Module 1

Table of Contents

1. Introduction [Link].
1.1 Measurements and Measurement systems 1
1.2 Introduction 2
1.3 significance and methods of Measurements 3
1.4 Instruments and measurement systems, Mechanical 7
1.5 electrical and electronic instruments. 9
1.6 Classification of instruments 13
1.7 Functions and applications of Measurement systems 16
1.8 Types of Instrumentation systems 19
1.9 information and signal processing. Elements of generalised measurement system 23
1.10 Input-output configurations of measuring instruments and measurement systems 26

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1.11 Methods of correction for interfering and modifying inputs, errors in measurements 29
1.12 Accuracy and precision
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 Module-1
Measurements and Measurement systems
Measurement instruments and systems

In general, measuring systems comprise a number of functional elements. One element is

required to discriminate the object and sense its dimensions or frequency. This information is
then transmitted throughout the system by physical signals. If the object is itself active, such
as water flow, it may power the signal; if passive, it must trigger the signal by interaction either
with an energetic probe, such as a light source or X-ray tube, or with a carrier signal. Eventually
the physical signal is compared with a reference signal of known quantity that has been
subdivided or multiplied to suit the range of measurement required. The reference signal is

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derived from objects of known quantity by a process called calibration. The comparison may
be an analog process in which signals in a continuous dimension are brought to equality.
An alternative comparison process is quantization by counting, i.e., dividing the signal into
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parts of equal and known size and adding up the number of parts.
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Other functions of measurement systems facilitate the basic process described above.
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Amplification ensures that the physical signal is strong enough to complete the measurement.
In order to reduce degradation of the measurement as it progresses through the system, the
signal may be converted to coded or digital form. Magnification, enlarging the measurement
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signal without increasing its power, is often necessary to match the output of one element of
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the system with the input of another, such as matching the size of the readout meter with the
discerning power of the human eye.

One important type of measurement is the analysis of resonance, or the frequency of variation
within a physical system. This is determined by harmonic analysis, commonly exhibited in the
sorting of signals by a radio receiver. Computation is another important measurement process,
in which measurement signals are manipulated mathematically, typically by some form of
analog or digital computer. Computers may also provide a control function in monitoring
system performance.
Measurement is important because it helps us
• Compare unknown quantities with the known quantities.
• Make quantitative statements about how big, how long, how fast things are.
• Avoid errors in the final product.
• Enhance the quality and quantity of life.
• Make our lives better and safer.
• Give humans an adaptive, evolutionary advantage honed through many years of
natural selection.

Classification of Electrical Measuring Instruments

Based on the electrical and electronic study, measuring instruments are classified into
different categories with different perspectives.

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Classification according to the Electrical Quantity

As per the Electrical Quantities, instruments are broadly classified into two parts.

1. Absolute Instrument
2. Secondary Instrument
Explanation as,

1. Absolute Instrument
This instrument gives the value of the electrical quantity to measure in terms of the constant
and its deflection. This instrument is known as ‘Absolute Instrument’.
It is also called a Primary Instrument or Indirect Instrument. These instruments are not
required to compare with the standard values.
Example: Tangent Galvanometer is the best example of an absolute instrument. It is used for
detecting and displaying an electric current unit.
These types of instruments are rarely used for commercial purposes.

2. Secondary Instrument
The instrument gives the value of the quantity to be measured directly into the deflection. This
instrument is known as ‘Secondary Instrument’.
It is also called as Direct Instruments.
These instrument values are required to compare with absolute instruments or the standard
values of the instruments.

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The secondary instrument is classified into two-part,

• Deflection Instrument
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• Null Deflection Instrument
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Example: Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter, etc are examples of secondary instruments.
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Classification according to the Nature of the Operation

The instrument can also be classified based on the nature of the operation. They majorly fall
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into the secondary instrument.

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This instrument is divided into four major parts.

1. Indicating Instrument
2. Recording Instrument
3. Integrating Instrument
4. Null Deflection instrument

1. Indicating Instrument
The Indicating Instrument displays only the value of the electrical quantities per time of
measurement.
This instrument gives the reading only when connected to the electrical supply. Otherwise, it
goes to the zero position.

