10/15/2025

MODULE 2
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
AND
ARCHITECTURE

FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF A COMPUTER

• A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts: input,
output, memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and control unit
Von Neumann Architecture

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Components of Von Neumann Architecture

• The functional components of a digital computer include the Input Unit,
which takes in data.
• The CPU, which processes data with its Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU), and Registers.
• The Memory Unit, which stores data temporarily (RAM) or permanently
(HDD/SSD);
• The Output Unit, which displays results;
• The Bus System, which connects and transfers data between
components.
• These parts work together to execute tasks and provide results.

1. Input Unit
• Purpose: Captures data and instructions from users or external sources.
• Function: Converts user input into binary signals that the computer can
process.
• Common Devices:
Keyboard, Mouse, Touchscreens
Scanners, Sensors, Stylus pens
Voice Assistants (e.g., Siri, Alexa)
Biometric devices (face/fingerprint recognition)
 IoT-based inputs from smart devices

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2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) – The Brain of the Computer

• The CPU executes instructions and controls all internal operations. In
2025, CPUs will often have multiple cores and threads to handle parallel
processing efficiently.
• Components of CPU:
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
2. Control Unit (CU)
3. Registers

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) – The Brain of the Computer

Components of CPU:
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
• Performs arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide).
• Handles logical operations (comparison, decision-making).
• Supports AI/ML tasks using built-in vector/matrix operations (in modern
CPUs).
2. Control Unit (CU)
• Directs the operations of all computer parts.
• Decodes instructions and coordinates data flow.
• Sends control signals to memory and I/O devices.

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2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) – The Brain of the Computer

Components of CPU:
3. Registers
• High-speed memory locations within the CPU.
• Temporarily store instructions, addresses, and intermediate data.
• Examples: Accumulator, Instruction Register, Program Counter, Address
Register.
• Modern CPUs include 64-bit or even 128-bit registers for faster
processing.

3. Memory / Storage Unit

The memory unit holds data and instructions before, during, and after
processing.
a. Primary Memory (Main Memory):
• RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporarily stores data during
execution.
• Types in 2025: DDR5, LPDDR5X, and emerging MRAM.
• ROM (Read-Only Memory): Stores boot-up instructions and firmware.
• Cache Memory: Ultra-fast memory between CPU and RAM (L1, L2, L3
levels).

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3. Memory / Storage Unit

b. Secondary Storage:
• Used for long-term data storage.
• Examples: SSDs (NVMe drives), HDDs, flash drives, and cloud storage.
• Modern Trend: Use of Cloud Integration and hybrid storage models.

4. Output Unit
• Purpose: Converts processed data (binary) into a form users can
understand.
• Examples:
• Visual: Monitors (LED, OLED, 4K/8K displays)
• Print: Printers (Inkjet, Laser, 3D Printers)
• Audio: Speakers, Headphones
• Haptic: Vibration feedback devices

• Emerging Tech: AR/VR headsets, voice-based output, Braille displays for

accessibility

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Interconnection between Functional Components

• A computer consists of an input unit
that takes input, a CPU that processes
the input and an output unit that
produces output.
• All these devices communicate with
each other through a common bus.
• A bus is a transmission path, made of
a set of conducting wires over which
data or information in the form of
electric signals is passed from one
component to another in a computer.
• The bus can be of three types –
Address bus, Data bus and Control
Bus.

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What is a Computer Bus?

• A computer bus is a communication system used to transfer data
between components within a computer or between different
computers.
• It plays an important role in minimising the number of connections
needed by centralising communication over shared pathways.
It consists of physical connections like wires, circuits, or cables.
Components like the CPU, memory, and input/output (I/O) devices are
connected through a bus.
It simplifies data transfer and improves efficiency.

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Types Of Buses

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1. Address Bus
• A collection of wires used to identify a particular location in main memory is
called the Address Bus.
• Or in other words, the information used to describe the memory locations
travels along the address bus.
 The address bus transports memory addresses which the processor wants to
access in order to read or write data.
 The address bus is unidirectional.
 The size of the address bus determines how many unique memory locations
can be addressed.
• Example:
• A system with 4-bit address bus can address 24 = 16 Bytes of memory.
• A system with 16-bit address bus can address 216 = 64 KB of memory
• A system with 20-bit address bus can address 220 = 1 MB of memory.

