Microfluidics Module

User’s Guide
Microfluidics Module User’s Guide
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Part number: CM021901

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the Microfluidics Module 16

About Microfluidics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
About the Microfluidics Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
The Microfluidics Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . 17
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Microfluidics Module Study Capabilities by Physics Interface . . . . . 21
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes . . . . . . 23
The Liquids and Gases Materials Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 24

Overview of the User’s Guide 27

Chapter 2: Microfluidic Modeling

Physics and Scaling in Microfluidics 30

Dimensionless Numbers in Microfluidics 33

Dimensionless Numbers Important for Solver Stability . . . . . . . . 33
Other Dimensionless Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Modeling Microfluidic Fluid Flows 38

Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Single-Phase Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Multiphase Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Porous Media Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
The Relationship Between the Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Modeling Coupled Phenomena in Microfluidics 47

Chemical Transport and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Electrohydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

CONTENTS |3
 Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Modeling Rarefied Gas Flows 59

The Flow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Slip Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
References for the Theory of Microfluidics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Chapter 3: Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow Interfaces 64

The Creeping Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
The Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow . . . . . 72
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Boundary Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Porous Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Pressure Point Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

The Potential Flow Interface 98

The Incompressible Potential Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Incompressible
Potential Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

4 | CONTENTS
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Potential Point Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces 106

General Single-Phase Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Weakly Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
The Mach Number Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Incompressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
The Reynolds Number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Non-Newtonian Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Mass Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Fully Developed Flow (Inlet) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fully Developed Flow (Outlet). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
No Viscous Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Normal Stress Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Pressure Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Porous Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Mass Sources for Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow . . . . . 137
Solvers for Laminar Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models . . . . . . . . . . 141
Nitsche Constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces . . . . 144

CONTENTS |5
 Theory for the Potential Flow Interface 147
General Incompressible Potential Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . 147

Chapter 4: Multiphase Flow, Two-Phase Flow

Interfaces

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Laminar

Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interfaces 150
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface . . . . . . . . . 150
The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . 151
The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . 157
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . 160
The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature. . . . . . . . . 161
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar Flow,
Two-Phase, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces . . . . . . . . . 165

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface 167

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . 167
The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . 168
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar
Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface 172

Select Laminar Flow Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Deforming Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Fluid-Fluid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Free Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Contact Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces 179
Level Set and Phase Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations . . . . . . . . . 184
Phase Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Numerical Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

6 | CONTENTS
 References for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces . . . . . . . 187

Theory for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface 188

Governing Equations of the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . 188
Reference for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . 191

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface 192

Domain Level Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
About the Moving Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
About the Fluid Interface Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 194
Contact Angle Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
References for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface . . . . . 199

Chapter 5: Mathematics, Moving Interfaces

The Level Set Interface 202

The Level Set Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
The Level Set in Porous Media Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface . . . . 204
Level Set Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
No Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

The Phase Field in Fluids Interface 209

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field in Fluids
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Phase Field Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

CONTENTS |7
 Interior Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

The Ternary Phase Field Interface 215

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Ternary Phase Field
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Mixture Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Theory for the Level Set Interface 221

The Level Set Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Conservative and Nonconservative Form . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
The Level Set Equation in Porous Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Initializing the Level Set Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Variables For Geometric Properties of the Interface . . . . . . . . 225
Reference for the Level Set Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Theory for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface 226

About the Phase Field Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
The Equations for the Phase Field Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Conservative and Nonconservative Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Additional Sources of Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Initializing the Phase Field Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Variables and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Reference for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface . . . . . . . . . . 231

Theory for the Ternary Phase Field Interface 232

About the Phase Field Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
The Equations of the Ternary Phase Field Method . . . . . . . . . 232
Reference for the Ternary Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . . . 234

8 | CONTENTS
Chapter 6: Porous Media Flow Interfaces

The Darcy’s Law Interface 236

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s
Law Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Unsaturated Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Dual Porosity Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Dual Permeability Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Macropores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Micropores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Contributing Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Porous Electrode Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
No Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Pressure Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Hydraulic Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Atmosphere/Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

CONTENTS |9
 Pervious Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Fluid (Fracture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Fracture Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

The Brinkman Equations Interface 274

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman
Equations Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface 285

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Brinkman Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Microfluidic Wall Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

The Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface 295

Free and Porous Media Flow Coupling (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . 295

Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface 299

About Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

10 | C O N T E N T S
 Storage Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Average Linear Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Dual Porosity and Dual Permeability Theory . . . . . . . . . . . 302
References for the Darcy’s Law Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface 306

About the Brinkman Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Brinkman Equations Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
References for the Brinkman Equations Interface. . . . . . . . . . 308

Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman

Interface 309
Reference for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface . . 309

Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface
310
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

Chapter 7: Rarefied Flow Interface

The Slip Flow Interface 314

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Slip Flow
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
External Slip Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Slip Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Interior Slip Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

Theory for the Slip Flow Interface 322

Slip Flow Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
References for the Slip Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

CONTENTS | 11
 Chapter 8: Chemical Species Transport Interfaces

The Transport of Diluted Species Interface 328

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface . . . . . 332
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 336
Species Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Mass-Based Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Partition Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Thin Diffusion Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Thin Impermeable Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Surface Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Surface Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Porous Electrode Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Reaction Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

12 | C O N T E N T S
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Unsaturated Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Volatilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Species Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Hygroscopic Swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Out-of-Plane Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Fluid (Fracture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Fracture Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface 370

Mass Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Equilibrium Reaction Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Convective Term Formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Solving a Diffusion Equation Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Mass Sources for Species Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Adding Transport Through Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Supporting Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Crosswind Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Convection in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Diffusion in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Mass Transport in Fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

CONTENTS | 13
 Chapter 9: Glossary

Glossary of Terms 394

Index 403

14 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the Microfluidics Module, an optional add-on package that
extends the COMSOL Multiphysics® modeling environment with customized
physics interfaces for microfluidics.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.

In this chapter:

• About the Microfluidics Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

15
 About the Microfluidics Module
In this section:

• About Microfluidics
• About the Microfluidics Module
• The Microfluidics Module Physics Interface Guide
• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces
• The Microfluidics Module Study Capabilities by Physics Interface
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• The Liquids and Gases Materials Database
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

About Microfluidics
The field of microfluidics evolved as engineers and scientists explored new avenues to
make use of the fabrication technologies developed by the microelectronics industry.
These technologies enabled complex micron and submicron structures to be
integrated with electronic systems and batch fabricated at low cost. Mechanical devices
fabricated using these technologies have become known as microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS), whilst fluidic devices are commonly referred to as microfluidic
systems or “lab-on-a-chip” devices. A proper description of these microsystems usually
requires multiple physical effects to be incorporated.

At the microscale different physical effects become important to those dominant at

macroscopic scales. Properties that scale with the volume of the system (such as inertia)
become comparatively less important than those that scale with the surface area of the
system (such as viscosity and surface tension). Fluid flow is therefore usually laminar
and chemical migration is often limited by diffusion. Electrokinetic effects become
important as the electric double layers present at interfaces in the system interact with
external applied fields. As systems are further miniaturized, the mean free path of the
fluid can become comparable to the size of the system and rarefaction effects become
important. At moderate Knudsen numbers (the Knudsen number is the ratio of the
mean free path to the system size), it is still possible to use the Navier-Stokes equations
to solve the flow; however, special slip boundary conditions are required.

16 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Research activity in microfluidics is changing medical-diagnostic processes such as
DNA analysis, and it is spurring the development of successful commercial products.

Tools to address the flow of fluids within porous media are also included as well as a
physics interface to model moderately rarefied gas flows (the Slip Flow interface).

About the Microfluidics Module

The Microfluidics Module is a collection of tailored physics interfaces for the
simulation of microfluidic devices. It has a range of tools to address the specific
challenges of modeling micro- and nanoscale flows.

Physics interfaces that address laminar flow, multiphase flow, flow in porous media, and
moderately rarefied flow (the Slip Flow interface) are available. Enhanced capabilities
to treat chemical reactions between dilute species are also included. COMSOL
Multiphysics also has tools to model the transport and reactions of concentrated
species, but the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module is required for these physics
interfaces. In addition to the standard tools for modeling fluid flow, interfaces between
fluids can be modeled by the Level Set, Phase Field in Fluids, and Moving Mesh
interfaces, making it possible to model surface tension and multiphase flow at the
microscale.

The Microfluidics Module Application Library and supporting documentation explain

how to use the physics interfaces to model a range of microfluidic devices.

The Microfluidics Module Physics Interface Guide

The physics interfaces in the Microfluidics Module form a complete set of simulation
tools, which extends the functionality of the physics interfaces of the base package for
COMSOL Multiphysics. The details of the physics interfaces and study types for the
Microfluidics Module are listed in the table. The functionality of the COMSOL
Multiphysics base package is given in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

ABOUT THE MICROFLUIDICS MODULE | 17

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Chemical Species Transport

Transport of Diluted tds all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Species1
Transport of Diluted tds all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Species in Porous Media
Reacting Flow

Laminar Flow, Diluted — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Species1 axisymmetric

Fluid Flow

Single-Phase Flow

Creeping Flow spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Laminar Flow1 spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Potential Flow

Incompressible ipf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary

Potential Flow axisymmetric
Multiphase Flow

Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh

Laminar Two-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent

Flow, Moving Mesh axisymmetric
Two-Phase Flow, Level Set

Laminar Two-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Level Set axisymmetric initialization

18 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field

Laminar Two-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Phase Field axisymmetric initialization
Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field

Laminar, Three-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Phase Field axisymmetric initialization
Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

Brinkman Equations br 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Darcy’s Law dl all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Free and Porous Media fp 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Flow, Brinkman axisymmetric
Free and Porous Media — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Flow, Darcy axisymmetric
Fluid-Structure Interaction

Fluid–Solid Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; stationary, one

Fixed Geometry2 axisymmetric way; time dependent; time
dependent, one way
Fluid–Solid Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent; time
Two-Phase Flow, Phase axisymmetric dependent with phase
Field, Fixed Geometry2 initialization
Rarefied Flow

Slip Flow slpf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric

ABOUT THE MICROFLUIDICS MODULE | 19

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Mathematics

Moving Interface

Level Set ls all dimensions time dependent with phase

initialization
Level Set in Porous ls all dimensions time dependent with phase
Media initialization
Phase Field in Fluids pf all dimensions time dependent; time
dependent with phase
initialization
Ternary Phase Field terpf 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent
axisymmetric
1 This physics interface is included with the core COMSOL Multiphysics software but has
added functionality for this module.

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

The Microfluidics Module connects to COMSOL Multiphysics and other add-on
modules in the COMSOL Multiphysics product line. Table 1-1 summarizes the most
important microfluidics couplings and other common devices you can model.

The Microfluidics column lists transport phenomena that are key issues in, for
example, lab-on-a-chip type devices.

20 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
This list is only the tip of the iceberg — an overview of the most important applications
where you can use the Microfluidics Module. In your hands, the multiphysics
combinations and applications are unlimited.
TABLE 1-1: EXAMPLES OF COUPLED PHENOMENA AND DEVICES YOU CAN MODEL USING THE MICROFLUIDICS
MODULE.

MICROFLUIDICS

PHENOMENA/ Pressure-driven flow

COUPLING
Chemical Reactions in two-phase flow
Dielectrophoresis
Electroosmotic flow
Electrophoresis
Electrothermal flow
Electrowetting
Fluid-Structure interaction
Magnetophoresis
Mass transport using diffusion, migration, and convection
Slip Flow
DEVICES Lab-on-a-chip devices
Microfluidic channels
Microreactors
Micromixers
MEMS heat exchangers
Nonmechanical pumps and valves

The Microfluidics Module Study Capabilities by Physics Interface

Table 1-2 lists the Preset Studies available for each physics interface specific to this
module.

When using the axisymmetric interfaces, the horizontal axis represents the
r direction and the vertical axis the z direction. The geometry must be
created in the right half plane (that is, only for positive r).

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

ABOUT THE MICROFLUIDICS MODULE | 21

 TABLE 1-2: MICROFLUIDICS MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY.

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DEPENDENT PRESET

VARIABLES STUDIES*

TRANSIENT WITH INITIALIZATION

TIME DEPENDENT
STATIONARY
CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT

Transport of Diluted Species tds c √ √

Transport of Diluted Species in Porous tds c √ √
Media
FLUID FLOW>RAREFIED FLOW

Slip Flow slpf u, v, w, p, T √ √

FLUID FLOW>SINGLE-PHASE FLOW

Laminar Flow spf u, v, w, p √ √

Creeping Flow spf u, v, w, p √ √
Incompressible Potential Flow ipf φ √
FLUID FLOW>MULTIPHASE FLOW

Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set tpf u, v, w, p, φ √

Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field tpf u, v, w, p, φ, ψ √
Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh spf u, v, w, p √
Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field tfpf u, v, w, p, φ, η √
FLUID FLOW>POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW

Brinkman Equations br u, v, w, p √ √
Darcy’s Law dl p √ √
Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman fp u, v, w, p √ √
Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy - u, v, w, p √ √
MATHEMATICS

Level Set ls φ √
Phase Field in Fluids pf φ, ψ √

22 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
TABLE 1-2: MICROFLUIDICS MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY.

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DEPENDENT PRESET

VARIABLES STUDIES*

TRANSIENT WITH INITIALIZATION

TIME DEPENDENT
STATIONARY
Ternary Phase Field terpf φ, η √
Custom studies are also available based on the physics interface.

Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display similarities in COMSOL Multiphysics.

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for

links to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

ABOUT THE MICROFLUIDICS MODULE | 23

 The Liquids and Gases Materials Database
The Microfluidics Module includes an additional Liquids and Gases material database
with temperature-dependent fluid dynamic and thermal properties.

For detailed information about materials and the Liquids and Gases
Material Library, see Materials in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of online resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the Application Libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions on how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the electronic
Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click
to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then

24 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder, click a node

or window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder, click a node or window and then
press F1.
• In the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• In the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW

Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or application. The models and
applications are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH-files that you can open
for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems
are available.

ABOUT THE MICROFLUIDICS MODULE | 25

 Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at info@[Link].

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
support@[Link]. An automatic notification and a case number will be sent to you
by email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information,
and other resources by registering for a COMSOL Access account.

COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES

COMSOL website [Link]

Contact COMSOL [Link]/contact
COMSOL Access [Link]/access
Support Center [Link]/support
Product Download [Link]/product-download
Product Updates [Link]/product-update
COMSOL Blog [Link]/blogs
Discussion Forum [Link]/forum
Events [Link]/events
COMSOL Application Gallery [Link]/models
COMSOL Video Gallery [Link]/videos
Support Knowledge Base [Link]/support/knowledgebase

26 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Overview of the User’s Guide
The Microfluidics Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling microfluidic
systems using COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this
module. Instructions how to use COMSOL Multiphysics in general are included with
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.

TABLE OF CONTENTS, GLOSSARY, AND INDEX

To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Glossary, and Index.

MODELING IN MICROFLUIDICS
The Microfluidic Modeling chapter familiarizes you with modeling procedures useful
when working with this module. Topics include Physics and Scaling in Microfluidics,
Dimensionless Numbers in Microfluidics, Modeling Microfluidic Fluid Flows,
Modeling Coupled Phenomena in Microfluidics, and Modeling Rarefied Gas Flows.

THE FLUID FLOW BRANCH INTERFACES

There are several fluid flow interfaces available. The various types of momentum
transport that you can simulate include laminar and creeping flow, multiphase
two-phase flow, and flow in porous media. Every section describes the applicable
physics interfaces in detail and concludes with the underlying interface theory.

Single-Phase Flow
Single-Phase Flow Interfaces chapter describes the Laminar Flow, Creeping Flow and
Incompressible Potential Flow interfaces.

Multiphase Flow Two-Phase Flow

Multiphase Flow, Two-Phase Flow Interfaces chapter describes the Laminar
Two-Phase Flow Level Set and Phase Field interfaces, as well as the Laminar
Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field and the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh
interface. Some multiphase flow is described using the Phase Field in Fluids, Level Set,
and Ternary Phase Field interfaces found under Mathematics, Moving Interfaces

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 27

 branch. In this module, these physics are already integrated into the relevant physics
interfaces.

Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

Porous Media Flow Interfaces chapter describes the Darcy’s Law, Brinkman
Equations, and Free and Porous Media Flow interfaces.

Rarefied Flow
Rarefied Flow Interface chapter describes the Slip Flow interface, including the
underlying theory.

THE CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT BRANCH INTERFACES

The transport and conversion of material is denoted as chemical species transport.
Chemical Species Transport Interfaces chapter describes the Transport of Diluted
Species and the Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media as well as the underlying
theory.

28 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Microfluidic Modeling

This chapter gives an overview of the physics interfaces available for modeling
microfluidic flows and provides guidance on choosing the appropriate physics
interface for a specific problem.

In this chapter:

• Physics and Scaling in Microfluidics

• Dimensionless Numbers in Microfluidics
• Modeling Microfluidic Fluid Flows
• Modeling Coupled Phenomena in Microfluidics
• Modeling Rarefied Gas Flows

29
 Physics and Scaling in Microfluidics
Microfluidic flows occur on length scales that are orders of magnitude smaller than
macroscopic flows. Manipulation of fluids at the microscale has a number of
advantages — typically microfluidic systems are smaller, operate faster, and require less
fluid than their macroscopic equivalents. Energy inputs and outputs are also easier to
control (for example, heat generated in a chemical reaction) because the
surface-to-area volume ratio of the system is much greater than that of a macroscopic
system.

In general, as the length scale (L) of the fluid flow is reduced, properties that scale with
the surface area of the system become comparatively more important than those that
scale with the volume of the flow (see Table 2-1). This is apparent in the fluid flow
itself as the viscous forces, which are generated by shear over the isovelocity surfaces
(scaling as L2), dominate over the inertial forces (which scale volumetrically as L3).
The Reynolds number (Re), which characterizes the ratio of these two forces, is
typically low, so the flow is laminar. In many cases the creeping (Stokes) flow regime
applies ( Re « 1 ). The section Single-Phase Flow describes microfluidic fluid flows in
greater detail.

When multiple phases are present surface tension effects become important relative to
gravity and inertia at small length scales. The Laplace pressure, capillary force, and
Marangoni forces all scale as 1/L. The section Multiphase Flow gives more
information on modeling flows involving several phases.

Flow through porous media can also occur on microscale geometries. Because the
permeability of a porous media scales as L2 (where L is the average pore radius) the
flow is often friction dominated when the pore size is in the micron range and Darcy’s
law can be used. For intermediate flows this module also provides a physics interface
to model flows where Brinkman equation is appropriate. For more information see
Porous Media Flow.

At the microscale, a range of electrohydrodynamic effects can be used to influence the

fluid flow. The electric field strength for a given applied voltage scales as 1/L, making
it easier to apply relatively large fields to the fluid with moderate voltages. In
electroosmosis the uncompensated ions in the charged electric double layer (EDL)
present on the fluid surfaces are moved by an electric field, causing a net fluid flow.
Electrophoretic and dielectrophoretic forces on charged or polarized particles in the
fluid can be used to induce particle motion, as can diamagnetic forces in the case of

30 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

magnetophoresis. The manipulation of contact angles by the electrowetting
phenomena is also easy in microscale devices. The section Electrohydrodynamics
explains how to model these phenomena in detail.
TABLE 2-1: SCALING OF VARIOUS PHYSICAL PHENOMENA WITH LENGTH (L) AND THE CONSEQUENCES FOR
MICROFLUIDIC DEVICES.

PROPERTY LENGTH CONSEQUENCES

SCALING

Volume L3 Surface related properties increase in

Area L2 importance relative to volumetric
properties, Surface area to volume ratios are
high.
Inertial Forces L3 Viscosity dominates over inertia, flow is
Viscous Forces L2 laminar or creeping. Absence of convection
makes mixing difficult.
Laplace Pressure L−1 Surface tension effects become dominant in
Capillary Force L−1 two phase flows.

Permeability of Porous L2 Darcy’s law usually applies.

media
Diffusion Time Scale L2 Diffusive mixing possible (although still much
slower than convection).
Electric Field (at constant L−1 Possibility of using a range of electrokinetic
applied voltage) effects to drive the flow.
Knudsen Number L−1 Microscale gas flows are usually rarefied.

Laminar flows make mixing particularly difficult, so mass transport is often diffusion
limited. The diffusion time scales as L2, but even in microfluidic systems diffusion is
often a slow process. This has implications for chemical transport and hence reactions
within microfluidic systems. Chemical Transport and Reactions describes how to
model diffusion-based transport and chemical reactions in microfluidics.

As the length scale of the flow becomes comparable to intermolecular length scale,
more complex kinetic effects become important. For gases the ratio of the molecular
mean free path to the flow geometry size is given by the Knudsen number (Kn).
Clearly, Kn scales as 1/L. For Kn < 0.01, fluid flow is usually well described by the
Navier–Stokes equations with no-slip boundary conditions. In the slip flow regime
(0.01 < Kn < 0.1) appropriate slip boundary conditions can be used with the
Navier-Stokes equations to describe the flow away from the boundary (see Slip Flow).
At Knudsen numbers above 0.1 a fully kinetic approach is required. Flows in this
regime can be modeled using tools from the Molecular Flow Module.

PHYSICS AND SCALING IN MICROFLUIDICS | 31

 The next section describes the importance of Dimensionless Numbers in Microfluidics,
which are frequently used in transport equations.

The Free Molecular Flow and Transitional Flow interfaces are available in
the Molecular Flow Module.

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

32 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

Dimensionless Numbers in
M i c r o f lui di c s
Information about the dominant physics in a microfluidics problem is contained in
many of the dimensionless numbers that are used to characterize the flow. When using
the finite element method, dimensionless numbers defined on the element or “cell”
level can contain important information about the numerical stability of the problem
(the term “cell” is carried over from the finite volume method in this context). This
section includes information about the dimensionless numbers that are relevant to
microfluidic flows.

In this section:

• Dimensionless Numbers Important for Solver Stability

• Other Dimensionless Numbers

Dimensionless Numbers Important for Solver Stability

When solving a microfluidics problem numerically there are two critical dimensionless
numbers to consider in terms of solver stability. These numbers are:

• The Reynolds number (Re)

• The Peclet number (Pe)

Each of these numbers is defined in Table 2-2. Both the Reynolds number and the
Peclet number are associated with the relative importance of convective terms in the
corresponding partial differential equation. The Peclet number describes the
importance of convection in relation to diffusion (for either heat or mass transfer), and
the Reynolds number describes the importance of the “convective” inertia term in
relation to viscosity in the Navier–Stokes equations themselves.

Both the Reynolds number and the Peclet number can be defined on the “cell” or
element level. As they are defined in COMSOL Multiphysics numerical instabilities can
arise when the cell Reynolds or Peclet number is greater than one. These instabilities
are usually manifested as spurious oscillations in the solution. Taking the Peclet

DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS IN MICROFLUIDICS | 33

 number as an example, oscillations can occur when the cell Peclet number is greater
than one in the following circumstances:

• A Dirichlet boundary condition can lead to a solution containing a steep gradient

near the boundary, forming a boundary layer. If the mesh cannot resolve the
boundary layer, this creates a local disturbance.
• A space-dependent initial condition that the mesh does not resolve can cause a local
initial disturbance that propagates through the computational domain.
• A small initial diffusion term close to a nonconstant source term or a nonconstant
Dirichlet boundary condition can result in a local disturbance.

In theory the grid can be refined to bring the cell Reynolds or Peclet number below
one, although this is often impractical for many problems. Several stabilization
techniques are included, which enable problems with larger cell Reynolds or Peclet
numbers to be solved. At the crudest level additional numerical diffusion can be added
to the problem to improve its stability. This is achieved by selecting Isotropic Diffusion
under Inconsistent Stabilization for any physics interface.