Example: Ammeters, Voltmeters, Wattmeters, etc are examples of the indicating instrument.
2. Recording Instrument
The Recording Instrument displays and records the reading of the electrical quantities at per
time of measurement.
This instrument is generally used in the Generating Station and Substation.

Example: ECG, and X-Rays are examples of recording instruments.

3. Integrating Instrument
The Integrating Instrument displays, record, and add the numerical value of the reading of the
electrical quantities per time of measurement.

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Example: Energy meter, and Ampere-hour meter are examples of the integrating instrument.
4. Null Deflection Instrument
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The Null Deflection Instrument shows the reading of the electrical quantities without the
deflection angle at per time of measurement.
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Classification according to the Electrical Supply

This classification is based on the alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC)types of an
electrical sources.
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1. AC Instrument
2. DC Instrument
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1. AC Instrument
The AC Instrument is connected to the AC supply. Further, they are classified into two parts…

• Single Phase AC Instrument

• Three Phase AC Instrument
Example: Moving Instrument [M.I.], Induction Instrument, Electrostatic Instrument,
dynamometer Instrument, and Electrostatic Instrument are examples of the AC Instruments.
2. DC Instrument
The instrument is connected with the DC supply.

Example: ‘Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments’ is the best example of the DC
instrument.
Classification according to the Effect
Due to the various magnetic effects, electromagnetic induction effects, electrostatic
effects, thermal effects, chemical effects, etc., there are more chances to get the application
or system damaged. So, multiple types of instruments are used to measure and compare
unknown quantities with the standard value. These instruments protect the device.

The classification is as follows.

1. Moving Coil Instruments

2. Moving Iron Instruments
3. Induction Instruments
4. Electrostatic Instruments

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5. Electrolytic Instruments
6. Hot Wire Instruments
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Types of Applications of Measurement Instrumentation

Monitoring of Processes and Operations

• Control of Processes and Operations

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• Experimental Engineering Analysis

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Monitoring of Processes and Operations– Certain applications of measuring instruments may

be characterized as having essentially a monitoring function, e.g., thermometers, barometers,
and water, gas, and electric meters.

• Control of Processes and Operations– An instrument can serve as a component of a control

system. To control any variable in a feedback control system, it is first necessary to measure it.
A single control system may require information from many measuring instruments, e.g.,
industrial machine and process controllers, aircraft control systems
Generalized Configurations and Functional Descriptions
of Measuring Instruments
• It is desirable to describe both the operation and performance of measuring instruments and
associated equipment in a generalized way without recourse to specific physical hardware.

• Here we focus on the operation which can be described in terms of the functional elements of
an instrument or instrument system.

• By concentrating on these functions and the various physical devices available for
accomplishing them, we develop our ability to synthesize new combinations of elements
leading to new and useful instruments.

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Primary Sensing Element– This is the element that first receives energy from the measured
medium and produces an output depending in some way on the measured quantity. The output
is some physical variable, e.g., displacement or voltage. An instrument always extracts some
energy from the measured medium. The measured quantity is always disturbed by the act of
measurement, which makes a perfect measurement theoretically impossible.

• Variable-Conversion Element– It may be necessary to convert the output signal of the primary
sensing element to another more suitable variable while preserving the information content of
the original signal. This element performs this function
Variable-Manipulation Element– An instrument may require that a signal represented by some
physical variable be manipulated in some way. By manipulation we mean specifically a change
in numerical value according to some definite rule but a preservation of the physical nature of
the variable. This element performs such a function.

• Data-Transmission Element– When functional elements of an instrument are actually

physically separated, it becomes necessary to transmit the data from one to another. This
element performs this function

Data-Presentation Element– If the information about the measured quantity is to be

communicated to a human being for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes, it must be put
into a form recognizable by one of the human senses. This element performs this “translation”
function.