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2. Data Bus
• A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a
computer to another is called a Data Bus.
• It can be thought of as a highway on which data travels within a computer.
 The main objective of the data bus is the transfer of data between the
microprocessor and input/ output devices or memory.
 The data bus transfers instructions coming from or going to the processor.
 The data bus is bidirectional because the data can flow in either direction
from the CPU to memory(or input/output device) or from memory to the CPU.
 The size (width) of the bus determines how much data can be transmitted at
one time.
 Example:
• A 16-bit bus can transmit 16 bits of data at a time.
• 32-bit bus can transmit 32 bits at a time.

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3. Control Bus
• The connections that carry control information between the CPU and
other devices within the computer are called the Control Bus.
• The control bus transports orders and synchronization signal coming
from the control unit and travelling to all other hardware components
The main objective of the control bus is to carry all signals from the
processor to other hardware devices.
The Control bus is bidirectional because the data can flow in either
direction from CPU to memory(or input/output device) or from memory
to the CPU.
it also transmits response signals from the hardware.
Example:
• This bus is used to indicate whether the CPU is reading from memory or writing to
memory.

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Comparison Between the Three Buses

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Instruction codes
• An instruction code is a group of bits that instructs the computer to perform
a specific task.
• A Computer instruction is binary code that specifies a sequence of micro
operations for the Computer.
• The Computer reads each instruction from memory and places it in a control
register.
• The control then interprets the binary code of the instruction and proceeds to
execute it by issuing a sequence of micro operations.
• It is usually divided into parts, each having its own particular interpretation
• They are:
1. Operation Code(opcode), and
2. Operands.

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[Link] Code
• The Operation Code (OpCode) of an instruction is a group of bits
that define each operation such add, subtract, multiply, shift, and
complement
• It must consist of at least n bits for a given 2n distinct operations.
• Suppose we are having 64 (26) operation then the length of OpCode
will be 6.
• The control unit decode the OpCode and do the required operation.

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2. Operands
• The Operation must be performed on some data stored in a
processor register or in memory.
• Every Computer has its own particular instruction code format.
• The Simplest way to organize a computer is to have an instruction
code format with two parts.
• The first part specifies the operation to be performed and the
second specifies an address.

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Computer instructions

• The Basic Computer has three instruction code formats( each format has
16 bits)
• The OpCode part of the instruction contains three bits and the meaning
of the remaining 13 bits depends on the operation code encountered
• The three instruction code formats are:
1. Memory - Reference Instruction
2. Register - reference Instruction
3. Input - Output Operation

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1. Memory - Reference Instruction

• A Memory-Reference instruction uses 12 bits to specify an address
and one bit to specify the addressing mode I
• I is equal to 0 for direct address and to 1 for indirect address.
• Opcode= 000 through 110

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[Link] - Reference Instruction

• The Register - Reference instructions are recognised by the
operation code 111 with 0 in the leftmost bit (bit 15) of the
instruction.
• It specifies an operation on or a test of the AC register
• An operand from memory is not needed, so the other 12 bits are
used to specify the operation or test to be executed.

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3. Input - Output Instruction

• An Input- Output Instruction does not need a reference to memory
and recognized by the operation code 111 with a 1 in the left most
bit of the instruction.
• The remaining 12 bits are used to specify the type of input-output
operation or test performed.

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Overview
• The type of instruction is recognized from four bits in position 12
through 15 of the instruction.
• If the three opcode in position 12 to 14 are not equal to 111, the
instruction is a memory-reference type
• If these bit position is equal to 111 and 15th position is 0,the instruction
is a register-reference type otherwise it is Input- output type.
• Because of three bits use in the operation code, its seems that the
computer is restricted to a maximum of eight distinct operations
• However, by using other 12 bits, the total number of instruction can
exceed eight.
• In fact, the total number of instructions chosen for the basic computer
is equal to 25.