The stabilization options are visible when the Show More Options button
( ) is clicked and Stabilization is selected in the Show More Options dialog
box.

This method is termed “inconsistent” as a solution to the problem without numerical

diffusion is not necessarily a solution to the problem with diffusion. COMSOL
Multiphysics also has consistent stabilization options. A consistent stabilization
technique reduces the numerical diffusion added to the problem as the solution
approaches the exact solution. Both streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion are
available. Streamline diffusion adds numerical diffusion along the direction of the flow
velocity (that is, the diffusion is parallel to the streamlines). Crosswind diffusion adds
diffusion in the direction orthogonal to the velocity.

Generally it is best to use consistent stabilization where possible. If convergence

problems are still encountered, inconsistent stabilization can be used with a parametric
or time-dependent solver that slowly eliminates this term.

• Selection Information and Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual
• Other Dimensionless Numbers

34 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

TABLE 2-2: IMPORTANT DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS RELATED TO THE STABILITY OF VARIOUS MICROFLUIDIC
PROBLEMS.

DIMENSIONLESS SYMBOL GLOBAL CELL NOTES

NUMBER DEFINITION DEFINITION

Re
Re = ρvL Re = ρvh
Reynolds c Ratio of inertial forces to
----------- ----------
number μ 2μ viscous forces.
Laminar flow applies:
[Link]
3
Re < 10

Creeping flow applies:

Re « 1

Stabilization required:
c
Re > 1
Peclet number Pe ρc p vL c ρc p vh Ratio of heat convection to
(Heat Flow) Pe = ----------------
- Pe = ---------------
- thermal diffusivity,
κ 2κ
α = κ ⁄ ( ρc p ) .
[Link]
Stabilization required:
c
Pe > 1
Peclet number Pe Ratio of concentration
Pe = vL
c vh-
(Mass ------- Pe = ------- convection to diffusion.
D 2D
Transport) Stabilization required:
c
Pe > 1
Symbol definitions: v is the characteristic velocity or cell velocity, r is the fluid density, L is the characteristic
length scale for the problem, μ is the fluid viscosity, h is the element size, cp is the heat capacity at constant
pressure, κ is the thermal conductivity, and D is the diffusion constant. For anisotropic diffusion or conduc-
tivity an appropriate average is computed. The variables names assume the default name spf.

Other Dimensionless Numbers

A number of other dimensionless numbers are useful for describing fluid flows on the
microscale. These numbers are summarized in Table 2-3.

DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS IN MICROFLUIDICS | 35

 TABLE 2-3: DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS USEFUL FOR CHARACTERIZING MICROFLUIDIC FLOWS.

DIMENSION LESS SYMBOL DEFINITION NOTES

NUMBER

Bond number/ Bo Ratio of surface tension forces to body

Bo  ρgL
2
Eötvös number Eo  = -------------- forces (usually gravity) for two-phase flow.
Eo  σ Density can refer to density difference
when considering buoyancy. At high Bond
numbers surface tension has a minimal
effect on the flow, ( Bo » 1 ), at low Bond
numbers, surface tension dominates
( Bo < 1 ).
Ca
Ca = μv
Capillary Ratio of viscous forces to surface tension
------
number σ for two phase flow. At low capillary
–5
numbers ( Ca < 10 ) flow in porous
media is dominated by surface tension.
Dukhin number Du σ Ratio of the surface conductivity
K-
Du = ------- contribution to the fluid bulk electrical
B
K conductivity contribution in electrokinetic
phenomena. For low Dukhin numbers
( Du « 1 ), surface conductivities can be
neglected when modeling electrokinetic
flows.
Knudsen Kn λ- Ratio of the gas mean free path to the
number Kn = --- characteristic length scale. Continuum flow
L
occurs when Kn<0.01, slip flow occurs in
the range 0.01<Kn<0.1, transitional flow
occurs in the range 0.1<Kn<10 and Free
Molecular Flow occurs when Kn>10. For
more details see Modeling Rarefied Gas
Flows.
Mach number Ma v Ratio of the convective speed to the speed
Ma = --- of sound in the medium. The Laminar Flow
a
interface in the Microfluidics Module can
handle compressible flows with Ma < 0.3 .
For higher Mach number flows the CFD
Module is required.
Symbol definitions: ρ is the fluid density, g is the body force acceleration (usually the acceleration
due to gravity), L is the characteristic length scale for the problem, σ is the surface tension coef-
ficient, μ is the fluid viscosity, v is the characteristic velocity, Kσ is the surface conductivity, KB is
the bulk conductivity, λ is the mean free path, α is the thermal diffusivity (α=κ/(ρcp)), cp is the
heat capacity at constant pressure, κ is the thermal conductivity, and T is the absolute temperature
(ΔT is the characteristic temperature difference).

36 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

TABLE 2-3: DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS USEFUL FOR CHARACTERIZING MICROFLUIDIC FLOWS.

DIMENSION LESS SYMBOL DEFINITION NOTES

NUMBER

Marangoni Mg dσ LΔT Ratio of thermal surface tension forces to

Mg = -------- ------------
number dT μα viscous forces. In the low Marangoni
number range ( Mg « 1000 ) viscous forces
dominate over surface tension gradients.
Ohnesorge Oh μ Relates the inertial and surface tension
/Laplace Oh = --------------- forces to the viscous forces. Used to
La ρσL
/Surataman describe the breakup of liquid jets and
Su
numbers sheets: at low Ohnesorge and Reynolds
numbers the Rayleigh instability occurs, at
La  1 high Ohnesorge and Reynolds numbers
 = ----------2- atomization occurs.
Su  Oh
Weber number We 2 Ratio of inertial forces to surface tension
We = ρv L
------------- forces. For small Weber numbers
σ
( We « 1 ) surface tension dominates the
flow.
Symbol definitions: ρ is the fluid density, g is the body force acceleration (usually the acceleration
due to gravity), L is the characteristic length scale for the problem,σ σ is the surface tension coef-
B
ficient, μ is the fluid viscosity, v is the characteristic velocity, K is the surface conductivity, K is
the bulk conductivity, λ is the mean free path, α is the thermal diffusivity (α=κ/(ρcp)), cp is the
heat capacity at constant pressure, κ is the thermal conductivity, and T is the absolute temperature
(ΔT is the characteristic temperature difference).

DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS IN MICROFLUIDICS | 37

 Modeling Microfluidic Fluid Flows
This section describes the modeling of fluid flows with the Navier Stokes or Stokes
equations (the section Modeling Rarefied Gas Flows gives details on how to model
rarefied flows). The following topics are covered:

• Selecting the Right Physics Interface

• Single-Phase Flow
• Multiphase Flow
• Porous Media Flow
• The Relationship Between the Physics Interfaces

• Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual
• Modeling Rarefied Gas Flows

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

COMSOL Multiphysics has a range of physics interfaces to use for fluid flow in a
variety of circumstances. Often the selection of a particular physics interface implies
certain assumptions about the equations of flow. If it is known in advance which
assumptions are valid, then the appropriate physics interface can be added. However,
when the flow type is unclear from the outset, or if it is difficult to reach a solution
easily, starting with a simplified model and adding complexity subsequently is often a
good approach. Using this approach the results of a simulation are tested against the
underlying assumptions and against experimental results and the simulation can then
be refined if necessary. For complex models it is often beneficial to take this approach
even when the fluid flow is well characterized from the outset because a model with
simplifying assumptions can be easier to solve initially. The solution process can then
be fine-tuned for the more complex problem. Typically The Laminar Flow Interface is
a good starting point for many problems.

The following sections describe the options available for simulating Single-Phase Flow,
Multiphase Flow, and Porous Media Flow.

38 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

Single-Phase Flow
The Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface includes
the Laminar and Creeping Flow interfaces.

The Laminar Flow Interface ( ) is used primarily to model slow-moving flow in

environments without sudden changes in geometry, material distribution, or
temperature. The Navier-Stokes equations are solved without a turbulence model.
Laminar flow typically occurs at Reynolds numbers less than 1000. By default the flow
is incompressible (see Figure 2-1).

The Creeping Flow Interface ( ) uses the same equations as the Laminar Flow
interface with the additional assumption that the contribution of the inertia term is
negligible. This is often referred to as Stokes flow and is appropriate for use when
viscous flow is dominant, which is often the case in microfluidics applications.
Creeping flow applies when the Reynolds number is much less than one. A creeping
flow problem is significantly simpler to solve than a laminar flow problem — so it is
best to make this assumption explicitly if it applies. By default the flow is
incompressible (see below).

By selecting the Neglect Inertial Form (Stokes Flow) check box, in the
Settings window for Laminar Flow quickly convert a Laminar Flow
interface into a Creeping Flow interface.

For both physics interfaces several additional options are available.

SHALLOW CHANNEL APPROXIMATION

Often you might want to simplify long, narrow channels by modeling them in 2D. The
Use Shallow Channel Approximation option is useful as it includes a drag term to
approximate the added affects given by thinness of the gap between one set of
boundaries in comparison to the others.

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
For compressible flow it is important that the density and any mass balances are well
defined throughout the domain. Choosing to model incompressible flow simplifies the
equations to be solved and decreases solution times. Most gas flows should be modeled
as compressible flows; however, liquid flows can usually be treated as incompressible.

MODELING MICROFLUIDIC FLUID FLOWS | 39

 INCLUDE GRAVITY
Gravity can be included when required. It can be neglected in models dominated by
other effects.

NON-NEWTONIAN FLOW
The physics interfaces also allow for easy definition of non-Newtonian fluid flow
through access to the dynamic viscosity in the Navier–Stokes equations. The fluid can
be modeled using the Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–
Bulkley–Papanastasiou, and Casson–Papanastasiou models or by means of any
expression that describes the dynamic viscosity appropriately. To use other
non-Newtonian models or model viscoelastic flow, the Polymer Flow Module is
recommended in addition to the Microfluidics Module. The different non-Newtonian
models can be defined directly in the physics, or using the corresponding Material
Model nodes.

Both physics interfaces also include a feature to compute a laminar velocity profile at
arbitrarily shaped inlets and outlets, which makes models much easier to set up.

40 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

Figure 2-1: The Settings window for Laminar Flow. Model incompressible or compressible
(Ma<0.3) flow, and Stokes flow. Combinations are also possible.

Multiphase Flow
The Multiphase Flow branch ( ) enables the modeling of multiphase flows. These
physics interfaces are included:

• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface ( ) (available under the
Two-Phase Flow, Level Set branch ( )).
• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface ( ) (available under the
Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch ( )).

MODELING MICROFLUIDIC FLUID FLOWS | 41

 • The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface ( ) (available under the
Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch( ))
• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface ( ) (available under the
Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh branch ( )).
The Two-Phase Flow interfaces can add surface tension forces (including the
Marangoni effect) at the two fluid interface(s). A library of surface tension coefficients
between some common substances is available.

For problems involving topological changes (for example, jet breakup), use either the
Level Set or Phase Field interfaces. These techniques use an auxiliary function (the
level set and phase field functions, respectively) to track the location of the interface,
which is necessarily diffuse. The Level Set interface does not include surface tension
force per default, and is recommended for use in larger scale problems with larger
velocities, or when the effects of the gradient of the surface tension coefficient are
relevant. The interface also includes a domain feature for porous domains. The phase
field method is physically motivated and is usually more numerically stable than the
level set method. It is can also be extended to more phases and is compatible with
fluid-structure interactions.

The moving mesh method represents the interface as a boundary condition along a
line or surface in the geometry. Because the physical thickness of phase boundaries is
usually very small, for most practical meshes The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving
Mesh Interface describes the two-phase boundary the most accurately. However, it
cannot accommodate topological changes in the boundary.

For all the Two and Three-Phase Flow interfaces, compressible flow is possible to
model at speeds of less than 0.3 Mach. You can also choose to model incompressible
flow by simplifying the equations to be solved. Stokes’ law is also an option.

In each physics interface, the density and viscosity are specified for both fluids. You can
easily use non-Newtonian models for any of the fluids, based on the Power law,
Carreau, Bingham-Papanastasiou, Herschel-Bulkley-Papanastasiou, and
Casson-Papanastasiou models, or using an arbitrary user-defined expression.

It is often advantageous to use more than one of these techniques to solve a problem
— for example, a level set model for jet breakup could be checked prior to breakup by

42 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

a moving mesh model to ensure that the surface tension is captured accurately by the
diffuse interface.

Under the Mathematics>Moving Interface branch ( ) when adding an

interface, The Level Set Interface ( ), The Level Set in Porous Media
Interface ( ), The Phase Field in Fluids Interface ( ), and The
Ternary Phase Field Interface ( ) are available in a form uncoupled
with the equations of flow. These interfaces can be used to model
phenomena in which other factors dominate over the fluid flow, such as
some forms of phase separation.

Porous Media Flow

The Porous Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ) has the physics interfaces to model
flow in porous media. The flow can be modeled by Darcy’s Law or the Brinkman
Equations interfaces. Additionally the flow in a porous medium can be combined with
laminar free flow in the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman interface or the Free
and Porous Media Flow, Darcy interface.

DARCY’S LAW
The Darcy’s Law Interface ( ) is used to model fluid movement through interstices
in a porous medium in the case where the fluid viscosity dominates over its inertia.
Together with the continuity equation and the equation of state for the pore fluid (or
gas) Darcy’s law is used to model low velocity flows, for which the pressure gradient is
the dominant driving force (typically when the Reynolds number of the flow is less
than one). The penetration of reacting gases in a tight catalytic layer, such as a washcoat
or membrane, is an example in which Darcy’s law applies. Often Darcy’s law is
applicable for microfluidic applications, as it is appropriate for the limit of small pore
size.

BRINKMAN EQUATIONS
The Brinkman Equations Interface ( ) is used in situations where the fluid inertia,
or other effects such as body forces, can no longer be neglected. Fluid penetration of
filters and packed beds are applications for this physics interface. The Brinkman
equations are similar in form to the Navier Stokes equations. Figure 2-2 shows the
Settings window for the Brinkman Equations interface.

MODELING MICROFLUIDIC FLUID FLOWS | 43

 For low Reynolds number flows in which other terms in the Brinkman equations are
necessary the Neglect Inertial Term (Stokes–Brinkman Flow) feature can be selected
to neglect the inertial term in the equations (this is selected by default). The flow is
treated as incompressible by default, but compressible flow can be enabled by selecting
Compressible Flow (Ma<0.3). When using the compressible flow feature the fluid density
must be defined as a function of the local pressure.

Figure 2-2: The Settings window for Brinkman Equations. Model incompressible or
compressible (Ma<0.3) flow, and Stokes flow. Other combinations are also possible.

FREE AND POROUS MEDIA

The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface ( ) has predefined couplings
between the Brinkman Equations interface and the Laminar Flow interface. Porous

44 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

regions of the models are included by adding a Porous Medium node with the
appropriate selections to the model. The default Fluid Properties node can then be
used to define regions of free laminar flow. This physics interface has all the options
from both The Laminar Flow Interface and The Brinkman Equations Interface. An
example application area for this physics interface would be a catalytic converter.

It should be noted that if the porous medium is large in comparison to the free
channel, and the results in the region of the interface are not of interest, then it is
possible to couple a Laminar Flow interface to the Darcy’s Law interface using The
Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface ( ). This makes the model
computationally cheaper.

The Relationship Between the Physics Interfaces

Several of the physics interfaces vary only by one or two default settings (see Table 2-4
and Table 2-5) in the Physical Model section, which are selected either from a check box
or list. For the Single-Phase Flow branch, the Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow
interfaces have the same Name (spf), and this is the same for two of the Two-Phase
Flow interfaces. In the Porous Media Flow branch the Free and Porous Media Flow,
Brinkman interface combines a Laminar Flow interface with a Brinkman Equations
interface (see Table 2-6), and the Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy interface
combines a Laminar Flow interface with Darcy’s Law interface.
TABLE 2-4: THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW PHYSICAL MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS.

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME COMPRESSIBILITY NEGLECT INERTIAL TERM

LABEL (STOKES FLOW)

Laminar Flow spf Compressible None

flow (Ma<0.3)
Creeping Flow spf Compressible Stokes Flow
flow (Ma<0.3)
TABLE 2-5: TWO-PHASE FLOW PHYSICAL MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS.

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME MULTIPHASE COMPRESSIBILITY NEGLECT

LABEL FLOW MODEL INERTIAL TERM
(STOKES FLOW)

Laminar, Two-Phase tpf Two phase flow, Incompressible None

Flow, Level Set level set flow
Laminar, Two-Phase tpf Two phase flow, Incompressible None
Flow, Phase Field phase field flow

MODELING MICROFLUIDIC FLUID FLOWS | 45

 TABLE 2-5: TWO-PHASE FLOW PHYSICAL MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS.

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME MULTIPHASE COMPRESSIBILITY NEGLECT

LABEL FLOW MODEL INERTIAL TERM
(STOKES FLOW)

Laminar, Three-Phase tfpf Three phase Incompressible None

Flow, Phase Field flow, phase field flow
Laminar, Two-Phase spf not applicable Incompressible None
Flow, Moving Mesh flow
TABLE 2-6: THE POROUS MEDIA FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS.

PHYSICS NAME COMPRESSIBILITY NEGLECT INERTIAL PORE SIZE

INTERFACE LABEL TERM

Darcy's Law dl n/a n/a Low porosity and

low permeability,
slow flow
Brinkman br Incompressible Yes - High permeability
Equations flow Stokes-Brinkman and porosity, faster
flow
Free and Porous fp Incompressible Not selected High permeability
Media Flow, flow and porosity, fast
Brinkman flow
Free and Porous nsd Incompressible/ Not selected Low porosity and
Media Flow, Compressible low permeability,
Darcy slow flow

46 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

Modeling Coupled Phenomena in
M i c r o f lui di c s
In this section:

• Chemical Transport and Reactions

• Electrohydrodynamics
• Heat Transfer
• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

See The AC/DC Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for details, including theory, about The Electrostatics Interface
and The Magnetic Fields Interface, which are included with the basic
COMSOL Multiphysics license and discussed in this section.

Chemical Transport and Reactions

In the Microfluidics Module, The Transport of Diluted Species Interface ( ) and
The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface ( ) are available for
modeling the transport of chemical species and ions. The assumption in these physics
interfaces is that one component, a solvent, is present in excess (typically more than 90
mol%). This means that the mixture properties, such as density and viscosity, are
independent of concentration. To model concentrated species, the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module is recommended in addition to the Microfluidics Module.

By default the Transport of Diluted Species interface accounts for the diffusion of
species by Fick’s law and convection due to bulk fluid flow (see Figure 2-3). The fluid
velocity field can be coupled from another physics interface (for example, Laminar
Flow) by means of a domain level model input. The migration of ionic species in an
electric field can also be added by selecting the appropriate check box in the Settings
window for the physics interface — in this case an additional Electrostatics interface is
usually coupled into the problem by an additional model input.

Chemical reactions can be added to the physics interface at the domain level by the
Reactions node, which requires the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module. This
allows you to specify expressions for the consumption or production of species in terms

MODELING COUPLED PHENOMENA IN MICROFLUIDICS | 47

 of their concentration, the concentration of other species, and other model parameters,
such as the temperature.

Figure 2-3: The Settings window for Transport of Diluted Species, with Convection selected
as the Transport Mechanism by default.

STABILIZATION SETTINGS FOR DILUTED SPECIES TRANSPORT

For some laminar flow problems it can be useful to change the settings for the dilute
species transport stabilization. To do this, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box. A Consistent stabilization
section is now visible in the Transport of Diluted species settings, and in some cases it
can be desirable to change the settings for the crosswind diffusion. By default the
Crosswind diffusion type is set to Do Carmo and Galeão. This type of crosswind diffusion
reduces undershoot and overshoot to a minimum but can in rare cases give equations
systems that are difficult to fully converge. The alternative option, Codina is less
diffusive and so should be used if the species transport is highly convective, or if
convergence problems occur. This option can result in more undershoot and
overshoot and is also less effective for anisotropic meshes.

For both consistent stabilization methods, the Equation residual can also be changed.
Approximate residual is the default setting and it means that derivatives of the diffusion

48 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

tensor components are neglected. This setting is usually accurate enough and is faster
to compute. If required, select Full residual instead.

Electrohydrodynamics
Electrohydrodynamics is a general term describing phenomena that involve the
interaction between solid surfaces, ionic solutions, and applied electric and magnetic
fields. Electrohydrodynamics is frequently employed in microfluidic devices to
manipulate fluids and move particles for sample handling and chemical separation.

Electrokinetics refers to a range of fluid flow phenomena involving electric fields.

These include electroosmosis, electrothermal effects, electrophoresis, and
dielectrophoresis. Electroosmosis describes the motion of fluids induced by the forces
on the charged EDLs at the surfaces of the fluid. Electrothermal effects occur in a
conductive fluid where the temperature is modified by Joule heating from an AC
electric field. This creates variations in conductivity and permittivity and thus Coulomb
and dielectric body forces. Electrophoresis and dielectrophoresis describe the motion of
charged and polarized particles in a nonuniform AC or DC applied field.

Magnetohydrodynamics refers to fluid flow phenomena involving magnetic fields.

Magnetophoresis is the motion of diamagnetic particles in a nonuniform magnetic field
and is commonly used for magnetic bead separation.

Table 2-7 summarizes these categories. Although these examples describe specific
multiphysics couplings, COMSOL Multiphysics is not limited to these cases — for

MODELING COUPLED PHENOMENA IN MICROFLUIDICS | 49

 example, it is possible to include both magnetic and electric fields to simulate
electromagnetophoresis.
TABLE 2-7: ELECTROHYDRODYNAMIC PHENOMENA.

TYPE OF FIELD/FORCE DC AC

ELECTRIC FIELD (ELECTROKINETICS)

Surface force on fluid Electroosmosis AC electroosmosis

Force on suspended particles Electrophoresis / AC Electrophoresis
Dielectrophoresis /AC
Dielectrophoresis
Body force on fluid - Electrothermal
Magnetic Field
Force on suspended particles Magnetophoresis -

See The AC/DC Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for details, including theory, about The Electrostatics Interface
and The Magnetic Fields Interface, which are included with the basic
COMSOL license and discussed in this section.

ELECTROOSMOSIS
When a polar liquid (such as water) and a solid surface (such as glass or a
polymer-based substrate) come into contact, charge transfer occurs between the
surface and the electrolytic solution. At finite temperature the charges on the surface
are not screened perfectly by the ions in the liquid and a finite thickness electric double
layer (EDL) or Debye layer develops. Electroosmosis is the process by which motion
is induced in a liquid due to the body force acting on the EDL in an electric field.

A complete model of the system includes the space charge layer explicitly. The electric
potential is the solution of a nonlinear partial differential equation, the Poisson–
Boltzmann equation, which can be solved by coupling an Electrostatics interface to a
Transport of Diluted Species interface (with migration enabled) for the ion species.
The software then computes the forces on the fluid and a further coupled Laminar
Flow or Creeping Flow interface is used to compute the overall fluid flow. In practice
this approach is only possible for nanoscale channels — as typically the EDL thickness
is 1–10 nm.

The Poisson–Boltzmann equation is sometimes linearized — this is referred to as the

Debye–Hückel approximation which applies when zeζ « k B T , where ζ is the potential
at the surface of the moving volume of fluid (the zeta potential). At room temperature

50 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

this corresponds to the limit ζ « 26 mV. Note that there is a layer of immobile ions
trapped adjacent to the surface (the Stern layer, which is of order one hydrated ion
radius thick) with an associated volume of immobile fluid; this means that ζ is not
simply the wall potential. ζ is usually determined experimentally from electroosmotic
flow measurements.