• Data Storage/Playback Element– Some applications require a distinct data storage/playback

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which can easily recreate the stored data upon command
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Input-Output Configuration of Measuring Instruments
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and Instrument Systems
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Input quantities are classified into three categories:–
Desired Inputs

• These are quantities that the instrument is specifically intended to measure

.– Interfering Inputs

• These are quantities to which the instrument is unintentionally sensitive

. – FDand FI are input-output relations, i.e., the mathematical operations necessary to obtain
the output from the input. They represent different concepts depending on the particular input-
output characteristic being described, e.g., a constant, a mathematical function, a differential
equation, a statistical distribution function

– Modifying Inputs

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• These are quantities that cause a change in the input-output relations for the desired and
interfering inputs, i.e., they cause a change in FD and/or FI. FM,I and FM,D represent the
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specific manner in which iM affects FI and FD, respectively
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Methods for Nullifying or Reducing the Effects of Spurious Inputs:–
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Method of Inherent Sensitivity

–Method of High-Gain Feedback

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–Method of Calculated Output Corrections

–Method of Signal Filtering
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–Method of Opposing Inputs

Method of Inherent Insensitivity

– This method proposes the sound design philosophy that the elements of the instrument should
inherently be sensitive to only the desired inputs. This approach requires that somehow FI
and/or FM,D be made as nearly equal to zero as possible. Thus, even though iI and/or iM may
exist, they cannot affect the output.
Method of High-Gain Feedback– Suppose we wish to measure a voltage ei by applying it to a
motor whose torque is applied to a spring, causing a displacement xo, which may be measured
on a calibrated scale.

For this properly designed open-loop system: = ( x K K e ) o Mo Sp i

If modifying inputs iM1 and iM2 exist, they can cause changes in KMo and KSp that lead to
errors in the relation between ei and xo. These errors are in direct proportion to the changes in
KMo and KSp.– Consider a closed-loop system. Here xo is measured by a feedback device
which produces a voltage eo proportional to xo.

This voltage is subtracted from the input voltage ei, and the difference is applied to an amplifier
which drives the motor and thereby the spring to produce xo:

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– Suppose we design KAm to be very large (a “high-gain” system) so that KAmKMoKSpKFb
>> 1. Then 1 ≈ x e K o i Fb– The effects of variations in KAm, KSp, and KMo ( as a result of
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modifying inputs iM1, iM2, and iM3) on the relation between ei and output xo have been made
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negligible. We now require that KFb stay constant (unaffected by iM4) in order to maintain
constant input output calibration.

Method of High-Gain Feedback

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Method of Calculated Output Corrections–
This method requires one to measure or estimate the magnitudes of the interfering and/or
modifying inputs and to know quantitatively how they affect the output. Then it is possible to
calculate corrections which may be added to or subtracted from the indicated output so as to
leave (ideally) only that component associated with the desired input. – Since many
measurement systems today can afford to include a microcomputer to carry out various
functions, if we also provide sensors for the spurious inputs, the microcomputer can implement
the method of calculated output corrections on an automatic basis.

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•Method of Signal Filtering–
This method is based on the possibility of introducing certain elements (“filters”) into the
instrument which in some fashion block the spurious signals, so that their effects on the output
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are removed or reduced. The filter may be applied to any suitable signal in the instrument, be
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it input, output, or intermediate signal
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Errors in Measurement
Everything experimental research is built on measurement. Many of the great scientific
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advancements would not have been possible without ever-increasing standards of measuring
precision. Quantities are measured using international measurements and are completely
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accurate as compared to others. Measuring is done in the same way as vegetable vendors do:
by comparing an unknown amount of weight to a known amount of weight. Any calculation
contains a level of uncertainty, which is referred to as an error. This error may occur during
the procedure or even as a result of a failure in the experiment. As a result, no approach can
have a 100 % precise calculation.

Types of Errors
There are three types of errors that are classified based on the source they arise from; They are:

• Gross Errors

• Random Errors
 • Systematic Errors

Gross Errors
This category basically takes into account human oversight and other mistakes while reading,
recording, and readings. The most common human error in measurement falls under this
category of measurement errors. For example, the person taking the reading from the meter of
the instrument may read 23 as 28. Gross errors can be avoided by using two suitable measures,
and they are written below:

• Proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also, the calculation of error
should be done accurately.