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Instruction set completeness

• The set of instruction is said to be complete if it has following
categories
1. Arithmetic, logical and shift instruction
2. Instruction for moving to and from memory and processor
registers
3. Program control instructions together with instruction that check
status condition
4. Input and output instruction

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BASIC COMPUTER INSRUCTIONS

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Computer registers
• A register is a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into
the CPU in order to speed up its operations by providing quick access to
commonly used values
• Registers refers to semiconductor devices whose contents can be
accessed (i.e., read and written to) at extremely high speeds, but which
are held there only temporarily
• Registers are used to store data temporarily during the execution of a
program

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Computer registers

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Common bus system

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Common bus system

• BUS: A wire or a collection of wires that carry some multi-bit information
is known as bus. Main purpose of bus is to transfer information form
one system to another
• The basic computer has eight registers (AC, PC, DR, AC, IR, TR, INPR,
OUTR), a memory unit and a control unit.
• A common bus provides a path between the memory unit and the
registers.

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Common bus system

• Five registers have three control inputs: LD (load), INR (increment) and
CLR (clear).
• Two registers have only a LD input.
• Load (LD): The lines from the common bus are connected to the inputs
of each register and the data inputs of the memory. The particular
register whose LD input is enabled receives the data from the bus.
• Increment (INR) and Clear (CLR): The contents of the particular register
are incremented when its INR signal is enabled and cleared when its CLR
signal is enabled.

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Common bus system: CIRCUIT OPERATION DESCRIPTION

• Memory Unit:
• The memory receives the 16-bit information from the bus when its
write input is enabled.
• The memory places its 16-bit information onto the bus when its read
input is activated and S2S1S0 = 111.
• Address Register (AR):
• This register specifies the address in memory for next read or writes
operations.
• The address register consists of 12 bits.
• When selection inputs S2S1S0 =001 is applied to the bus, the address
register AR receives or transfers an address from or to the bus when
its LD input is enabled.
• The address is incremented or clear by the inputs INR or CLR.

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Common bus system: CIRCUIT OPERATION DESCRIPTION

• Program Counter (PC):
• Program counter has 12 bits and it holds the address of the next
instruction to be read from memory after the current execution is
executed.
• When selection inputs S2S1S0 = 010 is applied to the bus, the program
counter (PC) receives or transfers an address from or to the bus when
its LD input is enabled.
• The address is incremented or clear by the inputs INR or CLR.

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Common bus system: CIRCUIT OPERATION DESCRIPTION

• Data Register (DR):
• The register DR consists of 16-bits and memory operands (data).
• This register contains the data to be written into memory or receives
the data read from memory.
• When selection inputs S2S1S0 = 011 is applied to the bus, the data
register DR receives or transfers data from or to the bus when its LD
input is enabled.
• The data is incremented or cleared by the inputs INR or CLR.

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Common bus system: CIRCUIT OPERATION DESCRIPTION

• Accumulator (AC):
• The processor register AC consists of 16 bits.
• The 16-bit inputs to the ALU circuit come from the outputs of AC.
• They are used to implement register micro operations such as
complement and shift the contents of the AC.
• The results of these micro operations are again transferred to AC.
• So an accumulator is a register in which intermediate arithmetic and
logic results are stored.
• When selection inputs S2S1S0 = 100 is applied to the bus, the
processor register AC receives or transfers its data to the bus by
enabling the LD input of DR, it transfers the contents of DR through
the adder / logic circuit into AC when its LD input is enable.
• The data of AC is incremented or clear by the inputs INR or CLR.

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Common bus system: CIRCUIT OPERATION DESCRIPTION

• Instruction Register (IR):
• The instruction register consists of 16-bits.
• The purpose of the instruction register is to hold a copy of the
instruction which the processor is to execute.
• The instruction read from memory is placed in the IR.
• When selection inputs S2S1S0 = 101 is applied to the bus, the
instruction register IR receives or transfers instruction code from or to
the bus when its LD input is enabled.

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Common bus system: CIRCUIT OPERATION DESCRIPTION

• Temporary Register (TR):
• Temporary registers have 16 bits.
• It provides temporary storage of variables or results.
• When selection inputs S2S1S0 = 110 is applied to the bus, the
temporary register TR receives or transfers temporary data from or to
the bus when its LD input is enabled.
• The data is incremented or clear by the inputs INR or CLR.

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Common bus system: CIRCUIT OPERATION DESCRIPTION

• Input Register (INPR):
• The Input Register INPR consists of 8-bits and hold alphanumeric input
information.
• The serial information from the input device is shifted into input of 8-
bit register INPR.
• When LD input of AC is enable, the 8-bit information of INPR is
transferred to the AC via Adder/logic circuit.
• Output Register (OUTR):
• The output OUTR receives information from AC and transfers it to the
output device.

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