The Poisson–Boltzmann equation has a characteristic length scale — the Debye

length, λD:

εk B T
λD = --------------------
-
2 2
2z e c ∞

where kB is Boltzmann’s constant, T is the temperature, z is the ion’s valence number,

e is the electron charge, and c∞ is the ion’s molar concentration in the bulk solution.
When the Debye length is small compared to the channel thickness, the electroosmotic
flow velocity can be modeled by the Helmholtz–Smoluchowski equation:

εζ
u eo = ----- E
μ

where E is the applied electric field and μ is the liquid’s dynamic viscosity. From this
equation, the electroosmotic mobility is naturally defined as:

μ eo = εζ
----- (2-1)
μ

The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow interfaces include a wall boundary condition
option for an Electroosmotic Velocity boundary condition. This enables you to specify
the external electric field (which can be manually specified or coupled from an
Electrostatics interface) and the electroosmotic mobility to define an electroosmotic
flow.

Further details of the theory of electroosmosis can be found in Ref. 1 and Ref. 2.

AC ELECTROOSMOSIS
Because an alternating electric field does not generate a net force on the EDL, AC
electroosmosis is not used for fluid transport in microfluidics. However, the
back-and-forth movements an AC field generates are useful for mixing purposes. To
model AC electroosmotic flow when the frequency of the electric field is sufficiently
low, the same approaches can be taken as for DC electroosmosis. An Electrostatics
interface should still be used to calculate the electric field, but when this is coupled into
other physics interfaces, the AC dependence should be explicitly added using an

MODELING COUPLED PHENOMENA IN MICROFLUIDICS | 51

 expression. With increasing frequency, AC electroosmosis becomes less important so
this approach is valid for most practical examples.

Electroosmotic Micromixer: Application Library path

Microfluidics_Module/Micromixers/electroosmotic_mixer

ELECTROPHORESIS
Electrophoresis describes the motion of charged particles or molecules suspended in a
liquid due to an applied electric field.

In COMSOL Multiphysics it is easy to calculate the electrophoretic velocity for

spherical particles for the cases when the Debye length is much smaller or much larger
than the particle size. If the surface conductivity of the particle can be neglected (this
is sometimes referred to as the limit or small Dukhin number) the electrophoretic
velocity (the particle velocity relative to the bulk flow) is given by:

u ep = --- μ eo f  ------- E
2 a
3 λD

where a is the radius of the particle, E is the electric field, and f(a/λD) is known as
Henry’s function (note that f(a/λD) is often written as f(κa) where κ=1/λD). Henry’s
function takes the value of 1 in the limiting case where a « λ D (often known as the
Hückel approximation) and 3/2 in the case where a » λ D (this is equivalent to
Equation 2-1 and is referred to as the Smoluchowski approximation). Note that if λD
is large compared to the fluid volume, the charge is effectively unscreened and the
electric force is simply that due to the charge on the molecule. The following result is
obtained from the force balance between the Stokes drag and the electric force for an
unscreened charged particle:

q
u ep = -------------- E
6πμa

where q is the charge on the molecule and μ is the fluid viscosity. Further details of the
theory of electroosmosis can be found in Ref. 2.

These velocity fields can be computed directly from an electric field calculated by the
Electrostatics interface. If necessary the velocity can be added to the flow velocity field
to compute the net particle velocity.

52 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

DIELECTROPHORESIS
Dielectrophoresis (DEP) describes the motion of polarizable particles suspended in a
fluid with an applied nonuniform electric field. The electric field induces a dipole
moment on the particles, which in turn produces a net force. In the following
discussion the general case of AC electrophoresis is treated, which is more commonly
used for practical reasons (see Ref. 1 for further details).

For a DC field these results can be applied if Erms=E is used.

The time-dependent dielectrophoretic force acting on a particle in an applied field is

given by (Ref. 1):

3
F ( t ) = 2πε m a K ( ε m ,ε p )∇ ( E ( t ) ⋅ E ( t ) ) (2-2)
DEP

where εm and εp are the complex permittivities of the medium and the particle
respectively, a is the radius of the particle’s equivalent homogeneous sphere and
K(εm,εp) is the Clausius–Mossotti function. The complex permittivity, ε*, for an
isotropic homogeneous dielectric is

σ
ε∗ = ε – i ----
ω

where ε is the electric permittivity, σ is the electrical conductivity, and ω is the angular
field frequency. The Clausius–Mossotti function is given by:

εp – εm
K ( ε m, ε p ) = ---------------------
-
ε p + 2ε m

which depends on the particle’s complex permittivity, εp, and that of the medium, εm.

Taking the time average of Equation 2-2 gives the time-averaged force:

F ( t ) = 2πε m r 0 Re ( K ( ε m, ε p ) )∇ ( E rms ⋅ E rms )

DEP

By balancing this force with the Stokes drag force the dielectrophoretic velocity is
obtained:

ε m r 0 Re ( K ( ε m, ε p ) )∇ ( E rms ⋅ E rms )
u = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
DEP 3μ

MODELING COUPLED PHENOMENA IN MICROFLUIDICS | 53

 where μ is the dynamic viscosity.

The value of Erms can be computed from an Electrostatics interface in which the root
mean square (RMS) voltages are applied as boundary conditions. The gradient of the
field can then be computed term by term from the spatial derivatives of an expression
for the dot product of the electric field with itself. Finally the dielectrophoretic velocity
term can be added to the velocity field to compute the particle velocity field.

MAGNETOPHORESIS
Particles with an induced or permanent magnetization can be moved relative to a fluid
flow by the application of an external, inhomogeneous magnetic field. This process is
analogous to dielectrophoresis and is usually termed magnetophoresis. In the case of
a nonconducting particle, in a static, irrotational external applied field, Hext, the
magnetophoretic force is given by (Ref. 1):

3
F MAP = 2πμ m K ( μ m, μ p )a ∇( H ext ⋅ H ext )

where μm and μp are the permeabilities of the medium and the particle respectively
(usually μm =μ0), a is the radius of the particle’s equivalent homogeneous sphere and
K(μm,μp) is the Clausius–Mossotti function. Note that the external magnetic field,
Hext, should be distinguished from the local field H which includes contributions from
the particle itself. In this case the Clausius–Mossotti function is given by:

μp – μm
K ( μ m, μ p ) = -----------------------
-
μ p + 2μ m

By balancing this force with the Stokes drag force the magnetophoretic velocity is
obtained:

μ m r 0 K ( μ m, μ p )∇ ( H ext ⋅ H ext )
u = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
MAP 3μ

where μ is the dynamic viscosity.

The value of Hext can be computed from a Magnetic Fields or a Magnetic Fields, No
Currents interface.

The Magnetic Fields, No Currents interface requires the AC/DC

Module.

54 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

 The Magnetic Fields Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

The gradient of the field can then be computed term by term from the spatial
derivatives of an expression for the dot product of the magnetic field with itself. Finally
the magnetophoretic velocity term can be added to the velocity field to compute the
particle velocity field.

ELECTROTHERMALLY-DRIVEN FLOW
Electrothermal body forces arise from electrically generated, nonuniform Joule
heating, which creates variations in conductivity and permittivity and thus Coulomb
and dielectric body forces. It is possible to determine the resulting fluid motion by
solving the Navier–Stokes equations with an additional electrothermal body force
term. The electric field is once again assumed to be quasistatic and can be coupled in
from an Electrostatics interface.

The electrothermal force is given by:

εE
F = – ---  ∇σ
-------- + ∇ε
------- ⋅ E -----------------------2- + --- E ∇ε
1 1 2
2  σ ε 1 + ( ωτ ) 2

where σ is the conductivity, ε is the fluid’s permittivity, ω is the angular frequency of

the electric field, and τ = ε/σ is the fluid’s charge-relaxation time. The electric-field
vector E contains the amplitude and direction of the AC electric field but not its
instantaneous value.

Because of the heating, ε and σ are temperature dependent, and their gradients are
functions of the temperature gradient: ∇ε = (∂ε/∂T)∇T and ∇σ = (∂σ/∂T)∇T. With
water, for example, the relative change rates for the permittivity and the conductivity
are (1/ε)(∂ε/∂T) = −0.004 1/K and (1/σ)(∂σ/∂T) = 0.02 1/K, respectively.

ELECTROWETTING
The contact angle of a two-fluid interface with a solid surface is determined by the
balance of the forces at the contact point. The equilibrium contact angle, θ0, is given
by Young’s equation:

γ s1 + σ 12 cos θ 0 = γ s2

MODELING COUPLED PHENOMENA IN MICROFLUIDICS | 55

 Here γs1 is the surface energy per unit area between fluid 1 and the solid surface, γs2
is the surface energy per unit area between fluid 2 and the solid surface, and σ12 is the
surface tension at the interface between the two fluids.

In electrowetting the balance of forces at the contact point is modified by the

application of a voltage between a conducting fluid and the solid surface. For many
applications the solid surface consists of a thin dielectric deposited onto a conducting
layer; this is often referred to as electrowetting on dielectric (EWOD). In this case, the
capacitance of the dielectric layer dominates over the double layer capacitance at the
solid-liquid interface (Ref. 3). The energy stored in the capacitor formed between the
conducting liquid and the conducting layer in the solid reduces the effective surface
energy of the liquid to which the voltage is applied. For the case when a voltage
difference occurs between fluid 1 and the conductor beyond the dielectric Young’s
equation is modified as follows:

2
γ s1 – εV
---------- + σ cos θ ew = γ s2
2d f 12

Here ε is the permittivity of the dielectric, V is the potential difference applied, and df
is the dielectric thickness. This equation can be rewritten as

2
εV -
cos θ ew = cos θ 0 + ----------------- (2-3)
2σ 12 d f

Electrowetting can therefore be used to modify the contact angle dynamically by

changing the applied voltage.

The EWOD applications can be modeled by using Equation 2-3 as an expression for
the contact angle. This can simply be entered as the value of the contact angle in the
Two-Phase Flow interface that is being used. Note that the software automatically
handles a time varying voltage in this expression.

For step-by-step instructions, see Electrowetting Lens: Application

Library path Microfluidics_Module/Two-Phase_Flow/electrowetting_lens.

Heat Transfer
It is often necessary to consider the effect of heat flow and temperature-dependent
material properties (such as the viscosity or the surface tension) in microfluidic systems.
The COMSOL Multiphysics base package includes physics interfaces for heat transfer

56 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

in incompressible fluids and solids. The Heat Transfer Module is required in addition
to this module to model heat flow in compressible fluids and to include viscous heating
terms. This section describes how to couple heat transfer to microfluidics models using
the functionality available in the COMSOL Multiphysics base package and the
Microfluidics Module.

The Heat Transfer interface includes the equations for heat transfer in both fluid and
solid domains. To model a system consisting of both solid and liquid domains add a
single Heat Transfer interface and then add nodes for Heat Transfer in Solids and Heat
Transfer in Fluids with selections corresponding to the solid and fluid domains
respectively. For a fluid domain the convective flow is coupled into domain by selecting
the velocity field from a corresponding Laminar Flow or Creeping Flow interface.

The fluid domain models the heat transfer including both convection and conduction
according to the equation:

∂T- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + Q
ρC p  ------
 ∂t 

where, ρ is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3), Cp is the specific heat capacity at
constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), T is absolute temperature (SI unit: K), u is the
velocity vector (SI unit: m/s), q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2), and
Q contains heat sources other than viscous heating (SI unit: W/m3). For a solid
domain the following equation applies:

∂T
ρC p ------- = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + Q
∂t

When using the heat transfer in solids and in fluids domain properties the software
automatically includes the heat transfer between the solid and the fluid. It is important
to include the correct thermal boundary conditions on regions where fluid flows into
or out of a domain, typically a Temperature condition for an inlet and an Outflow
condition for an outlet.

For a detailed discussion of the fundamentals of heat transfer, see Ref. 4.

More details of the heat transfer capabilities can be found in The Heat
Transfer Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MODELING COUPLED PHENOMENA IN MICROFLUIDICS | 57

 Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces
The COMSOL Multiphysics software is not limited to the common couplings
described in this chapter — there are many other phenomena that can be easily
modeled in microfluidics. In many cases, physics interfaces can be coupled simply by
entering expressions from one physics interface (such as the local temperature) into
fields in another physics interface (for example in the Model Inputs section of a Fluid
Properties node). Additionally, COMSOL Multiphysics includes powerful coupling
operators that enable physics interfaces to be linked by projections, extrusions, or
scalar quantities such as integrals and global averages.

Nonlocal Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

58 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

Modeling Rarefied Gas Flows
In this section:

• The Flow Regimes

• Slip Flow
• References for the Theory of Microfluidics

The Flow Regimes

Rarefied gas flow occurs when the mean free path, λ, of the molecules becomes
comparable with the length scale of the flow, l. There are four flow regimes depending
on the value of the Knudsen number, Kn = λ/l (Ref. 5):

• Continuum flow (Kn < 0.01)

• Slip flow (0.01 < Kn < 0.1)
• Transitional flow (0.1 < Kn < 10)
• Free molecular flow (Kn > 10)

These flow regimes are shown in Figure 2-4. In the continuum flow regime the
Navier–Stokes equations are applicable, as discussed in Modeling Microfluidic Fluid
Flows. Gases flowing in the slip flow regime can be modeled using the Navier–Stokes
equations with modified boundary conditions. The Slip Flow interface is included with
the Microfluidics Module and can be used to model gas flows at these moderate
Knudsen numbers. The Molecular Flow Module includes the Transitional Flow and
the Free Molecular Flow interfaces, which can be used to model fully kinetic gas flows,
at Knudsen numbers greater than 0.1.

MODELING RAREFIED GAS FLOWS | 59

 Continuum
flow
Slip flow

Transitional
flow

Free molecular
flow

Figure 2-4: A plot showing the main fluid flow regimes for rarefied gas flows. Different
regimes are separated by lines of constant Knudsen numbers. The number density of the
gas is normalized to the number density of an ideal gas at a pressure of 1 atmosphere and
a temperature of 0°C (n0).

Slip Flow
In the slip flow regime, the Navier–Stokes equations can still be used with modified
boundary conditions to account for rarefaction effects close to the wall. A layer of
rarefied gas with a size similar to the mean free path develops close to the wall — this
is termed the Knudsen layer. The Navier–Stokes equations are not applicable in this
layer, but the flow outside the layer can be described by extrapolating the bulk gas flow
toward the wall and applying Maxwell’s slip boundary condition at the wall (Ref. 5).
For thermal flows the von Smoluchowski temperature jump boundary condition must
also be applied (Ref. 5).

To model flows in the slip flow regime use the Slip Flow interface. That physics
interface can be used to model isothermal and nonisothermal flows with or without
explicit modeling of thermal processes in adjacent solid domains. To model isothermal
flows use the Temperature boundary condition on all external model surfaces, with the
temperature set equal to the fluid temperature. The Slip Wall and External Slip Wall
boundary conditions are used to model slip on interior and exterior model boundaries
respectively. These boundary conditions include thermal creep or transpiration, viscous

60 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING

slip, and the von Smoluchowski temperature jump. The slip coefficients can be
specified directly or by means of Maxwell’s model. For further details see The Slip Flow
Interface and Theory for the Slip Flow Interface.

• The Temperature boundary condition is described for the Heat

Transfer interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
• Slip Velocity

References for the Theory of Microfluidics

1. H. Bruus, Theoretical Microfluidics, Oxford University Press, 2008.

2. R.F. Probstein, Physicochemical Hydrodynamics: An Introduction, 2nd ed.,

Wiley-Interscience, 2003.

3. F. Mugele and J.C. Baret, “Electrowetting: from basics to applications”, J. Phys.

Condens. Matter, vol. 17, pp. R705–R774, 2005.

4. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 4th
ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

5. G. Kariadakis, A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows and Nanoflows, Springer

Science and Business Media, 2005.

MODELING RAREFIED GAS FLOWS | 61

62 | CHAPTER 2: MICROFLUIDIC MODELING
 3

Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

There are several Fluid Flow interfaces available with the Microfluidics Module.
These are grouped by type and found under the Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface. See Modeling Microfluidic Fluid
Flows to help you select which physics interface to use.

In this chapter:

• The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow Interfaces

• The Potential Flow Interface
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Potential Flow Interface

| 63
 The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow
Interfaces
In this section:

• The Creeping Flow Interface

• The Laminar Flow Interface
• Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections such as Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, Inconsistent Stabilization, and
Advanced Settings sections, some of them accessed by clicking the Show button ( )
and choosing the applicable option. You can also search for information: press F1 to
open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

The Creeping Flow Interface

The Creeping Flow (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating fluid flows at very low
Reynolds numbers for which the inertial term in the Navier–Stokes equations can be
neglected. Creeping flow, also referred to as Stokes flow, occurs in systems with high
viscosity or small geometrical length scales (for example, in microfluidics and MEMS
devices). The fluid can be compressible or incompressible, as well as Newtonian or
non-Newtonian.

The equations solved by the Creeping Flow interface are the Stokes equations for
conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.

The Creeping Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Fluid Properties node, which adds the Stokes equations and
provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties. Except where
noted below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all other settings.

64 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected. If unchecked,
the inertial terms are included in the computations.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Creeping Flow interface uses P2+P1 elements. Contrary to general
laminar and turbulent single-phase flow simulations employing purely linear P1+P1
elements, P2+P1 elements are well suited for most creeping flow simulations but are
not in general fully conservative. Full conservation properties and high accuracy is
obtained by selecting P2+P2 or P3+P3 elements.

Note that P1+P1, P2+P2, and P3+P3 discretizations (the so-called equal order
interpolations) require streamline diffusion to be active.

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

• Transport in an Electrokinetic Valve: Application Library path

Microfluidics_Module/Fluid_Flow/electrokinetic_valve
• Controlled Diffusion Separator: Application Library path
Microfluidics_Module/Micromixers/controlled_diffusion_separator

The Laminar Flow Interface

The Laminar Flow (spf) interface ( ) is used to compute the velocity and pressure
fields for the flow of a single-phase fluid in the laminar flow regime. A flow remains
laminar as long as the Reynolds number is below a certain critical value. At higher
Reynolds numbers, disturbances have a tendency to grow and cause transition to
turbulence. This critical Reynolds number depends on the model, but a classical
example is pipe flow, where the critical Reynolds number is known to be approximately
2000.

The physics interface supports incompressible flow, weakly compressible flow (the
density depends on temperature but not on pressure), and compressible flow at low
Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3). It also supports flow of non-Newtonian fluids.

The equations solved by the Laminar Flow interface are the Navier–Stokes equations
for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 65

 The Laminar Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.
Time-dependent studies should be used in the high-Reynolds number regime as these
flows tend to become inherently unsteady.

When the Laminar Flow interface is added, the following default nodes are also added
in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary condition is No slip),
and Initial Values. Other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and
volume forces, can be added from the Physics toolbar or from the context menu
displayed when right-clicking Laminar Flow.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Physics interface variables can be referred to using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is spf.

About the Physics Interface Label Names

The label for a single-phase flow interface (the node name in the Model Builder) is
dynamic and is reset according to the turbulence model and the neglect inertial term
(Stokes flow) property set at the physics interface level. The availability also depends
on the software license.

If the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected, then the Label changes
to Creeping Flow, which is the same Label that displays when that interface is added
from the Model Wizard or Add Physics window.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Compressibility
Depending of the fluid properties and the flow regime, three options are available for
the Compressibility option. In general the computational complexity increases from
Incompressible flow to Weakly compressible flow to Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) but the
underlying hypotheses are increasingly more restrictive in the opposite direction.

When the Incompressible flow option (default) is selected, the incompressible form of
the Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. In addition, the fluid density is

66 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

evaluated at the Reference pressure level defined in this section. The Reference
temperature is set to 293.15 K.

The Weakly compressible flow option models compressible flow when the pressure
dependency of the density can be neglected. When selected, the compressible form of
the Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. In addition, the fluid density is
evaluated at the Reference pressure level defined in this section.

When the Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) option is selected, the compressible form of the
Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. Ma < 0.3 indicates that the inlet
and outlet conditions, as well as the stabilization, may not be suitable for transonic and
supersonic flow. For more information, see The Mach Number Limit.

Neglect Inertial Term (Stokes Flow)

For low Reynolds number flows, the inertial terms in the Navier–Stokes equations may
be neglected.

Porous Media Domains

With the addition of various modules, the Enable porous media domains check box is
available. Selecting this option, a Fluid and Matrix Properties node, a Mass Source node,
and a Forchheimer Drag subnode are added to the physics interface. These are described
for the Brinkman Equations interface in the respective module’s documentation. The
Fluid and Matrix Properties can be applied on all domains or on a subset of the domains.

Porous Treatment of No Slip Condition

Porous treatment of no slip condition is available when Enable porous media domains is
activated. It controls how the No Slip condition on Wall boundaries and Interior Wall
boundaries adjacent to Porous Medium should be treated. The options are Standard no
slip formulation (default) and Porous slip. The latter option provides a unified treatment
when the porous matrix is fully resolved as well as when it is under resolved ensuring
a smooth transition between regions with different resolutions; see No Slip under Wall.

Include Gravity
When the Include gravity check box is selected, a global Gravity feature is shown in the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Navier–Stokes
equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 67

 are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity.

Natural convection is induced by variations in magnitude of the buoyancy

force that is defined from the density. For incompressible flow, the density
is constant; hence the buoyancy force is homogeneous and natural
convection cannot be modeled. Nevertheless, using the Nonisothermal
Flow multiphysics coupling, the buoyancy force is defined using the
thermal expansion coefficient and the temperature. Hence, in this case
natural convection is accounted for, following the Boussinesq
approximation.

Use Shallow Channel Approximation

For 2D components, selecting the Use shallow channel approximation check box enables
modeling of fluid flow in shallow channels in microfluidics applications. Such channels
often have an almost rectangular cross section where the Channel thickness dz is much
smaller than the channel width. Simple 2D components often fail to give correct results
for this type of problems because they exclude the boundaries that have the greatest
effect on the flow. The shallow channel approximation takes the effect of these
boundaries into account by adding a drag term as a volume force to the momentum
equation. The form of this term is

μu
F μ = – 12 --------2 (3-1)
dz

where μ is the fluid’s dynamic viscosity, u is the velocity field, and dz is the channel
thickness. This term represents the resistance that the parallel boundaries impose on
the flow; however, it does not account for any changes in velocity due to variations in
the cross-sectional area of the channel.

Reference Values
Reference values are global quantities used to evaluate the density of the fluid when
the Incompressible flow or the Weakly compressible flow option is selected.

Reference pressure level There are generally two ways to include the pressure in fluid
flow computations: either to use the absolute pressure pA=p+pref, or the gauge
pressure p. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for the gauge pressure
whereas material properties are evaluated using the absolute pressure. The reference
pressure level is also used to define the reference density.

68 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Reference temperature The reference temperature is used to define the reference
density.

Reference position When Include gravity is selected, the reference position can be
defined. It corresponds to the location where the total pressure (that includes the
hydrostatic pressure) is equal to the Reference pressure level.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u and its components, and the Pressure p.