• By increasing the number of experimenters, we can reduce the gross errors. If each
experimenter takes different readings at different points, then by taking the average of
more readings, we can reduce the gross errors

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Random Errors
The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random. These can
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arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions (Example:
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unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply, mechanical vibrations of
experimental set-ups, etc, errors by the observer taking readings, etc. For example, when the
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same person repeats the same observation, he may likely get different readings every time.

This article explored the various types of errors in the measurements we make. These errors
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are everywhere in every measurement we make. To find more articles, visit BYJU’S. Join us
and fall in love with learning.
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Systematic Errors:
Systematic errors can be better understood if we divide them into subgroups; They are:

• Environmental Errors

• Observational Errors

• Instrumental Errors

Environmental Errors: This type of error arises in the measurement due to the effect of the
external conditions on the measurement. The external condition includes temperature, pressure,
and humidity and can also include an external magnetic field. If you measure your temperature
under the armpits and during the measurement, if the electricity goes out and the room gets hot,
it will affect your body temperature, affecting the reading.

Observational Errors: These are the errors that arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of
proper setting of the apparatus, or an individual’s carelessness in taking observations. The
measurement errors also include wrong readings due to Parallax errors.

Instrumental Errors: These errors arise due to faulty construction and calibration of the
measuring instruments. Such errors arise due to the hysteresis of the equipment or due
to friction. Lots of the time, the equipment being used is faulty due to misuse or neglect, which
changes the reading of the equipment. The zero error is a very common type of error. This error
is common in devices like Vernier callipers and screw gauges. The zero error can be either
positive or negative. Sometimes the scale readings are worn off, which can also lead to a bad

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reading.

Instrumental error takes place due to :

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• An inherent constraint of devices
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• Misuse of Apparatus
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• Effect of Loading

Accuracy and precision.

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Measurement is essential for us to understand the external world, and through millions of years
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of life, we have developed a sense of measurement. Measurements require tools that provide
scientists with a quantity. The problem here is that the result of every measurement by any
measuring instrument contains some uncertainty. This uncertainty is referred to as an error.
Accuracy and precision are two important factors to consider while taking measurements. Both
these terms reflect how close a measurement is to a known or accepted value. In this article, let
us learn in detail about precision and accuracy.

Accuracy

The ability of an instrument to measure the accurate value is known as accuracy. In other words,
it is the the closeness of the measured value to a standard or true value. Accuracy is obtained
by taking small readings. The small reading reduces the error of the calculation. The accuracy
of the system is classified into three types as follows:
 • Point Accuracy

The accuracy of the instrument only at a particular point on its scale is known as point accuracy.
It is important to note that this accuracy does not give any information about the general
accuracy of the instrument.

• Accuracy as Percentage of Scale Range

The uniform scale range determines the accuracy of a measurement. This can be better
understood with the help of the following example:
Consider a thermometer having the scale range up to 500ºC. The thermometer has an accuracy
of ±0.5 percent of scale range i.e. 0.005 x 500 = ± 2.5 ºC. Therefore, the reading will have a
maximum error of ± 2.5 ºC.

• Accuracy as Percentage of True Value

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Such type of accuracy of the instruments is determined by identifying the measured value
regarding their true value. The accuracy of the instruments is neglected up to ±0.5 percent from
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the true value.
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Precision

The closeness of two or more measurements to each other is known as the precision of a
substance. If you weigh a given substance five times and get 3.2 kg each time, then your
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measurement is very precise but not necessarily accurate. Precision is independent of accuracy.
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The below examples will tell you about how you can be precise but not accurate and vice versa.
Precision is sometimes separated into:

• Repeatability

The variation arising when the conditions are kept identical and repeated measurements are
taken during a short time period.

• Reproducibility

The variation arises using the same measurement process among different instruments and
operators, and over longer time periods.