛂 𝟎 +𝛃
𝟐 𝟐

09-Oct-25 54
 Hadamard Gate (H-gate) representation is

The truth table is as follows

Input Output
0 1 1
0 + 1
2 2
1 1 1
0 − 1
2 2
1 1 0
0 + 1
2 2
(+)
1 1 1
0 − 1
2 2
(-)
Note: Difference between X, Y, Z and H gates is that in X, Y and Z gates,
09-Oct-25
output is in single state whereas in H gate output is superposed state. 55
 Questions from Model and previous Question Paper.
1. Explain the representation of qubit using Block sphere.
2. Explain Moore’s law and its end.
3. Define bit and qubit. Explain the properties of qubit.
4. Elucidate the difference between classical computing and quantum computing.
5. Explain the matrix representation of 0 and 1 states and apply identity operator to |0⟩
and |1⟩.
6. State Pauli Matrices. Apply Pauli matrices on the states |0⟩ and |1⟩.
7. Explain Hadamard Gate. Apply Hadamard Gate on the states |0⟩ and |1⟩.
8. Discuss the CNOT gate and its operation of four different input states.
9. Explain single qubit gate and multiple qubit gate with an example for each.
10. Discuss the working of controlled Z gate mentioning the matrix representation and
truth table.
11. Explain orthogonality and orthonormality with an example for each.
12. Find the inner product of states |11⟩ and |10⟩ draw the conclusion the result.
0 𝑖
13. Given 𝐴 = , prove that 𝐴ϯ = 𝐴
𝑖 0
𝛂1 𝛃1
14. Given 𝜓 = 𝛂 and ɸ = prove that 〈ψ|ɸ〉 = 〈ɸ|ψ〉∗
2 𝛃2
09-Oct-25 56