If required, the names of the field, component, and dependent variable can be edited.
Editing the name of a scalar dependent variable changes both its field name and the
dependent variable name. If a new field name coincides with the name of another field
of the same type, the fields share degrees of freedom and dependent variable names. A
new field name must not coincide with the name of a field of another type or with a
component name belonging to some other field. Component names must be unique
within a model except when two fields share a common field name.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There are two consistent stabilization methods: Streamline diffusion and Crosswind
diffusion. Usually, both check boxes for these methods are selected by default and
should remain selected for optimal performance. Consistent stabilization methods do
not perturb the original transport equation. Streamline diffusion must be selected
when using equal-order interpolation for pressure and velocity.

Select the Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box to estimate the influence of
temporal variations in the velocity field, instead of using the inverse time step, in the
consistent stabilization terms. This check box is selected by default

Select the Limit small time steps effect on stabilization time scale check box to prevent
loss of stabilization at small time steps.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There is usually just one inconsistent stabilization method — Isotropic diffusion. This
method is equivalent to adding a term to the diffusion coefficient in order to dampen

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 69

 the effect of oscillations by making the system somewhat less dominated by
convection. If possible, minimize the use of the inconsistent stabilization method
because by using it you no longer solve the original problem. By default, the Isotropic
diffusion check box is not selected because this type of stabilization adds artificial
diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this option can be
used to get a good initial guess for underresolved problems.

If required, select the Isotropic diffusion check box and enter a Tuning parameter δid as
a scalar positive value. The default value is 0.25 (a reasonable value to start with is
roughly 0.5 divided by the element order). A higher value adds more isotropic
diffusion.

• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form is per default set to Automatic
from physics. This option can add pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the
Stationary equation form is used in order to speed up convergence. Pseudo time
stepping is triggered when the Laminar Flow interface is selected in some multiphysics
coupling features. Set Automatic from physics to On to apply pseudo time stepping also
for laminar flows. Set it to Off to disable pseudo time stepping completely.

When Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form is set to Automatic from
physics or On, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For the default Automatic
option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy condition) is
determined by a PID regulator.

The Use Block Navier-Stokes preconditioner check box under Linear solver is available
when the Compressibility option is set to Incompressible flow. When this check box is
selected, the default solver for time-dependent study steps will use the Block Navier–
Stokes preconditioner in iterative solvers for the velocity and pressure. Using this

70 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

preconditioner may result in shorter solution times for large time dependent problems
with high Reynolds numbers.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

• Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces
• Block Navier–Stokes in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

DISCRETIZATION
The default discretization for Laminar Flow is P1+P1 elements — that is, piecewise
linear interpolation for velocity and pressure. This is suitable for most flow problems.

Some higher-order interpolations are also available, and they can be cost-effective
options to obtain high accuracy for flows with low Reynolds numbers.

The P2+P2 and P3+P3 options, the equal-order interpolation options, are the preferred
higher-order options because they have higher numerical accuracy than the
mixed-order options P2+P1 and P3+P2. The equal-order interpolation options do,
however, require streamline diffusion to be active.

Flow Past a Cylinder: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 71

 Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
The following nodes, listed in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

• Boundary Stress • Periodic Flow Condition

2
• Free Surface • Point Mass Source1
• Flow Continuity • Porous Interface
• Fluid-Fluid Interface2 • Pressure Point Constraint
• Fluid Properties • Symmetry
• Gravity • Volume Force
• Initial Values • Wall
• Inlet
• Interior Wall
• Line Mass Source1
• Open Boundary
• Outlet
1 A feature that may require an additional license

2
See documentation for The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and adds an Axial Symmetry
node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can also search for information:
press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

[Link]

72 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations solved by the
physics interface, except for volume forces, which are added by the Volume Force
feature. The node also provides an interface for defining the material properties of the
fluid.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through user inputs,
variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs, for
example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The choice of pressure variable depends on the system of equations being solved. For
example, in a unidirectional incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop over the
modeled domain is probably many orders of magnitude smaller than the atmospheric
pressure, which, when included, may reduce the stability and convergence properties
of the solver. In other cases, such as when the pressure is part of an expression for the
gas volume or the diffusion coefficients, it may be more convenient to solve for the
absolute pressure.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 73

 The default Absolute pressure pA is p + pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a
gauge pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be
set to 0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES

Density
The density can either be specified by a material, or by a User defined expression. The
density in a material can depend on temperature and pressure, and these dependencies
are automatically replaced by pref for weakly compressible flows and pref and Tref for
incompressible flows (as specified by the Compressibility setting at the physics interface
level). If density variations with respect to pressure are to be included in the
computations, Compressibility must be set to compressible. Any dependencies in the
density on quantities other than temperature and pressure must be consistent with the
Compressibility setting at the interface level.

Constitutive Relation
For laminar flow, the Specify dynamic viscosity (default) and Inelastic non-Newtonian
options are available. Use the default option to either get the dynamic viscosity from a
material, or to add a user defined expression. The Inelastic non-Newtonian option
includes several inelastic non-Newtonian models for the relationship between the shear
stress and shear rate.

If the Specify dynamic viscosity option is selected, an inelastic non-Newtonian model

can be selected by adding the corresponding Material Properties group as a subnode to
a material node.

Dynamic Viscosity
The Dynamic viscosity μ describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have low viscosities, and substances often
described as thick (such as oil) have higher viscosities.

74 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Inelastic Non-Newtonian
Non-Newtonian fluids are encountered in everyday life and in a wide range of the
industrial processes. Examples of non-Newtonian fluids include yogurt, paper pulp,
and polymer suspensions. Such fluids have a nonlinear relationship between the shear
stress and the share rate. The following inelastic non-Newtonian models are available:
Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–Papanastasiou and
Casson–Papanastasiou.

The following parameters are required for the Power law:

• Fluid consistency coefficient m

• Flow behavior index n
·
• Lower shear rate limit γ min
·
• Reference shear rate γ ref

For the Carreau model, the following parameters are required:

• Zero shear rate viscosity μ0

• Infinite shear rate viscosity μinf
• Relaxation time λ

• Power index n

For the Bingham–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Plastic viscosity μp
• Yield stress τy
• Model parameter mp

For the Herschel–Bulkley–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Fluid consistency coefficient m

• Flow behavior index n
• Yield stress τy
·
• Reference shear rate γ ref

• Model parameter mp

For the Casson–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Plastic viscosity μp

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 75

 • Yield stress τy
• Model parameter mp

The default values for the parameters are listed in Table 3-1.
TABLE 3-1: DEFAULT VALUES FOR THE INELASTIC NON-NEWTONIAN MODELS.

NAME UNIT VARIABLE DEFAULT VALUE

Fluid consistency coefficient Pa·s m 0.001

Flow behavior index / Power index Dimensionless n 1
·
Flow shear rate limit s-1 γ min 0.01
·
Reference shear rate s-1 γ ref 1
Zero shear rate viscosity Pa·s μ0 0.001
Infinite shear rate viscosity Pa·s μinf 0
Relaxation time s λ 0
Plastic viscosity Pa·s μp 0.001
2
Yield stress N/m τy 0
Model parameter s mp 10

• Non-Newtonian Flow in the CFD Module User’s Guide

Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the volume force F on the right-hand side of the
momentum equation.

∂u T 2
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F
∂t 3

If several volume-force nodes are added to the same domain, then the sum of all
contributions are added to the momentum equation.

Initial Values
The initial values serve as initial conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial
guess for a nonlinear solver in a stationary simulation. Note that for a transient

76 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

compressible-flow simulation employing a material for which the density depends on
the pressure (such as air), discontinuities in the initial values trigger pressure waves
even when the Mach number is small. The pressure waves must be resolved and this
puts a restriction on the time step.

INITIAL VALUES
Initial values or expressions should be specified for the Velocity field u and the Pressure
p.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p user input.

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at stationary, moving, and leaking walls. For turbulent flow, the description may
involve wall functions and asymptotic expressions for certain turbulence variables.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the wall.

• No Slip • Slip Velocity

• Slip • Leaking Wall
• Electroosmotic Velocity • Navier Slip
• Slip Velocity

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition to model solid walls. A no-slip wall is a wall
where the fluid velocity relative to the wall velocity is zero. For a stationary wall that
means that u = 0.

The option for Porous treatment of no slip condition is available when Enable porous
media domains is activated in the Physical Model section in the settings for the main
physics interface node. It specifies how Wall boundaries and Interior Wall boundaries
adjacent to porous domains are treated. When Standard no slip formulation is chosen,

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 77

 a common no slip condition is applied on all solid walls. When the default Porous slip
is chosen, a blending analytic expression is instead applied on the corresponding wall
boundaries adjacent to the porous medium domain. It results in a no slip condition in
case the porous length scale is fully resolved by the mesh and a slip condition in the
opposite limit when the mesh is much coarser than the porous scale. A smooth
transition between these limits is ensured. Note that the interpretation and usage of
nonzero slip at the wall is the same as in the Navier slip boundary condition. By default,
Velocity formulation is on and the treatment is based on an approximate reconstruction
of the far field pressure gradient using the slip velocity at the wall. If the
Pressure-gradient formulation is chosen, the local pressure gradient at the wall is
employed.

Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n = 0. It is implicitly assumed
that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer develops.
From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation if the main
effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.

Electroosmotic Velocity
When an electric field drives a flow along the boundary, the components for the Electric
field E along with the Electroosmotic mobility μeo should be defined. The Built-in
expression for the Electroosmotic mobility requires values or expressions for the Zeta
potential ζ and the Relative permittivity εr.

Slip Velocity
In the microscale range, the flow condition at a boundary is seldom strictly no slip or
slip. Instead, the boundary condition is something in between, and there is a Slip
velocity at the boundary. Two phenomena account for this velocity: noncontinuum
effects and the flow induced by a thermal gradient along the boundary.

When the Use viscous slip check box is selected, the default Slip length Ls is User defined.
Another value or expression may be entered if the default value is not applicable. For
Maxwell’s model values or expressions for the Tangential momentum accommodation
coefficient av and the Mean free path λ should be specified. Tangential accommodation
coefficients are typically in the range of 0.85 to 1.0 and can be found in G. Kariadakis,
A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows and Nanoflows, Springer Science and Business
Media, 2005.

When the Use thermal creep check box is selected, a thermal creep contribution with
Thermal slip coefficient σT is activated. Thermal slip coefficients are typically between

78 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

0.3 and 1.0 and can be found in G. Kariadakis, A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows
and Nanoflows, Springer Science and Business Media, 2005.

Leaking Wall
This boundary condition may be used to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or
leaving the domain with the velocity u = ul through a perforated wall. The
components of the Fluid velocity ul on the leaking wall should be specified.

Navier Slip
This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u ⋅ nwall = 0, and adds
a tangential stress

μ
K nt = – --- u slip
β

where Knt = Kn − (Kn ⋅ nwall)nwall, Kn = Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor. β is
a slip length, and uslip = u − (u ⋅ nwall)nwall is the velocity tangential to the wall.

The Slip length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The slip
length β is then defined as β = fhhmin, where hmin is the smallest element side and fh
is a user input. Select User defined from the Slip length selection list in order to manually
prescribe β (SI unit: m).

In cases where the wall movement is nonzero, check Account for the translational wall
velocity in the friction force to use u − ubnd − ((u− ubnd) ⋅ nwall)nwall instead of uslip in
the friction force.

The Navier slip option is not available when selecting a turbulence model.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Translational velocity selection list to prescribe utr = 0.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 79

 where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh node needs to be added from
Definitions to physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

The Sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt with the
surface sliding in a tangential direction. A velocity is prescribed at the wall and the
boundary itself does not have to actually move relative to the reference frame.

• For 3D components, values or expressions for the Velocity of sliding wall uw should
be specified. If the velocity vector entered is not in the plane of the wall, COMSOL
Multiphysics projects it onto the tangential direction. Its magnitude is adjusted to
be the same as the magnitude of the vector entered.
• For 2D components, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the
direction of the boundary. For this reason, the sliding wall boundary condition has
different definitions in different space dimensions. A single entry for the Velocity of
the tangentially moving wall Uw should be specified in 2D.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Constraints settings
can be set to Automatic, Pointwise constraints, Nitsche constraints, or Weak constraints.
Mixed constraints can be selected when imposing a no slip condition exactly.

Depending on the constraint method selected, the following settings are available:

• Apply reaction terms on can be set to Individual dependent variables (default) or All
physics (symmetric). This setting is not available when Nitsche constraints is selected.
• Select Elemental (default) or Nodal under Constraint method. This setting is not
available for Nitsche constraints or Weak constraints.

• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

Inlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net flow into the
domain. To obtain a numerically well-posed problem, it is advisable to also consider

80 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

the Outlet conditions when specifying an Inlet condition. For example, if the pressure
is specified at the outlet, the velocity may be specified at the inlet, and vice versa.
Specifying the velocity vector at both the inlet and the outlet may cause convergence
difficulties.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The available Boundary condition options for an inlet are Velocity, Fully developed flow,
Mass flow, and Pressure. After selecting a Boundary Condition from the list, a section with
the same or a similar name displays underneath. For example, if Velocity is selected, a
Velocity section, where further settings are defined, is displayed.

VELOCITY
The Normal inflow velocity is specified as u = −nU0, where n is the boundary normal
pointing out of the domain and U0 is the normal inflow speed.

The Velocity field option sets the velocity vector to u = u0. The components of the inlet
velocity vector u0 should be defined for this choice.

PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This option specifies the normal stress, which in most cases is approximately equal to
the pressure.

• For incompressible flow, the Pressure list has two options, Static and Total. For
weakly compressible and compressible flow, the static pressure should be specified
in the text field.
- If Pressure is Static, and the reference pressure pref, defined at the physics
interface level, is equal to 0, the value of the pressure p0, at the boundary, is the
absolute pressure. Otherwise, p0 is the relative pressure at the boundary.
- If Pressure is Total, the Average check box is available and cleared by default to
prescribe the total pressure pointwise. If it is selected, the averaged total pressure
is imposed in the weak forms instead.
When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the
interface Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure
approximation (named Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows)
check box is available and selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic
pressure is automatically added to the pressure entered in p0 user input.
• The Suppress backflow option adjusts the inlet pressure locally in order to reduce the
amount of fluid exiting the domain through the boundary. If you clear the suppress

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 81

 backflow option, the inlet boundary can become an outlet depending on the
pressure field in the rest of the domain.
• Flow direction controls in which direction the fluid enters the domain.
- For Normal flow, it prescribes zero tangential velocity component.
- For User defined, an Inflow velocity direction du (dimensionless) should be
specified. The magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must
point into the domain.

MASS FLOW
The mass flow at an inlet can be specified by the Mass flow rate, the Pointwise mass flux,
the Standard flow rate, or the Standard flow rate (SCCM).

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the mass flow condition is applied separately on
each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is applied over the
whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately should
be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on each disjoint
boundary.

Mass Flow Rate

The Mass flow rate option sets the integrated mass flow over the boundary selection,
the Normal mass flow rate to a specific value, m. The mass flow is assumed to be parallel
to the boundary normal, and the tangential flow velocity is set to zero.

For 2D components, the Channel thickness dbc is used to define the area across which
the mass flow occurs. This setting is not applied to the whole model. Line or surface
integrals of the mass flow over the boundary evaluated during postprocessing or used
in integration coupling operators do not include this scaling automatically. Such results
should be appropriately scaled when comparing them with the specified mass flow.

Pointwise Mass Flux

The Pointwise mass flux sets the mass flow parallel to the boundary normal. The
tangential flow velocity is set to zero. The mass flux is a model input, which means that
COMSOL Multiphysics can take its value from another physics interface when
available. When User defined is selected a value or function Mf should be specified for
the Mass flux.

Standard Flow Rate

The Standard flow rate Qsv sets a standard volumetric flow rate, according to the SEMI
standard E12-0303. The mass flow rate is specified as the volumetric flow rate of a gas

82 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

at standard density — the Mean molar mass Mn divided by a Standard molar volume Vm
(that is, the volume of one mole of a perfect gas at standard pressure and standard
temperature). The flow occurs across the whole boundary in the direction of the
boundary normal and is computed by a surface (3D) or line (2D) integral. The
tangential flow velocity is set to zero.

The standard density can be defined directly, or by specifying a standard pressure and
temperature, in which case the ideal gas law is assumed. The options in the
Standard flow rate defined by list are:

• Standard density, for which the Standard molar volume Vm should be specified.
• Standard pressure and temperature, for which the Standard pressure Pst and the
Standard temperature Tst should be defined.

For 2D components, the Channel thickness dbc is used to define the area across which
the mass flow occurs. This setting is not applied to the whole model. Line or surface
integrals of the mass flow over the boundary evaluated during postprocessing or used
in integration coupling operators do not include this scaling automatically. Such results
should be appropriately scaled when comparing them with the specified mass flow.

Standard Flow Rate (SCCM)

The Standard flow rate (SCCM) boundary condition is equivalent to the Standard flow
rate boundary condition, except that the flow rate is entered directly in SCCMs
(standard cubic centimeters per minute) without the requirement to specify units.
Here, the dimensionless Number of SCCM units Qsccm should be specified.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

The Fully developed flow option adds contributions to the inflow boundary, which force
the flow toward the solution for a fully developed channel flow. The channel can be
thought of as a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section. The inlet boundary must
hence be flat in order for the fully developed flow condition to work properly. In 2D
axisymmetric models, the inlet normal must be parallel to the symmetry axis.

Select an option to control the flow rate at the inlet:

• Average velocity, Uav.

• Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Note that Pav is the average pressure on the inflow boundary.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 83

 The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the fully developed flow condition is applied
separately on each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is
applied over the whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection
separately should be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on
each disjoint boundary.

The fully developed flow condition requires any volume force to be approximately
aligned with the normal of the inlet boundary. The exception is gravity when the
Include gravity setting is selected in the physics interface settings. Unless Use reduced
pressure is also selected, an option to Compensate for hydrostatic pressure or
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation becomes available. It is selected per
default and should only be deselected if the inlet normal is aligned with the gravity
force and you want to specify an average pressure that includes the hydrostatic
pressure.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

• Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

• Normal Stress Boundary Condition

Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)

Outlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net outflow from the
domain. To obtain a numerically well-posed problem, it is advisable to also consider
the Inlet conditions when specifying an Outlet condition. For example, if the velocity
is specified at the inlet, the pressure may be specified at the outlet, and vice versa.
Specifying the velocity vector at both the inlet and the outlet may cause convergence
difficulties. Selecting appropriate outlet conditions for the Navier–Stokes equations is
a nontrivial task. Generally, if there is something interesting happening at an outflow
boundary, the computational domain should be extended to include this
phenomenon.

84 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The available Boundary condition options for an outlet are Pressure, Fully developed flow,
and Velocity.

PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This option specifies the normal stress, which in most cases is approximately equal to
the pressure. The tangential stress component is set to zero.

• For incompressible flow, the Pressure list has two options, Static and Total. For
weakly compressible and compressible flow, the static pressure should be specified
in the text field.
- If Pressure is Static, and the reference pressure pref, defined at the physics
interface level, is equal to 0, the value of the pressure p0, at the boundary, is the
absolute pressure. Otherwise, p0 is the relative pressure at the boundary.
- If Pressure is Total, the Average check box is available and selected by default to
prescribed the averaged total pressure in the weak forms. If it is cleared, the total
pressure is imposed pointwise.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p0 user input.

• The Normal flow option changes the no tangential stress condition to a no tangential
velocity condition. This forces the flow to exit (or enter) the domain perpendicularly
to the outlet boundary.
• The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the outlet
pressure in order to reduce the amount of fluid entering the domain through the
boundary.

VELOCITY
See the Inlet node Velocity section for the settings.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

This boundary condition is applicable when the flow exits the domain into a long pipe
or channel, at the end of which a flow profile is fully developed.

The channel can be thought of as a virtual extrusion of the outlet cross section. The
outlet boundary must hence be flat in order for the fully developed flow condition to

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 85

 work properly. In 2D axisymmetric models, the outlet normal must be parallel to the
symmetry axis.

Select an option to control the flow rate at the outlet:

• Average velocity, Uav.

• Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Observe that Pav is the average pressure on the outflow.

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the fully developed flow condition is applied
separately on each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is
applied over the whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection
separately should be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on
each disjoint boundary.

The fully developed flow condition requires any volume force to be approximately
aligned with the normal of the outlet boundary. The exception is gravity when the
Include gravity setting is selected in the physics interface settings. Unless Use reduced
pressure is also selected, an option to Compensate for hydrostatic pressure or
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation becomes available. It is selected per
default and should only be deselected if the outlet normal is aligned with the gravity
force and you want to specify an average pressure that includes the hydrostatic
pressure.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)

86 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Symmetry
This node provides a boundary condition for symmetry boundaries. It should only be
used when the geometry and expected solution have mirror symmetry. By using
symmetries in a model its size can be reduced by one-half or more, making this an
efficient tool for solving large problems.

The Symmetry boundary condition prescribes no penetration and vanishing shear

stresses. The boundary condition is a combination of a Dirichlet condition and a
Neumann condition:

u ⋅ n = 0,  – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = 0
  3 

u ⋅ n = 0, ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

for the compressible and incompressible formulations. The Dirichlet condition takes
precedence over the Neumann condition, and the above equations are equivalent to
the following equation for both the compressible and incompressible formulations:

u ⋅ n = 0, K – ( K ⋅ n )n = 0
K = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n

BOUNDARY SELECTION
For 2D axial symmetry, a boundary condition does not need to be defined for the
symmetry axis at r = 0. The software automatically provides a condition that prescribes
ur = 0 and vanishing stresses in the z direction and adds an Axial Symmetry node that
implements these conditions on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Open Boundary
The Open Boundary condition describes boundaries in contact with a large volume of
fluid. Fluid can both enter and leave the domain on boundaries with this type of
condition.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 87

 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The Boundary condition options for open boundaries are Normal stress and No viscous
stress.

Normal Stress
The Normal stress f0 condition implicitly imposes p ≈ f0.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in f0 user input.

No Viscous Stress
The No Viscous Stress condition specifies vanishing viscous stress on the boundary. This
condition does not provide sufficient information to fully specify the flow at the open
boundary and must at least be combined with pressure constraints at adjacent points.

The No viscous stress condition prescribes:

 μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = 0
 3 

μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n = 0

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations. This condition can be useful
in some situations because it does not impose any constraint on the pressure. A typical
example is a model with volume forces that give rise to pressure gradients that are hard
to prescribe in advance. To make the model numerically stable, this boundary
condition should be combined with a point constraint on the pressure.

Boundary Stress
The Boundary Stress node adds a boundary condition that represents a general class of
conditions also known as traction boundary conditions.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The Boundary condition options for the boundary stress are General stress, Normal
stress, and Normal stress, normal flow.

88 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

General Stress
When General stress is selected, the components for the Stress F should be specified.
The total stress on the boundary is set equal to the given stress F:

 – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = F
  3 

( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = F

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations.

This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- – n ⋅ F (3-2)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-2 states that p ≈ −n·F.

Normal Stress
Normal Stress is described for the Open Boundary node.

Normal Stress, Normal Flow

For Normal stress, normal flow, the magnitude of the Normal stress f0 should be
specified. The tangential velocity is set to zero on the boundary:

n  – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = – f 0 ,
T 2
t⋅u = 0
3

T
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – f 0 , t⋅u = 0

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations.

This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- + f 0 (3-3)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-3 states that p ≈ f0.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in f0 or phydron is added to F depending of the selected option.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 89

 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

If Normal Stress, Normal Flow is selected as the Boundary condition, then to Apply
reaction terms on all dependent variables, the All physics (symmetric) option should be
selected. Alternatively, the Individual dependent variables could be selected to restrict
the reaction terms as needed.

Periodic Flow Condition

The Periodic Flow Condition splits its selection into a source group and a destination
group (the Destination Selection section is optional). Fluid that leaves the domain
through one of the destination boundaries enters the domain through the
corresponding source boundary. This corresponds to a situation where the geometry
is a periodic part of a larger geometry. If the boundaries are not parallel to each other,
the velocity vector is automatically transformed.

If the boundaries are curved, the orientation of the source must be specified manually
(see Orientation of Source).

No input is required when Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) is selected for Compressibility

under the Physical Model section for the physics interface. Typically when a periodic
boundary condition is used with a compressible flow, the pressure is the same at both
boundaries and the flow is driven by a volume force.

BOUNDARY SELECTION

The software usually automatically identifies the boundaries as either source boundaries or
destination boundaries, as indicated in the selection list. This works fine for cases like opposing
parallel boundaries. In other cases, right-click Periodic Flow Condition and select Manual Destination
Selection to control the destination. By default it contains the selection that COMSOL
Multiphysics identifies.

DESTINATION SELECTION
This section is available for specifying the destination boundaries, if needed, when the
Manual Destination Selection option is selected in the context menu for the Periodic Flow

90 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Condition node. You can only select destination boundaries from the union of all source
and destination boundaries.

FLOW CONDITION
This section is available when Incompressible flow is selected for Compressibility under
the Physical Model section for the physics interface.

The Flow Condition at the boundary is specified through a value or expression for either
· . The mass flow option ensures
the Pressure difference, psrc − pdst, or the Mass flow, m
a pressure difference is achieved across the source and destination boundaries. This
pressure difference can, for example, drive the fully developed flow in a channel.

To set up a periodic boundary condition, both boundaries must be selected in the

Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically assigns one
boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To manually set the
destination selection, a Destination Selection subnode is available from the context
menu (by right-clicking the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
All destination sides must be connected.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

ORIENTATION OF DESTINATION
This section appears if the setting for Transform to intermediate map in the Orientation
of Source section is changed from the default value, Automatic, and Advanced Physics
Options is selected in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Destination section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MAPPING BETWEEN SOURCE AND DESTINATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Mapping Between Source and Destination section, see Mapping Between Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 91

 Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except

that it applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities (velocity,
pressure) across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures by applying no-slip conditions on interior curves and
surfaces instead. Slip conditions and conditions for a moving wall can also be
prescribed. It is compatible with laminar and turbulent flow.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The following Boundary condition options are available.

No Slip
The No slip condition models solid walls. No slip walls are walls where the fluid velocity
relative to the wall is zero. For an interior stationary wall this means that u = 0 on both
sides of the wall.

Slip
The Slip condition prescribes a no-penetration condition, u ⋅ n = 0. It implicitly
assumes that there are no viscous effects on either side of the slip wall and hence, no
boundary layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable
approximation if the important effect is to prevent the exchange of fluid between the
regions separated by the interior wall.

Navier Slip
The Navier slip condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u ⋅ nwall = 0, and adds a
tangential stress on each side of the wall

μ
K nt = – --- u slip
β

where β is a slip length. For more information, see the Navier Slip option in the Wall
feature.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial

92 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Translational velocity selection list to prescribe utr = 0.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options. The Constraints settings can be set to Automatic, Pointwise constraints,
or Nitsche constraints. Mixed constraints can be selected when imposing a no slip
condition exactly.

Porous Interface
The Porous Interface condition is designed to properly account for a sudden jump in
porosity, εp, across a boundary between different domains. It describes possible
discontinuity of stress across the interface, and also reveals modified behavior of
tangential velocity due to boundary layer on the upstream side of the interface. Choose
among the following options under the Continuity conditions:

• Velocity and stress — stress continuity is invoked;

• Velocity and porosity-corrected stress (default)— the sum of stress and a contribution
due to the inertial term being constant across the interface;
• Velocity and porosity-corrected stress with loss — the sum of the stress and a
contribution due to the inertial term is lost in the downstream direction.

All three options give continuity of the velocity across the interface in constant-density
flows, while in case of a jump in density:

1 give continuity of the mass flux (product of density and normal velocity) and
tangential velocity;
2 account for the density-jump correction in the stress condition.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 93

 When Velocity and porosity-corrected stress with loss is chosen, a Pressure loss model
needs to be specified. The options are:

• User-defined loss coefficients (default). Enter values for Expansion loss coefficient and
Contraction loss coefficient;
• Borda–Carnot. Specify Vena contracta model.

Vena contracta model allows two options:

• User defined (default) — enter value of Vena contracta coefficient;

• Weisbach — enter values of Lower limit and Exponent.

Notice that the notions ‘expansion’ and ‘contraction’ used in this section correspond
not to geometrical changes, but to the variations of the microscopic structure across
the interface in the flow direction — increasing or decreasing porosity, εp, respectively.

Flow Continuity
The Flow Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it
prescribes that the flow field is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

When the condition is set for pairs adjacent to domains with different porosity εp, it
imposes conditions identical to the Porous Interface feature, which is designed to
properly account for a sudden jump in porosity. See the section Porous Interface above
for further details (note that the Flow Continuity does not account for the density-jump
corrections),

About Identity and Contact Pairs

Pressure Point Constraint

The Pressure Point Constraint condition can be used to specify the pressure level. If it
is not possible to specify the pressure level using a boundary condition, the pressure

94 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

level must be set in some other way, for example, by specifying a fixed pressure at a
point.

PRESSURE CONSTRAINT
The relative pressure value is set by specifying the Pressure p0. If the reference pressure
pref defined at the physics interface level is equal to zero, p0 represents the absolute
pressure.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p0 user input.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

The Apply reaction terms on setting is set per default to Individual dependent variables.
All physics (symmetric) cannot be used together with a segregated solver when fluid
flow is coupled with Moving Mesh, Level Set, or Phase Field in Fluids.

Point Mass Source

This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Battery Design Module,
CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

The Point Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
domain centered around a point.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which is available
with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, or Battery Design
Module, there are two nodes: one for the fluid flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for
the species (Species Point Source).

SOURCE STRENGTH
The source Mass flux, q· p should be specified. A positive value results in mass being
ejected from the point into the computational domain. A negative value results in mass
being removed from the computational domain.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 95

 Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational
domains. This has the effect, for example, that a point source located on a symmetry
plane has twice the given strength.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Line Mass Source

This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Battery Design Module,
CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

The Line Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from a tube region with
infinitely small radius.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which is available
with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, or Battery Design
Module, there are two nodes, one for the fluid flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the
species (Species Line Source).

SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the axis of symmetry
3D Edges

SOURCE STRENGTH
The source Mass flux, q· l , should be specified. A positive value results in mass being
ejected from the line into the computational domain and a negative value means that
mass is removed from the computational domain.

96 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This,
for example, has the effect that a line source located on a symmetry plane has twice the
given strength.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value.

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 97

 The Potential Flow Interface
In this section

• The Incompressible Potential Flow Interface

The Incompressible Potential Flow Interface

The Incompressible Potential Flow (ipf) interface ( ) is used for simulating
irrotational, inviscid, and incompressible flow. The main application of the interface is
to provide initial solutions for other Single-Phase Flow interfaces.

The equation solved by the Incompressible Potential Flow interface is the Laplace
equation for a velocity potential. This can be used to derive both a velocity and static
pressure.

The Incompressible Potential Flow interface is available for stationary analyses. The
main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the Laplace equation. The Fluid
Properties feature provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties
used to derive the velocity and pressure. When this physics interface is added, the
following default nodes are also added in the Model Builder:

• Fluid Properties
• Initial Values
• Wall

Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Incompressible Potential Flow to select physics features from the
context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ipf.

98 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

PRESSURE
This node specifies Total pressure (SI unit: Pa) used to compute the pointwise static
pressure from the potential flow solution.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This physics interface solves for the Velocity Potential φ-dependent variable (field).

If required, the names of the field, component, and dependent variable can be edited.
Editing the name of a scalar dependent variable changes both its field name and the
dependent variable name. If a new field name coincides with the name of another field
of the same type, the fields share degrees of freedom and dependent variable names. A
new field name must not coincide with the name of a field of another type or with a
component name belonging to some other field. Component names must be unique
within a model except when two fields share a common field name.

DISCRETIZATION
Select shape function type for the velocity potential. The default setting is Quadratic.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Incompressible

Potential Flow Interface
• Theory for the Incompressible Potential Flow Interface

Flow Around an Inclined NACA 0012 Airfoil: Application Library

path CFD_Module/Verification_Examples/naca0012_airfoil

THE POTENTIAL FLOW INTERFACE | 99

 Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Incompressible
Potential Flow Interface
The The Incompressible Potential Flow Interface has the following domain, boundary
and pair nodes:

• Initial Values • Potential Point Constraint

• Interior Wall • Symmetry
• Flow Continuity • Velocity
• Fluid Properties • Wall
• Open Boundary
• Periodic Flow Condition (see
Periodic Boundary Conditions in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual)
1
Described for the Laminar Flow interface.

Boundary conditions for axial symmetry boundaries are not required. For
the symmetry axis at r = 0, the software automatically provides a suitable
boundary condition and adds an Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the
axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the Laplace equation solved by the physics interface.
The node also provides an interface for defining the density of the fluid, and builds the
velocity and static pressure.

Material Properties
The density can either be specified by a material, or by a User defined expression.

100 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Initial Values
Use the Initial Values node to define the initial values of the velocity potential variable.

INITIAL VALUES
An initial value or expression should be specified for the Velocity Potential φ.

Wall
The Wall node sets a slip wall condition for the fluid. This prescribes a no-penetration
condition, u·n = 0.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Normal wall velocity setting controls the normal wall velocity Ubnd. The list is per
default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement Ubnd = 0. If the frame moves, Ubnd becomes
equal to the frame movement projected on the wall normal. Ubnd is accounted for in
the actual nonpenetration boundary condition prescribed, so that u ⋅ n = Ubnd.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Normal wall velocity selection list to always prescribe
Ubnd = 0.

Velocity
The Velocity node sets a normal inflow velocity condition for the fluid. This prescribes
a flux condition for the velocity potential, ∇φ ⋅ n = −Uin.

Open Boundary
The Open Boundary node sets a normal flow condition for the fluid. The level of φ is
set to a constant value along the boundary, so that the tangential derivative of φ is zero.

OPEN BOUNDARY
The potential level is set by specifying the Velocity potential φbnd.

THE POTENTIAL FLOW INTERFACE | 101

 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node prescribes a symmetry condition for the velocity potential,
∇φ ⋅ n = 0.

Potential Point Constraint

The Potential Point Constraint node can be used to specify the velocity potential level.
If it is not possible to specify the velocity potential level using a boundary condition,
the level must be set in some other way, for example, by specifying a fixed potential at
a point.

POTENTIAL POINT CONSTRAINT

The potential level is set by specifying the Velocity potential φp.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Periodic Flow Condition

The Periodic Flow Condition splits its selection into a source group and a destination
group (the Destination Selection section is optional). Fluid that leaves the domain
through one of the destination boundaries enters the domain through the
corresponding source boundary. This corresponds to a situation where the geometry
is a periodic part of a larger geometry. If the boundaries are not parallel to each other,
the velocity vector is automatically transformed.

If the boundaries are curved, the orientation of the source must be specified manually
(see Orientation of Source).

OFFSET
The Offset at the boundary specifies a value or expression for either the Velocity
potential difference, φsrc = −φdst. The offset ensures a gradient of the Velocity potential
between the source and destination, so that the velocity is not zero.

102 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

BOUNDARY SELECTION
To set up a periodic boundary condition, both boundaries must be selected in the
Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically assigns one
boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To manually set the
destination selection, a Destination Selection subnode is available from the context
menu (by right-clicking the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
All destination sides must be connected.

The software usually automatically identifies the boundaries as either

source boundaries or destination boundaries, as indicated in the selection
list. This works fine for cases like opposing parallel boundaries. In other
cases, right-click Periodic Flow Condition and select Manual Destination
Selection to control the destination. By default it contains the selection
that COMSOL Multiphysics identifies.

DESTINATION SELECTION
This section is available for specifying the destination boundaries, if needed, when the
Manual Destination Selection option is selected in the context menu for the Periodic Flow
Condition node. You can only select destination boundaries from the union of all source
and destination boundaries.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

ORIENTATION OF DESTINATION
This section appears if the setting for Transform to intermediate map in the Orientation
of Source section is changed from the default value, Automatic, and Advanced Physics
Options is selected in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Destination section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MAPPING BETWEEN SOURCE AND DESTINATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the

THE POTENTIAL FLOW INTERFACE | 103

 Mapping Between Source and Destination section, see Mapping Between Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Wall node available on exterior boundaries except that it applies on
both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the velocity potential
across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to avoid
meshing thin structures by applying a no-penetration condition, u ⋅ n = Ubnd, on
interior curves and surfaces instead. Slip conditions and conditions for a moving wall
can also be prescribed.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Normal wall velocity setting controls the normal wall velocity Ubnd. The list is per
default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement Ubnd = 0. If the frame moves, Ubnd becomes
equal to the frame movement projected on the wall normal. Ubnd is accounted for in
the actual no-penetration boundary condition prescribed, so that u ⋅ n = Ubnd.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Normal wall velocity selection list to always prescribe
Ubnd = 0.

Flow Continuity
The Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the velocity potential variable is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.

104 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Right-click the physics interface and select Pairs>Continuity.

Ribbon
Physics tab with the physics interface selected:

Pairs>Continuity

THE POTENTIAL FLOW INTERFACE | 105

 Theory for the Single-Phase Flow
Interfaces
The theory for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow interface is described in this
section:

• General Single-Phase Flow Theory

• Compressible Flow
• Weakly Compressible Flow
• The Mach Number Limit
• Incompressible Flow
• The Reynolds Number
• Non-Newtonian Flow
• Gravity
• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition
• Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions
• Mass Flow
• Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)
• Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)
• No Viscous Stress
• Normal Stress Boundary Condition
• Porous Interface
• Mass Sources for Fluid Flow
• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
• Solvers for Laminar Flow
• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models
• Nitsche Constraints

106 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow
• References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

The theory about most boundary conditions is found in Ref. 2.

General Single-Phase Flow Theory

The Single-Phase Fluid Flow interfaces are based on the Navier–Stokes equations,
which in their most general form read

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (3-4)
∂t

∂u
ρ ------ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + K ] + F (3-5)
∂t

∂T- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + K:S – T ∂ρ-  ∂p

ρC p  ------ ---- ------ ------ + ( u ⋅ ∇ )p + Q (3-6)
∂t  ρ ∂T p  ∂t

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• I is the identity matrix (unitless)
• K is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
• F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2)
• Q contains the heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)
• S is the strain-rate tensor:

1
S = --- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )
2

The operation “:” denotes a contraction between tensors defined by

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 107

 a:b =   anm bnm (3-7)
n m

This is sometimes referred to as the double dot product.

Equation 3-4 is the continuity equation and represents conservation of mass.

Equation 3-5 is a vector equation which represents conservation of momentum.
Equation 3-6 describes the conservation of energy, formulated in terms of
temperature. This is an intuitive formulation that facilitates boundary condition
specifications.

To close the equation system, Equation 3-4 through Equation 3-6, constitutive
relations are needed.

For a Newtonian fluid, which has a linear relationship between stress and strain, Stokes
(Ref. 1) deduced the following expression:

2
K = 2μS – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I (3-8)
3

The dynamic viscosity, μ (SI unit: Pa·s), for a Newtonian fluid is allowed to depend on
the thermodynamic state but not on the velocity field. All gases and many liquids can
be considered Newtonian.

For an inelastic non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship between stress and strain rate is
nonlinear, and an apparent viscosity is introduced instead of the dynamic viscosity.
Examples of non-Newtonian fluids are honey, mud, blood, liquid metals, and most
polymer solutions.

With the Microfluidics Module, you can model flows of non-Newtonian fluids using
the predefined constitutive models. The following models which describe the
stress-strain relationship for non-Newtonian fluids are available: Power law, Carreau,
Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–Papanastasiou and Casson–Papanastasiou.

In theory, the same equations describe both laminar and turbulent flows. In practice,
however, the mesh resolution required to simulate turbulence with the Laminar Flow
interface makes such an approach impractical.

There are several books where derivations of the Navier–Stokes equations

and detailed explanations of concepts such as Newtonian fluids can be
found. See, for example, the classical text by Batchelor (Ref. 3) and the
more recent work by Panton (Ref. 4).

108 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Many applications describe isothermal flows for which Equation 3-6 is decoupled from
Equation 3-4 and Equation 3-5.

2D AXISYMMETRIC FORMULATIONS
A 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 3-4 and Equation 3-5 requires ∂/∂φ to be
zero. That is, there must be no gradients in the azimuthal direction. A common
additional assumption is, however, that uφ = 0. In such cases, the φ-equation can be
removed from Equation 3-5. The resulting system of equations is both easier to
converge and computationally less expensive compared to retaining the φ-equation.
The default 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 3-4 and Equation 3-5 therefore
assumes that

∂ ⁄ ∂φ = 0
uφ = 0

Compressible Flow
The equations of motion for a single-phase fluid are the continuity equation:

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (3-9)
∂t

and the momentum equation:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p + ∇ ⋅  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F
2
(3-10)
∂t 3

These equations are applicable for incompressible as well as for compressible flow with
density and viscosity variations.

Weakly Compressible Flow

The same equations as for Compressible Flow are applied for weakly compressible flow.
The only difference is that the density is evaluated at the reference pressure. The
density may be a function of other quantities, in particular it may be temperature
dependent.

The weakly compressible flow equations are valid for incompressible as well as
compressible flow with density variations independent of the pressure.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 109

 Provided that the densities dependency pressure is specified through model inputs, the
density is automatically evaluated at the reference pressure level.

The Mach Number Limit

An important dimensionless number in fluid dynamics is the Mach number, Ma,
defined by

u-
Ma = -----
a

where a is the speed of sound. A flow is formally incompressible when Ma = 0. This is

theoretically achieved by letting the speed of sound tend to infinity. The Navier–Stokes
equations then have the mathematical property that pressure disturbances are
instantaneously propagated throughout the entire domain. This results in a parabolic
equation system.

The momentum equation, Equation 3-10, is parabolic for unsteady flow and elliptic
for steady flow, whereas the continuity equation, Equation 3-9, is hyperbolic for both
steady and unsteady flow. The combined system of equations is thus hybrid
parabolic-hyperbolic for unsteady flow and hybrid elliptic-hyperbolic for steady flow.
An exception occurs when the viscous term in Equation 3-10 becomes vanishingly
small, such as at an outflow boundary, in which case the momentum equation becomes
locally hyperbolic. The number of boundary conditions to apply on the boundary then
depends on the number of characteristics propagating into the computational domain.
For the purely hyperbolic system, the number of characteristics propagating from the
boundary into the domain changes as the Mach number passes through unity. Hence,
the number of boundary conditions required to obtain a numerically well-posed
system must also change. The compressible formulation of the laminar and turbulent
interfaces uses the same boundary conditions as the incompressible formulation, which
implies that the compressible interfaces are not suitable for flows with a Mach number
larger than or equal to one. Yet, the practical Mach number limit is lower than one.
The main reason is that the numerical scheme (stabilization and boundary conditions)
of the Laminar Flow interface does not recognize the direction and speed of pressure
waves. The fully compressible Navier–Stokes equations do, for example, start to display
very sharp gradients already at moderate Mach numbers. But the stabilization for the
single-phase flow interface does not necessarily capture these gradients. It is impossible
to give an exact limit where the low Mach number regime ends and the moderate
Mach number regime begins, but a rule of thumb is that the Mach number effects start

110 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

to appear at Ma = 0.3. For this reason, the compressible formulation is referred to as
Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) in COMSOL Multiphysics.

Incompressible Flow
When the temperature variations in the flow are small, a single-phase fluid can often
be assumed incompressible; that is, ρ is constant or nearly constant. This is the case for
all liquids under normal conditions and also for gases at low velocities. For constant ρ,
Equation 3-9 reduces to

ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0 (3-11)

and Equation 3-10 becomes

∂u T
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F (3-12)
∂t

Provided that the densities dependency on temperature and pressure is specified

through model inputs, the density is evaluated at the reference pressure level and at the
reference temperature. However, if the density is a function of other quantities such as
a concentration field, or if the density is specified by a user defined expression, the user
has to make sure that the density is defined as constant when the incompressible flow
formulation is used.

The Reynolds Number

A fundamental characteristic in analyses of fluid flow is the Reynolds number:

Re = ρUL
------------
μ

where U denotes a velocity scale, and L denotes a representative length. The Reynolds
number represents the ratio between inertial and viscous forces. At low Reynolds
numbers, viscous forces dominate and tend to damp out all disturbances, which leads
to laminar flow. At high Reynolds numbers, the damping in the system is very low,
giving small disturbances the possibility to grow by nonlinear interactions. If the
Reynolds number is high enough, the flow field eventually ends up in a chaotic state
called turbulence.

Note that the Reynolds number can have different meanings depending on the length
scale and velocity scale. To be able to compare two Reynolds numbers, they must be
based on equivalent length and velocity scales.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 111

 The Fluid Flow interfaces automatically calculate the local cell Reynolds number
Rec = ρ|u|h/(2μ) using the element length h for L and the magnitude of the velocity
vector u for the velocity scale U. This Reynolds number is not related to the character
of the flow field, but to the stability of the numerical discretization. The risk for
numerical oscillations in the solution increases as Rec grows. The cell Reynolds
number is a predefined quantity available for visualization and evaluation (typically it
is available as: [Link]).

Non-Newtonian Flow
For an inelastic non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship between stress and strain rate is
nonlinear, and we may express the constitutive relation in terms of an apparent
viscosity. For the incompressible flow, it is:

·
K = 2μ app ( γ ) S

·
where γ is the shear rate,

·
γ = 2S:S

and the contraction operator “:” is defined by

a:b =   anm bnm

n m

The Laminar Flow interfaces provide various predefined inelastic non-Newtonian

constitutive models including Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou,
Herschel–Bulkley–Papanastasiou and Casson–Papanastasiou.

POWER LAW
The Power law model is an example of a generalized Newtonian model. It prescribes

 γ·  n–1
μ app = m  -------
·  (3-13)
 γ ref

·
where m, n are scalars that can be set to arbitrary values and γ ref denotes a reference
−1
shear rate for which the default value is 1 s . For n > 1, the power law describes a shear
thickening (dilatant) fluid. For n < 1, it describes a shear thinning (pseudoplastic)
fluid. A value of n equal to one gives the expression for a Newtonian fluid.

112 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Equation 3-13 predicts an infinite viscosity at zero shear rate for n < 1. This is however
never the case physically. Instead, most fluids have a constant viscosity for shear rates
smaller than 10−2 s−1 (Ref. 18). Since infinite viscosity also makes models using
Equation 3-13 difficult to solve, COMSOL Multiphysics implements the Power law
model as

 max ( γ· , γ· min )
n–1
μ app = m  ------------------------------
· - (3-14)
 γ ref 

·
where γ min is a lower limit for the evaluation of the shear rate magnitude. The default
·
value for γ min is 10−2 s−1, but can be given an arbitrary value or expression using the
corresponding text field.

CARREAU MODEL
The Carreau model defines the viscosity in terms of the following four-parameter
expression

n–1
· ------------
μ app = μ ∞ + ( μ 0 – μ ∞ ) [ 1 + ( λγ ) 2 ] 2 (3-15)

where λ is a parameter with the unit of time, μ0 is the zero shear rate viscosity, μ∞ is
the infinite shear-rate viscosity, and n is a dimensionless parameter. This expression is
able to describe the viscosity for most stationary polymer flows.

BINGHAM–PAPANASTASIOU
Viscoplastic fluid behavior is characterized by existence of the yield stress τy — a limit
which must be exceeded before significant deformation can occur. To model the
stress-deformation behavior of viscoplastic materials, different constitutive equations
have been propose. The Bingham plastic model is written as

τy
μ app = μ p + ----
·- , K > τ y
γ

where μp is the plastic viscosity.

To allow computation in both yielded and unyielded region, the Papanastasiou

continuous regularization for the viscosity function is used:

τy ·
μ app = μ p + ----
·- [ 1 – exp ( – m p γ ) ] (3-16)
γ

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 113

 where mp is a scale that controls the exponential growth of stress.

HERSCHEL–BULKLEY–PAPANASTASIOU
The Herschel–Bulkley –Papanastasiou model combines the effects of the Power law
the Papanastasiou continuous regularization:

 γ·  n–1
τy ·
μ app = m  -------
·  + ----
·- [ 1 – exp ( – m p γ ) ] (3-17)
 γ ref γ

·
where m, n are scalars that can be set to arbitrary values, and γ ref is the reference shear
rate. In case n equals one, the Bingham–Papanastasiou model is recovered. This
equation is valid in both yielded and unyielded regions. The exponent mp controls the
smoothness of the viscosity function.

CASSON–PAPANASTASIOU
The Casson–Papanastasiou model combines Casson equation with the Papanastasiou
regularization:

2
 τy · 
μ app =  μ p + ----
·- [ 1 – exp ( – m p γ ) ] (3-18)
 γ 

The equation is valid in both yielded and unyielded regions.

Gravity

DEFINITION
The gravity force is defined from the acceleration of gravity vector, g, and the density,
ρ. Under usual conditions and in Cartesian coordinates with the z-axis in the vertical
direction,

 0 
 
g =  0 .
 
 – g const 

When gravity is considered, a volume force equal to ρg is included in the momentum

equation. For example, for laminar weakly compressible flow, it reads:

114 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F + ρg
2
(3-19)
∂t 3

Introducing a constant reference density ρref, and assuming that g is homogeneous,

this equation is equivalently written:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u=
∂t
(3-20)
∇ ⋅  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref ) + F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g
2
 3 

where r is the position vector and rref is an arbitrary reference position vector.

From this equation, it is convenient to define the reduced pressure which accounts for
the hydrostatic pressure, p̃ = p – ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref )

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅  – p̃I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I +
2
∂t  3  (3-21)
F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g

In Equation 3-21, the gravity force is written (ρ − ρref)g.

PRESSURE FORMULATION
When the relative pressure is used (default option) the interface dependent variable
represents the relative pressure and the absolute pressure is defined as pA = pref + p.
When the pressure is used to define a boundary condition (for example, when p0
defines the pressure condition at an outlet), it represents the relative pressure. Hence
defining the outlet pressure as phydro,approx = −ρrefg ⋅ (r − rref) compensates for the
gravity force for an ambient reference pressure of 0 Pa when the density is constant,
there is no external force, and provided pref, g, and r0 are defined consistently.

When the reduced pressure is used, the interface dependent variable (named p by
default) represents the reduced pressure. The absolute pressure is then defined as
pA = pref − ρrefg ⋅ (r − rref) + p. In this case when the pressure is used to define a
boundary condition (for example, to define a pressure condition at an outlet), its value
corresponds to the reduced pressure. Hence, the prescribed pressure compensates for
an approximate hydrostatic pressure, phydro,approx = −ρrefg ⋅ (r − rref), which is exact
only when the density is constant and there is no external force.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 115

 PRESSURE BOUNDARY CONDITION
For an immobile fluid the momentum equation simplifies to ∇ ⋅ (pI) = F+ ρg or

∇ ⋅ ( – p̃I ) = F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g depending on the pressure formulation.

For incompressible flow, assuming there are no external forces, this leads respectively
to p = − ρrefg ⋅ (r − rref) + p0 or p̃ = p 0 .

Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

See Wall for the node settings.

SLIP
The Slip condition assumes that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence,
no boundary layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this is a reasonable
approximation if the important effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the
domain. Mathematically, the constraint can be formulated as:

u ⋅ n = 0, ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

The no-penetration term takes precedence over the Neumann part of the condition
and the above expression is therefore equivalent to

u ⋅ n = 0, K n – ( K n ⋅ n )n = 0
K n = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n

expressing that there is no flow across the boundary and no viscous stress in the
tangential direction.

For a moving wall with translational velocity utr, u in the above equations is replaced
by the relative velocity urel = u − utr.

The boundary condition for ν is ∇ν ⋅ n = 0.

POROUS SLIP
The Porous slip option, which can be chosen in the Porous treatment of no slip condition
list when Enable porous media domains is activated, results in a special treatment of Wall
boundaries and Interior Wall boundaries adjacent to porous domains (Porous Medium
feature). Namely, similar to the Navier slip boundary condition, no penetration and
tangential stress conditions are applied at the wall:

116 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 μ u slip
u ⋅ n = 0, K n – ( K n ⋅ n )n = – ----- ---------- ,
ε p y ps
μ T
u slip = u – ( u ⋅ n )n , K n = ----- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) )n
εp

Here, Kn is the viscous wall traction, n is the wall normal, uslip is the tangential velocity
at the wall while real no slip is assumed to be applied at a distance dw (half-height of
the first cell adjacent to the wall) outside the wall, and νps is the porous slip length. An
analytical derivation of the velocity profile in the boundary layer where the pressure
gradient is balanced by the sum of the Darcy term, the Forchheimer drag, and the
viscous term (neglecting convective terms) leads to the following expression for yps:

 1 + X e – ξp  1 + X e –ξ p 2 d l pore
ξ
= l̃  --------------------------  -------------------------- e p – 1 ,
p p w
y ps ξ p = ------ , l̃ = ------------------------,
–ξp  1 + X p  l̃ 1 + 2c β
 1 – Xp e 

1 + 2c β – 1 + 4--- c β 1 + 4c D – 1 β ND κ 2
3
X p = --------------------------------------------------- , c β = -------------------------------- , c D = ----------- ------ ∇p - ρg
2 μ μ
1 + 2c β + 1 + 4--- c β
3

where l pore = κ ⁄ ε p is the porous length scale, β ND = ρc F ⁄ κ is the non-Darcian

coefficient (cF is the Forchheimer coefficient), g is the gravity vector, and ξp, l, Xp, cβ,
cD, are intermediate variables. This formula is used when the Pressure-gradient
formulation is chosen and it uses the pressure gradient at the wall. By default, the
Velocity formulation is activated and the corresponding formula is:

ξ wd l pore
y ps = l̃ ( e p – 1 ) , ξ p = ------ , l̃ = ------------------------,
l̃ 1 + 2c β
β ND κ u slip l pore 2 1⁄3
c β =  ---------------------------- ----------  ⁄ 2
 μ dw 

Although this formulation is an approximation, since it uses the slip velocity at the wall
to reconstruct the pressure gradient, it is rather accurate. Moreover, the influence of
the convective terms is partially accounted for in this formulation.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 117

 SLIDING WALL
The sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt; that is,
the surface is sliding in its tangential direction. The wall does not have to actually move
in the coordinate system.

• In 2D, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the direction of the

boundary, but the situation becomes more complicated in 3D. For this reason, this
boundary condition has slightly different definitions in the different space
dimensions.
• For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, the velocity is given as a scalar Uw and
the condition prescribes
u ⋅ n = 0, u ⋅ t = Uw

where t = (ny , −nx) for 2D and t = (nz, −nr) for axial symmetry.
• For 3D components, the velocity is set equal to a given vector uw projected onto
the boundary plane:
u w – ( n ⋅ u w )n
u = ---------------------------------------- u w
u w – ( n ⋅ u w )n

The normalization makes u have the same magnitude as uw even if uw is not exactly
parallel to the wall.

SLIP VELOCITY
In the microscale range, the flow at a boundary is seldom strictly no slip or slip.
Instead, the boundary condition is something in between, and there is a slip velocity
at the boundary. Two phenomena account for this velocity: violation of the continuum
hypothesis for the viscosity and flow induced by a thermal gradient along the
boundary.

The following equation relates the viscosity-induced jump in tangential velocity to the
tangential shear stress along the boundary:

1
Δu = --- τ n, t
β

For gaseous fluids, the coefficient β is given by

μ -
β = ------------------------
2 – α v
 -------------- - λ
 αv 

118 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

where μ is the fluid’s dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s), αv represents the tangential
momentum accommodation coefficient (TMAC) (dimensionless), and λ is the
molecules’ mean free path (SI unit: m). The tangential accommodation coefficients are
typically in the range of 0.85 to 1.0 and can be found in Ref. 17.

A simpler expression for β is

μ-
β = -----
Ls

where Ls, the slip length (SI unit: m), is a straight channel measure of the distance
from the boundary to the virtual point outside the flow domain where the flow profile
extrapolates to zero. This equation holds for both liquids and gases.

Thermal creep results from a temperature gradient along the boundary. The following
equation relates the thermally-induced jump in tangential velocity to the tangential
gradient of the natural logarithm of the temperature along the boundary:

μ
Δu = σ T --- ∇ t log T
ρ

where σT is the thermal slip coefficient (dimensionless) and ρ is the density of the fluid.
The thermal slip coefficients range between 0.3 and 1.0 and can be found in Ref. 17.

Combining the previous relationships results in the following equation:

Ls μ
u – u w, t = ------ τ n, t + σ T ------- ∇ t T
μ ρT

Relate the tangential shear stress to the viscous boundary force by

τ n, t = K n – ( n ⋅ K n )n

where the components of K are the Lagrange multipliers that are used to implement
the boundary condition. Similarly, the tangential temperature gradient results from the
difference of the gradient and its normal projection:

∇ t T = ∇T – ( n ⋅ ∇T )n

Use Viscous Slip

When viscous slip is used, select Maxwell’s model to calculate Ls using:

2 – αv
L s =  --------------- λ
 αv 

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 119

 Also see Wall for the node settings.

ELECTROOSMOTIC VELOCITY
Most solid surfaces acquire a surface charge when brought into contact with an
electrolyte. In response to the spontaneously formed surface charge, a charged
solution forms close to the liquid-solid interface. This is known as an electric double
layer. If an electric field is applied to the fluid, this very narrow layer starts to move
along the boundary.

It is possible to model the fluid’s velocity near the boundary using the Helmholtz–
Smoluchowski relationship between the electroosmotic velocity u and the applied
electric field:

u = μ eo E t

where μeo is the electroosmotic mobility and Et is the fluid electric field tangential to
the wall.

Built-in Expression
Use the Electroosmotic mobility μeo (SI unit: m2/(s·V)) Built-in expression to
compute the electroosmotic mobility from:

ζ
μ eo = – ε r ε 0 --- (3-22)
μ

Here εr is the fluid’s relative permittivity, ε0 the permittivity of free space

(SI unit F/m), which is a predefined physical constant, ζ is the fluid’s zeta potential
(SI unit: V), and μ the fluid’s dynamic viscosity (Pa·s). Typically
μeo ≈ 7 × 10−8 m2/(s·V) and ζ ≈ 100 mV (see H. Bruus, Theoretical Microfluidics,
Oxford University Press, 2008). See Wall for the node settings.

Electroosmotic Micromixer: Application Library path

Microfluidics_Module/Micromixers/electroosmotic_mixer

Navier Slip
This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u ⋅ nwall = 0, and adds a
tangential stress

μ
K nt = – --- u slip
β

120 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

where Knt = Kn − (Kn ⋅ nwall)nwall, Kn = Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor. β is
a slip length, and uslip = u − (u ⋅ nwall)nwall is the velocity tangential to the wall. The
boundary condition does not set the tangential velocity component to zero; however,
the extrapolated tangential velocity component is 0 at a distance β outside the wall.

The Slip Length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The slip
length β is then defined as β = fhhmin, where hmin is the smallest element side
(corresponds to the element size in the wall normal direction for boundary layer
elements) and fh is a user input.

In cases where the wall movement is nonzero, Account for the translational wall velocity
in the friction force may be selected to use u − ubnd − ((u− ubnd) ⋅ nwall)nwall instead
of uslip in the friction force. Then, the extrapolated tangential velocity component is
ubnd at a distance β outside of the wall. Note that the Velocity of sliding wall uw is
always accounted for in the friction force.

The Navier Slip boundary condition is suitable for walls adjacent to a fluid-fluid
interface or a free surface when solving for laminar flow. Applying this boundary
condition, the contact line (fluid-fluid-solid interface) is free to move along the wall.
Note that in problems with contact lines, the tangential velocity of the wall typically
represents the movement of the contact line but the physical wall is not moving. In
such cases, Account for the translational wall velocity in the friction force should not be
checked.

The Navier Slip option is not available when selecting a turbulence model.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
The wall feature uses three different techniques to constraint the velocity field:

• Pointwise constraints is the standard technique to enforce strong constraints in the

finite element method. The desired value of the velocity is prescribed at each node
point in the mesh. Since the constraint is enforced locally at each node, only local
values are affected by the constraint and the constraints are independent of each
other. The solvers can therefore eliminate both the constrained degrees of freedom
and the constraint force terms, effectively reducing the number of degrees of
freedom being solved for.
The main advantage of pointwise constraints is that they enforce the constraint
exactly pointwise. This means that they do not introduce any leakage of the velocity
across the wall, unless specified. The main disadvantage of pointwise constraints is
that they introduce locking effects when trying to impose a no-penetration
condition for the velocity, u · n = 0, on curved walls or walls with sharp corners.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 121

 • Weak constraints is an alternative method to prescribe the velocity. It consists on
enforcing the boundary condition for the velocity via Lagrange multipliers. Their
main advantage is that the Lagrange multiplier can provide an accurate
representation of the reaction flux at the wall. Their main disadvantage is that they
introduce extra unknowns, and are usually difficult to combine with other constraint
methods on adjacent boundaries. Moreover, they may require extra constraints for
the Lagrange multipliers. For more information, see Weak Constraints in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
• Nitsche constraints use a numerical flux to prescribe the velocity at the wall. They
impose the constraint in an integral sense rather than pointwise, and do not suffer
from the locking effects introduced by pointwise constraints when trying to
prescribe a no penetration condition for the velocity. They are also better behaved
when prescribing nonlinear constraints. Their main disadvantage is that the
constraint is only imposed approximately, and may produce small leaks. For more
information, see Nitsche Constraints.

The following combination of Constraint techniques can be selected in the Constraint

Setting sections of Wall boundary conditions:

• Automatic (default) use different constraint methods depending on whether only the
normal component of the velocity is prescribed, such as in the no penetration
condition, u · n = 0, imposed, for example, in Slip walls or No Slip walls using Wall
Functions or Automatic Wall Treatment, or both tangential and normal
components are prescribed, as is the case of No Slip walls in laminar flow.
Nitsche constraints are used to impose the no penetration condition for Slip walls.
When a No Slip condition is prescribed, pointwise constraints are used except for
moving walls where Nitsche constraints are used.
• Pointwise constraints.
• Nitsche constraints.
• Weak constraints. They are not available on Interior Walls.
• Mixed constraints. This option is only available when both the tangential and normal
components of the velocity need to be prescribed. The velocity on the wall normal
direction is imposed via pointwise constraints. The constraint for the tangential
directions is relaxed, and Nitsche constraints are used instead. This provides
improved accuracy and performance when working with coarse boundary layer
meshes. For more information, see Ref. 19.

122 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions
The Navier–Stokes equations can show large variations in mathematical behavior,
ranging from almost completely elliptic to almost completely hyperbolic. This has
implications when it comes to prescribing admissible boundary conditions. There is
also a discrepancy between mathematically valid boundary conditions and practically
useful boundary conditions. See Inlet and Outlet for the node settings.

INLET CONDITIONS
An inlet requires specification of the velocity components. The most robust way to do
this is to prescribe a velocity field using a Velocity condition.

A common alternative to prescribing the complete velocity field is to prescribe a

pressure and all but one velocity component. The pressure cannot be specified
pointwise because this is mathematically over-constraining. Instead the pressure can be
specified via a stress condition:

∂u n
– p + 2μ --------- = F n (3-23)
∂n

where ∂un/∂n is the normal derivative of the normal velocity component.

Equation 3-23 is prescribed by the Pressure condition in the Inlet and Outlet features
and the Normal stress condition in the Open Boundary and Boundary Stress features.
Equation 3-23 is mathematically more stringent compared to specifying the pressure
pointwise and at the same time cannot guarantee that p obtains the desired value. In
practice, p is close to Fn, except for low Reynolds number flows where viscous effects
are the only effects that balance the pressure. In addition to Equation 3-23, all but one
velocity component must be specified. For low Reynolds numbers, this can be specified
by a vanishing tangential stress condition:

∂u t
μ -------- = 0
∂n

which is what the Normal stress condition does. Vanishing tangential stress becomes a
less well-posed inlet condition as the Reynolds number increases. The Pressure
condition in the Inlet feature therefore requires a flow direction to be prescribed,
which provides a well-posed condition independent of Reynolds number.

OUTLET CONDITIONS
The most common approach is to prescribe a pressure via a normal stress condition on
the outlet. This is often accompanied by a vanishing tangential stress condition:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 123

 ∂u t
μ -------- = 0
∂n

where ∂ut/∂n is the normal derivative of the tangential velocity field. It is also possible
to prescribe ut to be zero. The latter option should be used with care since it can have
a significant effect on the upstream solution.

The elliptic character of the Navier–Stokes equations mathematically permits

specifying a complete velocity field at an outlet. This can, however, be difficult to apply
in practice. The reason being that it is hard to prescribe the outlet velocity so that it is
consistent with the interior solution at each point. The adjustment to the specified
velocity then occurs across an outlet boundary layer. The thickness of this boundary
layer depends on the Reynolds number; the higher the Reynolds number, the thinner
the boundary layer.

ALTERNATIVE FORMULATIONS
COMSOL provides several specialized boundary conditions that either provide
detailed control over the flow at the boundary or that simulate specific devices. In
practice they often prescribe a velocity or a pressure but calculate the prescribed values
using, for example, ODEs.

Normal Stress Boundary Condition

Mass Flow
The Mass flow boundary condition constrains the mass flowing into the domain across
an inlet boundary. The mass flow can be specified in a number of ways.

POINTWISE MASS FLUX

The pointwise mass flux sets the velocity at the boundary to:

mf
u = – ------- n
ρ

where mf is the normal mass flux and ρ is the density.

124 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

MASS FLOW RATE
The mass flow rate boundary condition sets the total mass flow through the boundary
according to:

–  dbc ρ ( u ⋅ n ) dS = m
∂Ω

where dbc (only present in the 2D Cartesian axis system) is the boundary thickness
normal to the fluid-flow domain and m is the total mass flow rate.

In addition to the constraint on the total flow across the boundary, the tangential
velocity components are set to zero on the boundary

u×n = 0 (3-24)

STANDARD FLOW RATE

The standard flow rate boundary condition specifies the mass flow as a standard
volumetric flow rate. The mass flow through the boundary is set by the equation:

ρ
–  dbc ρ------st- ( u ⋅ n ) dS = Qsv
∂Ω

where dbc (only present in the 2D component Cartesian axis system) is the boundary
thickness normal to the fluid-flow domain, ρst is the standard density, and Qsv is the
standard flow rate. The standard density is defined by one of the following equations:

M
ρ st = -------n-
Vn

p st M n
ρ st = ---------------
-
RT st

where Mn is the mean molar mass of the fluid, Vn is the standard molar volume, pst is
the standard pressure, R is the universal molar gas constant, and Tst is the standard
temperature.

Equation 3-24 or Equation 3-25 is also enforced for compressible and incompressible
flow, respectively, ensuring that the normal component of the viscous stress and the
tangential component of the velocity are zero at the boundary.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 125

 Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)
The Fully developed flow boundary condition can be understood from the following
figure:

pinl Ω

The flow to the domain Ω is assumed to enter through a straight channel of length L.
The channel is a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section and a pressure constant
pressure Pinl is applied on the inlet of the virtual channel.

The Fully Developed Flow boundary condition prescribes that the tangential flow
component on the boundary is zero:

u – ( u ⋅ n )n = 0

The momentum equation for a fully developed flow in the virtual extrusion of the inlet
cross section can then be projected onto the inlet boundary with the following weak
equation as the result:

( p + P inl )
   L  –μ ( ∇t u + ( ∇t u ) ) + ----------------------- I : ( ∇ t û ) – P inl ( n ⋅ û )
T
2
∂Ω

The exact value of L is somewhat arbitrary as long as it is not too high or too low. L is
therefore set to ten times the inlet edge length in 2D and to ten times the square root
of the inlet area in 2D axisymmetry and in 3D.

The fact that the velocity profile is not prescribed, but rather the solution of a projected
weak contribution, means that the actual velocity profile that is obtained on the inlet
can deviate from the analytical fully developed flow profile (in cases such an analytical
solution exists) if required by the solution inside the computational domain, Ω. This is
most notably if the flow is strongly curved just downstream of the inlet. This can, for
example, be the case if an object is positioned just downstream of the inlet or if the
adjacent boundaries are not orthogonal to the inlet. The analytical solution can in
these cases be recovered by including a little bit of the inlet channel in the
computational domain.

126 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The inlet pressure, Pinl, must be solved for and the its equation is a discrete algebraic
equation (DAE) for Pinl. When, for example, the average velocity is specified, the DAE
reads

(  u ⋅ n + U av )P̂ inl

where <⋅> denotes the average over the inlet. Since the equation for Pinl is a DAE (the
equation for Pinl does not contain Pinl), it must be solved coupled to Navier–Stokes
and it must be treated by a Vanka presmoother and postsmoother if iterative solvers are
used.

The boundary conditions for the virtual inlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the inlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries). So in the
figure above, if the lower boundary of Ω is a no-slip wall and the top boundary is a
symmetry boundary, the lower boundary of the virtually extruded channel becomes a
no-slip wall and the upper boundary becomes a symmetry boundary.

Algebraic turbulence models need to additional equations or constraints. For all other
turbulence models, their weak equations in the virtual inlet channel are projected onto
the inlet of the computational domain. The projections are regularized to prevent the
production to fall to zero, so the solutions of the projects can show slight deviation
from the correct solutions close to no-slip walls.

Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)

The Fully developed flow boundary condition can be understood from the following
figure:

Ω pexit

The flow to the domain Ω is assumed to enter through a straight channel of length L.
The channel is a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section and a pressure constant
pressure Pexit is applied on the inlet of the virtual channel.

The Fully Developed Flow boundary condition prescribes that the tangential flow
component on the boundary is zero:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 127

 u – ( u ⋅ n )n = 0

The momentum equation for a fully developed flow in the virtual extrusion of the inlet
cross section can then be projected onto the inlet boundary with the following weak
equation as the result:

( p + P exit )
   L  –μ ( ∇t u + ( ∇t u ) ) + -------------------------- I : ( ∇ t û ) – P exit ( n ⋅ û )
T
2   
∂Ω

The exact value of L is somewhat arbitrary as long as it is not too high or too low. L is
therefore set to ten times the inlet edge length in 2D and to ten times the square root
of the inlet area in 2D axisymmetry and in 3D.

The fact that the velocity profile is not prescribed, but rather the solution of a projected
weak contribution, means that the actual velocity profile that is obtained on the outlet
can deviate from the analytical fully developed flow profile (in cases such an analytical
solution exists) if required by the solution inside the computational domain, Ω. The
inlet pressure, Pexit, must be solved for and the its equation is a discrete algebraic
equation (DAE) for Pexit. When, for example, the average velocity is specified, the
DAE reads

(  u ⋅ n + U av )P̂ exit

where <⋅> denotes the average over the inlet. Since the equation for Pext is a DAE, it
must be solved coupled to Navier–Stokes and it must be treated by a Vanka
presmoother and postsmoother if iterative solvers are used.

The boundary conditions for the virtual outlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the outlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries).

No Viscous Stress
For this module, and in addition to the Pressure, No Viscous Stress boundary
condition, the viscous stress condition sets the viscous stress to zero:

 μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = 0
 3 

( μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

128 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,
respectively.

The condition is not a sufficient outlet condition since it lacks information about the
outlet pressure. It must hence be combined with pressure point constraints on one or
several points or lines surrounding the outlet.

This boundary condition is numerically the least stable outlet condition, but can still
be beneficial if the outlet pressure is nonconstant due to, for example, a nonlinear
volume force.

Normal Stress Boundary Condition

The total stress on the boundary is set equal to a stress vector of magnitude f0, oriented
in the negative normal direction:

 – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = – f 0 n
  3 

( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – f 0 n

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

This implies that the total stress in the tangential direction is zero. This boundary
condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure which for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- + f 0 (3-25)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-25 states that p ≈ f0.

The Normal Stress condition is the mathematically correct version of the Pressure
Conditions condition (Ref. 4), but it is numerically less stable.

Pressure Boundary Condition

For single-phase flow, a mathematically correct natural boundary condition for outlets
is

 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – p 0 n (3-26)
 3 

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 129

 ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p 0 n (3-27)

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

This is a normal stress condition together with a no-tangential-stress condition. When

μ > 0, Equation 3-26 or Equation 3-27 can be supplemented with a tangential velocity
condition

u⋅t=0 (3-28)

If so, the no-tangential-stress condition is overridden. An issue with Equation 3-26 or

Equation 3-27 is that it does not strongly enforce unidirectional flow on the boundary.
If the prescribed pressure on an outlet is too high, parts of the outlet can actually have
inflow. This is not as much of an issue for the Navier–Stokes equations as it is an issue
for scalar transport equations solved along with the Navier–Stokes equations. Hence,
when applying the Pressure boundary condition at an outlet or inlet you can further
constrain the flow. With the Suppress backflow option

 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – p̂ 0 n
 3 
, (3-29)
( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p̂ 0 n
p̂ 0 ≤ p 0

the normal stress is adjusted to keep

u⋅n≥0 (3-30)

Equation 3-29 effectively means that the prescribed pressure is p0 if u ⋅ n ≥ 0, but

smaller at locations where u ⋅ n < 0. This means that Equation 3-29 does not
completely prevent backflow, but the backflow is substantially reduced. Backflow is
suppressed also when external forces are acting on the fluid, provided the magnitude
of these forces are of the same order as the dynamic pressure at the outlet.

A pressure condition can also be applied at an inlet. In this case, either the normal stress
is prescribed

130 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 n  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – p̂ 0
T 2
3
T
(3-31)
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p̂ 0
p̂ 0 ≥ p 0

together with the tangential condition in Equation 3-28, or, a general flow direction
is prescribed.

T  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
ru --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – p̂ 0 ( r ⋅ n )
 3  u
T ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p̂ ( r ⋅ n )
ru 0 u
(3-32)
p̂ 0 ≥ p 0
du
u – ( u ⋅ r u )r u = 0, r u = ----------
-
du

The “>” option is used with suppress backflow to have u ⋅ n ≤ 0 or u ⋅ ru ≥ 0.

For incompressible single-phase flow, it is also allowed to specify the total pressure,
ptot, instead of the static pressure, pstat, on inlet and outlet boundaries. It is more
useful, for example, in pump applications. The pressure is then prescribed at the
boundaries using Bernoulli’s principle,

1 2
p = p stat = p tot – --- ρ u (3-33)
2

The equation is imposed with two options: Average and Pointwise.

In the first option, pstat is prescribed by:

T T (3-34)
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = n ( – p stat I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n

where ptot and |u|2 are averaged over the boundaries using the aveop operator:

1 2
p stat = aveop ( p tot ) – --- ρ ⋅ aveop ( u )
2

For the second option, Equation 3-33 is prescribed pointwise.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 131

 See Inlet, Outlet, Open Boundary, and No Viscous Stress for the individual node
settings. Note that some modules have additional theory sections describing options
available with that module.

Porous Interface
This condition properly accounts for a sudden jump in porosity εp across boundary
between different domains, giving the corresponding jump in stress across the
interface. The emergence of a boundary layer on the upstream side of the interface is
also revealed, which provides modifications to the behavior of the tangential velocity
near the interface. The feature helps to avoid the need to add a very thin transition
region, in which εp,upstream changes to εp,downstream continuously, while solving the
Brinkman equation in such situations. Below, ‘−’ and ‘+’ (used as subscripts and
superscripts) refer to the upstream and downstream side of the interface, respectively.

Whatever the option for Continuity conditions is chosen, the velocity conditions are

+
+ +
[ρ(u ⋅ n)] = 0, ut ≡ [ u – ( u ⋅ n )n ] =0
− −
−

That is, the mass flux and tangential velocity across the interface are constant, and n is
assumed to be a normal pointing from ‘−’ to ‘+’. Velocity and stress option just imposes
usual stress continuity adding a correction for a possible jump in density:

+
pn – Kn + ρ ( u ⋅ n )  -----
1  2u = 0
εp 
av
−

The option Velocity and porosity-corrected stress (default) adds a contribution due to
the inertial term, which is non-trivial (gives non-zero effect) when εp jumps across the
interface:

+
pn – Kn + ρ ( u ⋅ n )  -----
1  2 u + ρ ( u ⋅ n )  --------
1 -
 u av = 0
εp   2ε 2p 
av
−

=  ----- + -----  ⁄ 2 , u av = ( u − + u + ) ⁄ 2 and so on.

1 1 1
Notice that -----
ε p av εp − εp +
Then, the Velocity and porosity-corrected stress with loss option has a ‘pressure loss’
term:

132 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 +
pn – Kn + ρ ( u ⋅ n )  -----
1  2 u + ρ ( u ⋅ n )  --------
1 
- u av +p
(loss)
n = 0
 εp   2ε 2p 
av
−

This loss occurs in the downstream direction. Its mechanism is similar to the
mechanism of common engineering ‘total pressure loss’. Indeed, ‘expansion’ and
‘contraction’ across the interface experienced by the flow on the microscopic level (due
to increasing or decreasing porosity, εp, respectively), are roughly equivalent to
expansion and contraction of flow in a pipe with geometrical variations. Accordingly,
it is assumed that only the normal velocity component is responsible for the loss. In
the case of normal flow and negligible viscous term the pipe-analogy is quite exact.

Subsequently, Pressure loss model should be specified. Choosing User-defined loss

coefficients requires values of Expansion loss coefficient and Contraction loss coefficient
(Kexp = 1 and Kcontr = 0.5 are default values). The resulting losses on the ‘expansion’
and ‘contraction’ boundaries are:

(loss,expansion)   ρ ( u ⋅ n ) 2 
p = K exp   -----------------------
-  ,
  2ε 2p  −

(loss,contraction)  ρ ( u ⋅ n ) 2
p = K contr  -----------------------
-
 2ε 2p  +

Borda–Carnot option results in the following losses:

ρ av ( u ⋅ n ) (u ⋅ n) 2
= -------  ----------------- – -----------------  ,
(loss,expansion)
p
2 εp + εp −
1  ρ ( u ⋅ n ) -  1
2 2
  ------- – 1
(loss,contraction)
p = ---  -----------------------
2 εp
2
 + c vc

and requires to choose Vena contracta model. The User defined option asks for value of
Vena contracta coefficient (cvc = 0.5 by default). Weisbach option computes the
coefficient based on the ratio of porosities across the interface:

 ε p, + n vc
c vc = c vc,ll + ( 1 – c vc,ll )  ----------
 ε p, −

and requires inputs for Lower limit and Exponent (cvc,ll = 0.63 and nvc = 3 are default
values).

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 133

 Although the velocity conditions formally look the same for all Continuity conditions
options, the latter two (containing the inertial correction due to the porosity jump)
lead to an extra non-trivial effect. Namely, the tangential velocity exponentially evolves
over a boundary layer formed on the upstream side of the interface boundary. This
boundary layer has a characteristic length equal to

με p, −
l − = --------------------
-
ρ(u ⋅ n)

The ratio of the tangential velocities right after the interface (‘downstream’) and
outside the boundary layer (‘upstream infinity’) is

u t, + 2ε p, + ⁄ ε p, −
- = --------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------ -
u t,upstream infinity ε p, + ⁄ ε p, − + ε p, − ⁄ ε p, +

In terms of the interstitial velocity, u(i) = u/εp, this results in:

(i)
u t, + 2
- = --------------------------------------------------------- ≤ 1
-----------------------------------------------
(i)
u t,upstream infinity ε p, + p, −
⁄ ε + ε p, − ⁄ ε p, +

Obviously, tangential component of the interstitial kinetic energy is lost across the
interface. For low viscosity and high normal-flow component, when lu is much lower
than lgeom (the characteristic geometry length) there are apparent variations in ut and
u(i)t in a thin boundary layer on the upstream side of the interface. However, for the
cases with high viscosity or nearly interface-parallel flow, lu is much larger than lgeom,
and any variations in ut and u(i)t are virtually invisible.

Notice that the feature does not take into account possible underresolved porous scale,
as is described in Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface.

134 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow
There are two types of mass sources in a Single-Phase Flow interface: point sources and
line sources.

These features require at least one of the following licenses: Battery

Design Module, CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module,
Corrosion Module, Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition
Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe
Flow Module, Polymer Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

POINT SOURCE
·
A point source is theoretically formed by taking a mass injection/ejection, Q (SI unit:
3
kg/(m ·s)), in a small volume δV and then letting the size of the volume tend to zero
while keeping the total mass flux constant. Given a point source strength, q· p (SI unit:
kg/s), this can be expressed as

·
lim
δV → 0 Q = q· p (3-35)
δV

An alternative way to form a point source/sink is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. Letting the object surface
area tend to zero while keeping the mass flux constant, results in the same point source.
For this alternative approach, effects resulting from the physical object volume, such
as drag and fluid displacement, need to be neglected.

The weak contribution

q· p test ( p )
·
is added to a point in the geometry. As can be seen from Equation 3-35, Q must tend
to plus or minus infinity as δV tends to zero. This means that in theory the pressure
also tends to plus or minus infinity.

Observe that “point” refers to the physical representation of the source. A point source
can therefore only be added to points in 3D components and to points on the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry components. Other geometrical points in 2D
components represent physical lines.

The finite element representation of Equation 3-35 corresponds to a finite pressure in

a point with the effect of the point source spread out over a region around the point.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 135

 The size of the region depends on the mesh and on the strength of the source. A finer
mesh gives a smaller affected region, but also a more extreme pressure value. It is
important not to mesh too finely around a point source since the resulting pressure can
result in unphysical values for the density, for example. It can also have a negative effect
on the condition number for the equation system.

LINE SOURCE
·
A line source can theoretically be formed by assuming a source of strength Q (SI unit:
3
kg/(m ·s)), located within a tube with cross-sectional area δS and then letting δS tend
to zero, while keeping the total mass flux per unit length constant. Given a line source
strength, q· l (SI unit: kg/(m·s)), this can be expressed as

·
lim
δS → 0  Q = q· l (3-36)
δS

As in the point source case, an alternative approach is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. This results in the same mass
source, but requires that effects on the fluid resulting from the physical object volume
are neglected.

The weak contribution

q· l test ( p )

is added to lines in 3D or to points in 2D (which represent cut-through views of lines).

Line sources can also be added to the axisymmetry line in 2D axisymmetry
components. It cannot, however, be added to geometrical lines in 2D because they
represent physical planes.

As with a point source, it is important not to mesh too finely around the line source.

For feature node information, see Line Mass Source and Point Mass
Source in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

136 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which
is available with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module, or Battery Design Module, these shared physics nodes are
renamed as follows:

• The Line Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the species (Species Line Source).
• The Point Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for the species (Species Point Source).

Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

The momentum equation (Equation 3-10 or Equation 3-12) is a (nonlinear)
convection-diffusion equation. Such equations can easily become unstable if
discretized using the Galerkin finite element method. Stabilized finite element
methods are usually necessary in order to obtain physical solutions. The stabilization
settings are found in the main Fluid Flow interface features. To display this section,
click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization in the Show More
Options dialog box.

There are three types of stabilization methods available for Navier–Stokes —

streamline diffusion, crosswind diffusion, and isotropic diffusion. Streamline
diffusion and crosswind diffusion are consistent stabilization methods, whereas
isotropic diffusion is an inconsistent stabilization method.

For optimal functionality, the exact weak formulations of and constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods depend on the order of the
shape functions (basis functions) for the elements. The values of constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods follow Ref. 5 and Ref. 6.

STREAMLINE DIFFUSION
For strongly coupled systems of equations, the streamline diffusion method must be
applied to the system as a whole rather than to each equation separately. These ideas
were first explored by Hughes and Mallet (Ref. 8) and were later extended to Galerkin
least-squares (GLS) applied to the Navier–Stokes equations (Ref. 9). This is the
streamline diffusion formulation that COMSOL Multiphysics supports.

Streamline diffusion is active by default because it is necessary when convection is

dominating the flow.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 137

 The governing equations for incompressible flow are subject to the Babuška–Brezzi
condition, which states that the shape functions (basis functions) for pressure must be
of lower order than the shape functions for velocity. If the incompressible Navier–
Stokes equations are stabilized by streamline diffusion, it is possible to use equal-order
interpolation. Hence, streamline diffusion is necessary when using first-order elements
for both velocity and pressure. This applies also if the model is solved using geometric
multigrid (either as a solver or as a preconditioner) and at least one multigrid hierarchy
level uses linear Lagrange elements.

CROSSWIND DIFFUSION
Crosswind diffusion can also be formulated for systems of equations, and when applied
to the Navier–Stokes equations it becomes a shock-capturing operator. COMSOL
Multiphysics supports the formulation in Ref. 9 with a shock-capturing viscosity of the
Hughes–Mallet type Ref. 8.

Incompressible flows do not contain shock waves, but crosswind diffusion is still useful
for introducing extra diffusion in sharp boundary layers and shear layers that otherwise
would require a very fine mesh to resolve.

Crosswind diffusion is active by default as it makes it easier to obtain a solution even if

the problem is fully resolved by the mesh. Crosswind diffusion also enables the iterative
solvers to use inexpensive presmoothers. If crosswind diffusion is deactivated, more
expensive preconditioners must be used instead.

STABILIZATION TIME SCALES

The time-scale tensor for time-dependent problems should in theory depend on a
time-scale that many references just set to the time-step taken by the time-solver, Δt
(see, for example, Ref. 9 and Ref. 10). This simple approach does not, however,
necessarily reflect on the actual time-scales in the physics. A typical example is reacting
flows where the time step is often guided by fast reactions, while the flow develops
relatively slowly. The COMSOL Multiphysics software can therefore replace Δt2 in the
time-scale tensor with measures of type ( 1 ⁄ ( Δt̃ ) 2 ) –1 , which are calculated from
projections of weak expressions in a fashion similar to those in Ref. 11. These measures
of the time scale are used when Use dynamic subgrid time scale is activated.

The Limit small time steps effect on stabilization time scale option can be used to ramp
down the time-step contribution in the stabilization when the time step becomes much
smaller than the convective and diffusive time scales. This option prevents loss of
pressure stabilization at such small time steps.

138 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

ISOTROPIC DIFFUSION
Isotropic diffusion adds diffusion to the Navier–Stokes equations. Isotropic diffusion
significantly reduces the accuracy of the solution but does a very good job at reducing
oscillations. The stability of the continuity equation is not improved.

Numerical Stabilization and Iterative in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

Solvers for Laminar Flow

The Navier–Stokes equations constitute a nonlinear equation system. A nonlinear
solver must hence be applied to solve the problem. The nonlinear solver iterates to
reach the final solution. In each iteration, a linearized version of the nonlinear system
is solved using a linear solver. In the time-dependent case, a time marching method
must also be applied. The default suggestions for each of these solver elements are
discussed below.

NONLINEAR SOLVER
The nonlinear solver method depends on if the model solves a stationary or a
time-dependent problem.

Stationary Solver
In the stationary case, a fully coupled, damped Newton method is applied. The initial
damping factor is low since a full Newton step can be harmful unless the initial values
are close to the final solution. The nonlinear solver algorithm automatically regulates
the damping factor in order to reach a converged solution.

For advanced models, the automatically damped Newton method might not be robust
enough. A pseudo time-stepping algorithm can then be invoked. See Pseudo Time
Stepping for Laminar Flow Models.

Time-Dependent Solver
In the time-dependent case, the initial guess for each time step is (loosely speaking) the
previous time step, which is a very good initial value for the nonlinear solver. The
automatic damping algorithm is then not necessary. The damping factor in the
Newton method is instead set to a constant value slightly smaller than one. Also, for
the same reason, it suffices to update the Jacobian once per time step.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 139

 It is seldom worth the extra computational cost to update the Jacobian more than once
per time step. For most models it is more efficient to restrict the maximum time step
or possibly lower the damping factor in the Newton method.

LINEAR SOLVER
The linearized Navier–Stokes equation system has saddle point character, unless the
density depends on the pressure. This means that the Jacobian matrix has zeros on the
diagonal. Even when the density depends on the pressure, the equation system
effectively shares many numerical properties with a saddle point system.

For small 2D and 3D models, the default solver suggestion is a direct solver. Direct
solvers can handle most nonsingular systems and are very robust and also very fast for
small models. Unfortunately, they become slow for large models and their memory
requirement scales as somewhere between N1.5 and N2, where N is the number of
degrees of freedom in the model. The default suggestion for large 2D and 3D models
is therefore the iterative GMRES solver. The memory requirement for an iterative
solver optimally scales as N.

GMRES is accelerated by a multigrid method, per default the smoothed aggregation

algebraic multigrid (SAAMG) method. The cost of SAAMG is typically very low
compared to the number of GMRES iterations necessary if no multigrid method is
used. As the name implies, SAAMG builds its coarser meshes algebraically, so the
application requires no additional meshes in order to employ SAAMG. In contrast, the
geometric multigrid (GMG) method requires actual meshes. If a sufficient number of
multigrid levels can be constructed, GMG is often faster than SAAMG. GMG is also
superior for cluster computations and for shared-memory computations with many
cores. When the default linear solver is GMRES, an optional, but deactivated, linear
solver node is available where GMRES is accelerated by GMG.

Multigrid methods need smoothers, but the saddle point character of the linear system
restricts the number of applicable smoothers. The choices are further restricted by the
anisotropic meshes frequently encountered in fluid-flow problems. The efficiency of
the smoothers is highly dependent on the numerical stabilization. Iterative solvers
perform at their best when both Streamline Diffusion and Crosswind Diffusion are
active.

The default smoother for P1+P1 elements is SCGS. This is an efficient and robust
smoother specially designed to solve saddle point systems on meshes that contain
anisotropic elements. The SCGS smoother works well even without crosswind
diffusion. SCGS can sometimes work for higher-order elements, especially if Method in
the SCGS settings is set to Mesh element lines. But there is no guarantee for this, so the

140 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

default smoother for higher order elements is an SOR Line smoother. SOR Line
handles mesh anisotropy but does not formally address the saddle point character. It
does, however, function in practice provided that streamline diffusion and crosswind
diffusion are both active.

A different kind of saddle point character can arise if the equation system contains
ODE variables. Some advanced boundary conditions can add equations with such
variables. These variables must be treated with the Vanka algorithm. SCGS includes an
option to invoke Vanka. Models with higher-order elements must apply SCGS or use
the Vanka smoother. The latter is the default suggestion for higher-order elements, but
it does not work optimally for anisotropic meshes.

TIME-DEPENDENT SOLVERS
The default time-dependent solver for Navier–Stokes is the BDF method with
maximum order set to two. Higher BDF orders are not stable for transport problems
in general nor for Navier–Stokes in particular.

BDF methods have been used for a long time and are known for their stability.
However, they can have severe damping effects, especially the lower-order methods.
Hence, if robustness is not an issue, a model can benefit from using the generalized-α
method instead. Generalized-α is a solver that has properties similar to those of the
second-order BDF solver but it is much less diffusive.

Both BDF and generalized-α are per default set to automatically adjust the time step.
While this works well for many models, extra efficiency and accuracy can often be
gained by specifying a maximum time step. It is also often beneficial to specify an initial
time step to make the solver progress smoothly in the beginning of the time series.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Time-Dependent Solver
• Multigrid, Direct, Iterative, SCGS, SOR Line, and Vanka
• Stationary Solver

Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

A stationary formulation has per definition no time derivatives and Equation 3-12
reduces to:

T
ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F (3-37)

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 141

 Solving Equation 3-37 requires a starting guess that is close enough to the final
solution. If no such guess is at hand, the fully transient problem can be solved instead.
This is, however, a rather costly approach in terms of computational time. An
intermediate approach is to add a fictitious time derivative to Equation 3-37:

u – nojac ( u ) T
ρ ------------------------------- + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F
Δt̃

where Δt̃ is a pseudo time step. Since u−nojac(u) is always zero, this term does not
affect the final solution. It does, however, affect the discrete equation system and
effectively transforms a nonlinear iteration into a step of size Δt̃ of a time-dependent
solver.

Pseudo time stepping is not active per default. The pseudo time step Δt̃ can be chosen
individually for each element based on the local CFL number:

h
Δt̃ = CFL loc ------
u

where h is the mesh cell size. A small CFL number means a small time step. It is
practical to start with a small CFL number and gradually increase it as the solution
approaches steady state.

If the automatic expression for CFLloc is set to the built-in variable CFLCMP, then the
automatic setting suggests a PID regulator for the pseudo time step in the default
solver. The PID regulator starts with a small CFL number and increases CFLloc as the
solution comes closer to convergence.

The default manual expression is

1.3 min ( niterCMP, 9 ) +

if ( niterCMP > 20, 9 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 20, 9 ), 0 ) + (3-38)
if ( niterCMP > 40, 90 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 40, 9 ), 0 )

The variable niterCMP is the nonlinear iteration number. It is equal to one for the first
nonlinear iteration. CFLloc starts at 1.3 and increases by 30% each iteration until it
reaches 1.39 ≈10.6. It remains there until iteration number 20 at which it starts to
increase until it reaches approximately 106. A final increase after iteration number 40

142 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

then takes it to 1060. Equation 3-38 can, for some advanced flows, increase CFLloc
too slowly or too quickly. CFLloc can then be tuned for the specific application.

For details about the CFL regulator, see Pseudo Time Stepping in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Nitsche Constraints
Some boundary conditions are implemented using Nitsche constraints. These
boundary conditions include

• Wall — Slip, sliding walls, and moving walls (that is, walls with nonzero
translational velocity).
• Periodic Flow Condition
• Flow Continuity

The formulation used in the Fluid Flow interfaces in single-phase flow interfaces
corresponds to the Symmetric Interior Penalty Galerkin method (SIPG). The SIPG
method can be regarded to satisfy the boundary conditions in an integral sense rather
than pointwise. More information on SIPG can be found in Ref. 15.

In particular, the SIPG formulation includes a penalty parameter that must be large
enough for the formulation to be coercive. The higher the value, the better the
boundary condition is fulfilled, but a too high value results in an ill-conditioned
equation system. The penalty parameter is implemented according to Ref. 16.

Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow

The Particle Tracing Module is available to assist with these types of modeling
problems.

It is possible to model particle tracing with COMSOL Multiphysics provided that the
impact of the particles on the flow field is negligible. First compute the flow field, and
then, as an analysis step, calculate the motion of the particles. The motion of a particle
is defined by Newton’s second law

2
d x
= F  t, x, 
dx
m
dt2 dt

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 143

 where x is the position of the particle, m the particle mass, and F is the sum of all forces
acting on the particle. Examples of forces acting on a particle in a fluid are the drag
force, the buoyancy force, and the gravity force. The drag force represents the force
that a fluid exerts on a particle due to a difference in velocity between the fluid and the
particle. It includes the viscous drag, the added mass, and the Basset history term.
Several empirical expressions have been suggested for the drag force. One of those is
the one proposed by Khan and Richardson (Ref. 13). That expression is valid for
spherical particles for a wide range of particle Reynolds numbers. The particle
Reynolds number is defined as

u – u p 2rρ
Re p = ----------------------------
μ

where u is the velocity of the fluid, up the particle velocity, r the particle radius, ρ the
fluid density, and μ the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The empirical expression for the
drag force according to Khan and Richardson is

2 -0.31 3.45
F = πr ρ u – u p ( u – u p ) [ 1.84Re p + 0.293Re p0.06 ]

The model Flow Past a Cylinder (Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow) demonstrates how to
add and set up particle tracing in a plot group using the Particle Tracing
with Mass node. It uses the predefined Khan–Richardson model for the
drag force and neglects gravity and buoyancy forces.

References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

1. G.G. Stokes, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., vol. 8, pp. 287–305, 1845.

2. P.M. Gresho and R.L. Sani, Incompressible Flow and the Finite Element Method,
Volume 2: Isothermal Laminar Flow, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.

3. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction To Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press,

1967.

4. R.L. Panton, Incompressible Flow, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

5. I. Harari and T.J.R. Hughes, “What are C and h? Inequalities for the Analysis and
Design of Finite Element Methods,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 97,
pp. 157–192, 1992.

144 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

6. Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Calo, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, “YZβ Discontinuity
Capturing for Advection-dominated Processes with Application to Arterial Drug
Delivery,” Int. J. Num. Meth. Fluids, vol. 54, pp. 593–608, 2007.

7. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, 2007.

8. T.J.R. Hughes and M. Mallet, “A New Finite Element Formulation for

Computational Fluid Dynamics: III. The Generalized Streamline Operator for
Multidimensional Advective-Diffusive System,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng.,
vol. 58, pp. 305–328, 1986.

9. G. Hauke and T.J.R. Hughes, “A Unified Approach to Compressible and

Incompressible Flows,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 113, pp. 389–395,
1994.

10. G. Hauke, “Simple Stabilizing Matrices for the Computation of Compressible

Flows in Primitive Variables”, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 190,
pp. 6881–6893, 2001.

11. M.-C. Hsu, Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Cali, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, “Improving
stability of stabilized and multiscale formulations in flow simulations at small time
steps,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 199, pp. 828–840, 2010.

12. D.J. Tritton, Physical Fluid Dynamics, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 1988.

13. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, “Particle Technology and Separation
Processes,” Chemical Engineering, Volume 2, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002.

14. J.L. Guermond, P. Minev, and J. Shen, “An overview of projection methods for
incompressible flows,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 195, pp. 6011–
6045, 2006.

15. B. Rivière, Discontinuous Galerkin Methods for Solving Elliptic and Parabolic
Equations, SIAM, 2008.

16. Y. Epshteyn and B. Rivière, “Estimation of penalty parameters for symmetric

interior penalty Galerkin methods,” J. Comput. Appl. Math., vol. 206, pp. 843–872,
2007.

17. G. Kariadakis, A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows and Nanoflows, Springer

Science and Business Media, 2005.

18. R.P. Chhabra and J.F. Richardson, Non-Newtonian Flow and Applied Rheology,
2nd ed., Elsevier, 2008.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 145

 19. Y. Bazilevs and T.J.R. Hughes, “Weak imposition of Dirichlet boundary conditions
in fluid mechanics,” Comput. Fluids, vol. 36, pp. 12–26, 2007.

20. G. Kariadakis, A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows and Nanoflows, Springer

Science and Business Media, 2005.

146 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Potential Flow
Interface
The theory for the Incompressible Potential Flow interface is described in the
following section.

General Incompressible Potential Flow Theory

The Incompressible Potential Flow interface is used to simulate irrotational, inviscid,
and incompressible flow. The continuity equation for incompressible flow can be
expressed as a divergence-free constraint for the velocity

∇⋅u = 0 (3-39)

Moreover, irrotational flow is described as

∇×u = 0 (3-40)

As the curl of the gradient of a scalar field is zero by definition, the velocity can be
approximated as the gradient of a scalar velocity potential, φ,

u = – ∇φ (3-41)

so that Equation 3-39 and Equation 3-41 result in the Laplace equation

– ∇ ⋅ ∇φ = 0 (3-42)

The local gauge pressure can be obtained from Bernoulli’s equation

ρ 2
p = p Tot – --- ∇φ (3-43)
2

where

ρ 2
p Tot = --- U scale (3-44)
2

and Uscale is the user-defined free-stream velocity.

THEORY FOR THE POTENTIAL FLOW INTERFACE | 147

148 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES
 4

Multiphase Flow, Two-Phase Flow

Interfaces
There are several Fluid Flow interfaces available with the Microfluidics Module.
These are found under the Fluid Flow>Multiphase Flow branch ( ) when adding a
physics interface. See Modeling Microfluidic Fluid Flows to help select the physics
interface to use.

In this chapter:

• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field Interfaces
• The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface
• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface
• Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces
• Theory for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface
• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

| 149
 The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level
Set and Laminar Two-Phase Flow,
Phase Field Interfaces
This section includes the following topics:

• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface

• The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature
• The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
• The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface
• The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar Flow, Two-Phase, Level
Set and Phase Field Interfaces

Mathematics, Moving Interfaces

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interface ( ) found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Level Set branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed to
track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The flow is assumed to be laminar,
that is, to be of low to moderate Reynolds number. The fluids can be incompressible
or compressible.

When adding the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set multiphysics interface, a Laminar
Flow and a Level Set interface are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a
multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature, is
added automatically under the Multiphysics node. The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
is also added, but with empty selection. Other Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling
features and The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature can be added when needed
to model walls.

150 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Simulations using the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of its
history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Discretization
By default the fluid flow discretization is set to P1+P1, and the level set discretization
is set to Linear. This combination provides exact conservation of the integral of the level
set variable when using the nonconservative form of the level set equation.

• Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set, ( ) and Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set,
( ) interfaces contain a multiphysics coupling feature, Two-Phase Flow, Level Set,
which is added automatically.

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set multiphysics coupling feature defines the density and
dynamic viscosity of the fluid used in the Laminar Flow interface, and it defines the
surface tension on the interface in form of a volume force used in the momentum
equation. It also enables the Level Set interface to use the velocity field calculated from
the Laminar Flow interface to transport the interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
in the model) is tpf1.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 151
 DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select All domains (the default)
or select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific domains.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density, viscosity, or the surface tension
coefficient, can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material.
For the latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be
required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The default Absolute pressure pA is p + pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the fluid flow physics interface level.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

152 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The effective density and dynamic viscosity can either be Locally defined or picked up
from a Multiphase Material. When the properties are defined locally, provide the
properties for each phase in the respective fluid properties section, and the averaging
method in the advanced settings section. If a multiphase material is used, these settings
are controlled from the material. Using a multiphase material is advantageous for
models coupling two-phase flow with other physics interfaces, such as Heat Transfer
in Fluids or Electrostatics. In such cases, the multiphase material can ensure that the
effective material properties for these physics interfaces are averaged using the volume
fraction from the Level Set physics interface.

Click the Go to Material button () to move to the selected material node. Click the
Add Multiphase Material button ( ) to add a multiphase material with two phases.
The added material then becomes the one selected in the Multiphase Material list.

Multiphase Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES
A Fluid Properties section will be available per phase if the Material Properties are set to
Locally defined. Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of the two
fluids. The fluids are denoted Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid 1from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid 1 list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid 1 ρ1 and Dynamic viscosity of
fluid 1 μ1 are both set to From Material.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref for incompressible flows (as
specified by the Compressibility setting of the fluid flow interface).

The non-Newtonian Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–

Papanastasiou, and Casson–Papanastasiou models can alternatively be used to specify
the dynamic viscosities of the two fluids.

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for Fluid
A, select User defined in the Density of fluid 1 ρ1 or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid 1 μ1
list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 153
 Similarly, the properties of Fluid 2 can be specified. The default material is set to None.

Care should be taken when using the Domain Material setting for the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2. The material properties are
obtained from the domain irrespective of the location of the interface. If
two different materials are selected in domains 1 and 2, with the phase
boundary initially coincident with the domain boundary, the model has
convergence issues once the phase boundary moves away from the
domain boundary. This is because a density discontinuity and a viscosity
discontinuity occurs at the boundary separating the two fluids. For this
reason, selecting the material directly is recommended when setting the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
If the Material Properties are set to Locally defined, you can specify the averaging
method for density and dynamic viscosity in this section. The default method for
Density averaging and Viscosity averaging is Volume average. In addition to the default
method, Density averaging can be set to Heaviside function or Harmonic volume average,
while Viscosity averaging can be set to Heaviside function, Harmonic volume average, Mass
average or Harmonic mass average. When a Heaviside function is used, enter a value for
the corresponding mixing parameter, lρ or lμ.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation. The surface tension force is not
added to porous domains.

Select a Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m):

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (for example, Water/Air or Glycerol/Air). The predefined correlations
are based on the data in Ref. 7, Ref. 8, and Ref. 9.
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient σ
(SI unit: N/m).

154 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set ( ) interface contains an optional multiphysics
coupling boundary feature, Wetted Wall. It is an exclusive feature that overrides the
Wall feature in the Laminar interface as well as the No Flow feature in the Level Set
interface. It cannot be used in boundaries that have a Flow Continuity feature in the flow
physics interface or a Continuity feature in the level set physics interface.

The Wetted Wall boundary condition is suitable for walls in contact with the fluid-fluid
interface. When this boundary condition is used, the fluid-fluid interface can move
along the wall.

For laminar flow, this boundary condition enforces the no-penetration condition u ⋅
nwall = 0 and adds a tangential stress on the form

K nt = – μ
--- u
β

where Knt = Kn − (Kn ⋅ nwall)nwall, Kn = Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor. β is
the slip length. For numerical calculations, a suitable choice is β = h, where h is the
mesh element size. The boundary condition does not set the tangential velocity
component to zero. However, the extrapolated tangential velocity component is 0 at
a distance β outside the wall (see Figure 4-1).If the surface tension force is included in
the momentum equation in The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature, the
Wetted Wall boundary condition also adds the following boundary force to enforce the
contact angle:

F θ = σδ ( n wall ⋅ n – cos θ w )n

The contact angle θw is defined as the angle between the fluid interface and the wall
(see Figure 4-1). For more information, see Ref. 4 and Ref. 5. Note that the contact
angle is not enforced on boundaries adjacent to porous domains.

The contact angle θw can be defined directly or from Young’s equation, which
considers the components of the forces in the plane of the surface:

σ cos ( θ w ) + γ s2 = γ s1 (4-1)

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 155
 where γs1 is the surface energy density on the fluid 1 — solid (wall) interface and γs2
is the surface energy density on the fluid 2 — solid (wall) interface.

Fluid 1

u Wall
Wall
θ

Fluid 2
β

Figure 4-1: Definition of the contact angle θ at interface/wall contact points (left) and
an illustration of the slip length β (right).

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The default Name (for the first Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling feature in the model)
is ww1.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, select All boundaries (the default) or
select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific boundaries.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement.

156 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

Translational velocity can also be set to Zero (Fixed wall) to force utr = 0. This is typically
used in problems where the mesh is deforming or rotating, but we want the boundary
to keep zero velocity. For example, in fixed walls tangential to a Rotating Domain.

WETTED WALL
When using Navier Slip, the Slip Length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum
element length. The slip length β is then defined as β = fhhmin, where hmin is the
smallest element side (corresponds to the element size in the wall normal direction for
boundary layer elements) and fh is a user input. Select User defined from Slip Length
selection list in order to manually prescribe β (SI unit: m).

If the fluid physics interface includes porous domains, check Use porous slip wall
treatment to use the porous slip wall treatment to provide tangential stresses and the
slip velocity on boundaries adjacent to porous domains. If Use porous slip wall
treatment is not checked, the condition selected in Wall condition is used for porous
boundaries.

CONTACT ANGLE
Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation. For Directly enter a Contact angle θw (SI unit: rad). The default is
π/2 radians. For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for Phase 1-Solid
surface energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface energy density γs2
(SI unit: J/m2).

Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature

The Interior Wetted Wall, multiphysics coupling boundary feature can only be applied
on interior boundaries.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 157
 It is similar to The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature available on exterior boundaries of
the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set ( ) multiphysics interface, except that it applies
on both sides of an interior boundary. It is an exclusive feature which overrides the
Interior Wall feature in the Laminar interface as well as the Thin Barrier feature in the
Level Set interface. It is available for laminar flow and turbulent flow with wall
functions or automatic wall treatment.

The Interior Wetted Wall coupling feature allows discontinuities (velocity, pressure,
level set variable) across the boundary and can be used to avoid meshing thin structures
in contact with the fluid-fluid interface. When this boundary condition is used, the
fluid-fluid interface can move along the wall.

For laminar flow, this boundary condition enforces the no-penetration condition
u ⋅ nwall = 0 on both sides of the wall, and adds a tangential stress on the form

K nt = – μ
--- u
β

where Knt = Kn − (Kn ⋅ nwall)nwall, Kn = Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor. β is
the slip length. For numerical calculations, a suitable choice is β = h, where h is the
mesh element size.

If the surface tension force is included in the momentum equation, the Interior Wetted
Wall boundary condition also adds the following boundary force on both sides of the
walls to enforce the contact angle:

F θ = σδ ( n wall ⋅ n – cos θ w )n

Note that the contact angle is not enforced on boundaries adjacent to porous domains.
For more information, see The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The default Name (for the first Interior Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling feature in the
model) is iww1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

158 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, select All boundaries (the default) or
select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific boundaries.

WETTED WALL
When using Navier Slip, the Slip Length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum
element length. The slip length β is then defined as β = fhhmin, where hmin is the
smallest element side (corresponds to the element size in the wall normal direction for
boundary layer elements) and fh is a user input. Select User defined from Slip Length
selection list in order to manually prescribe β (SI unit: m).

If the fluid physics interface includes porous domains, check Use porous slip wall
treatment to use the porous slip wall treatment to provide tangential stresses and the
slip velocity on boundaries adjacent to porous domains. If Use porous slip wall
treatment is not checked, the condition selected in Wall condition is used for porous
boundaries.

CONTACT ANGLE
Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation. For Directly enter a Contact angle θw (SI unit: rad). The default is
π/2 radians. For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for Phase 1-Solid

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 159
 surface energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface energy density γs2
(SI unit: J/m2).

The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface ( ) found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed to
track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The flow is assumed to be laminar,
that is, to be of low to moderate Reynolds number. The fluids can be incompressible
or compressible.

When adding the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a Laminar
Flow and a Phase Field in Fluids interface are added to the Model Builder. In addition,
a multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature,
is added automatically under the Multiphysics node. Note that unlike the Two-Phase
Flow, Level Set interfaces, the wetted wall feature here is not implemented as a separate
multiphase coupling boundary feature but as a default Wetted Wall feature in the Phase
Field in Fluids interface.

Wetted Wall

Simulations using the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Discretization
By default the fluid flow discretization is set to P1+P1, and the phase field discretization
is set to Linear. This combination provides improved conservation of the integral of the
phase field variable when using the nonconservative form of the phase field equations.

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

160 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field, ( ) and Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field, ( ) interfaces contain a multiphysics coupling feature, Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field, which is added automatically.

The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics coupling feature defines the density and
dynamic viscosity of the fluid used in the Laminar Flow interfaces, and it defines the
surface tension on the interface in form of a volume force used in the momentum
equation. It also enables the Phase Field in Fluids interface to use the velocity field
calculated from the Laminar Flowinterface to transport the interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field in the model) is tpf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select All domains (the default)
or select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific domains.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density, viscosity, or the surface tension
coefficient, can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material.
For the latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be
required to define these properties.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 161
 Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the fluid flow physics interface level.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The effective density and dynamic viscosity can either be Locally defined or picked up
from a Multiphase Material. When the properties are defined locally, provide the
properties for each phase in the respective fluid properties section, and the averaging
method in the advanced settings section. If a multiphase material is used, these settings
are controlled from the material. Using a multiphase material is advantageous for
models coupling two-phase flow with other physics interfaces, such as Heat Transfer
in Fluids or Electrostatics. In such cases, the multiphase material can ensure that the
effective material properties for these physics interfaces are averaged using the volume
fraction from the Phase Field in Fluids physics interface.

162 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Click the Go to Material button ( ) to move to the selected material node. Click the
Add Multiphase Material button ( ) to add a multiphase material with two phases.
The added material then becomes the one selected in the Multiphase Material list.

Multiphase Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• Separation Through Electrocoalescence: Application Library path

Microfluidics_Module/Two-Phase_Flow/electrocoalescence

FLUID PROPERTIES
A Fluid Properties section will be available per phase if the Material Properties are set to
Locally defined. Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of the two
fluids. The fluids are denoted Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid 1from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid 1 list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid 1ρ1 and Dynamic viscosity of fluid
1μ1 are both set to From Material.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref for incompressible flows (as
specified by the Compressibility setting of the fluid flow interface).

The non-Newtonian Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–

Papanastasiou, and Casson–Papanastasiou models can alternatively be used to specify
the dynamic viscosities of the two fluids.

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for Fluid
A, select User defined in the Density of fluid 1 ρ1 or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid 1 μ1
list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 163
 Similarly, the properties of Fluid 2 can be specified. The default material is set to None.

Care should be taken when using the Domain Material setting for the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2. The material properties are
obtained from the domain irrespective of the location of the interface. If
two different materials are selected in domains 1 and 2, with the phase
boundary initially coincident with the domain boundary, the model has
convergence issues once the phase boundary moves away from the
domain boundary. This is because a density discontinuity and a viscosity
discontinuity occurs at the boundary separating the two fluids. For this
reason, selecting the material directly is recommended when setting the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2.

The fluid defined as Fluid 1 affects the wetting characteristics on wetted walls. See the
Wetted Wall node for details.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
f the Material Properties are set to Locally defined, you can specify the averaging method
for density and dynamic viscosity in this section. Select the method used for Density
averaging and Viscosity averaging. The default method for both settings is Volume
average. In addition to the default method, Density averaging can be set to Heaviside
function or Harmonic volume average, while Viscosity averaging can be set to Heaviside
function, Harmonic volume average, Mass average or Harmonic mass average. When a
Heaviside function is used, enter a value for the corresponding mixing parameter, lρ or
lμ.

When the surface tension force is included in the momentum equation, you can select
the Shift surface tension force to the heaviest phase check box. This can prevent
significant spurious oscillations in the velocity field for the lighter phase in cases with
a large difference in density between the two phases. The amount of shifting is
controlled by the Smoothing factor ds,Fst (default 0.1). The surface tension force is
then multiplied by

V f, 1 – 0.5 V f, 2 – 0.5
f s = -----------------------  ρ 1 H  ------------------------- + ρ 2 H  ------------------------- 
2
(4-2)
( ρ1 + ρ2 )   d s, Fst   d s, Fst  

Shift surface tension force to the heaviest phase works better when combined with
Heaviside function for the averaging of density and viscosity.

164 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation. If the surface tension force is
included, select Include surface tension gradient effects in surface tension force to
account for the Marangoni effect due to gradients in the surface tension coefficient.

Select a Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m):

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (for example, Water/Air or Glycerol/Air). The predefined correlations
are based on the data in Ref. 7, Ref. 8, and Ref. 9.
• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient σ
(SI unit: N/m).

Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar Flow,
Two-Phase, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces
The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field interfaces are multiphysics interfaces
combining Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interfaces together with Level Set or
Phase Field in Fluids interfaces.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for the Laminar Flow interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

LEVEL SET
The available physics features for the Level Set interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface.

PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS

The available physics features for the Phase Field in Fluids interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 165
 All domain, boundary, point, and pair nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

166 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase
Field Interface
This section includes the following topics:

• The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

• The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar Three-Phase Flow,
Phase Field Interface

Mathematics, Moving Interfaces

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed
to track the interfaces between three immiscible and incompressible fluids. The flow is
assumed to be laminar; that is, a flow characterized by a low-to-moderate Reynolds
number. The density of each fluid is assumed to be constant, but the there is no
restriction on the density differences between the separate fluids.

When adding the Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a
Laminar Flow and a Ternary Phase Field interface are added to the Model Builder. In
addition the Multiphysics node, including the multiphysics coupling feature Three-Phase
Flow, Phase Field is added.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

Simulations using the Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

THE LAMINAR THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 167

 The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
Use the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field ( ) multiphysics coupling to simulate the flow
of a three immiscible fluids while explicitly tracking the interface separating each pair
of the fluids.

The Three-Phase Flow interface solves Navier–Stokes equations for the conservation
of momentum, and a continuity equation for the conservation of mass. The positions
of the interfaces separating the fluid phases are tracked by solving four additional
transport equations: two equations governing phase field variables and two equations
for the corresponding generalized chemical potentials. The movement of the
fluid-fluid interfaces is determined by minimization of free energy.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is tfpf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the three-phase flow, or
select All domains as needed.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through
user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional
inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these
properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own

168 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes equations, and pref is from the user input defined at the fluid
flow physics interface level.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The effective density and dynamic viscosity can either be Locally defined or picked up
from a Multiphase Material. When the properties are defined locally, provide the
properties for each phase in the respective fluid properties section, and the averaging
method in the advanced settings section. If a multiphase material is used, these settings
are controlled from the material. Using a multiphase material is advantageous for
models coupling two-phase flow with other physics interfaces, such as Heat Transfer
in Fluids or Electrostatics. In such cases, the multiphase material can ensure that the
effective material properties for these physics interfaces are averaged using the volume
fraction from the Ternary Phase Field physics interface.

Click the Go to Material button () to move to the selected material node. Click the
Add Multiphase Material button ( ) to add a multiphase material with three phases.
The added material then becomes the one selected in the Multiphase Material list.

Multiphase Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

THE LAMINAR THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 169

 FLUID PROPERTIES
A Fluid Properties section will be available per phase if the Material Properties are set to
Locally defined. Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of all three
fluids. The fluids are denoted Fluid A, Fluid B, and Fluid C, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid A from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid A list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid A ρA and Dynamic viscosity of
fluid A μA are both set to From material.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref for incompressible flows (as
specified by the Compressibility setting of the laminar flow interface).

The non-Newtonian Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–

Papanastasiou, and Casson–Papanastasiou models can alternatively be used to specify
the dynamic viscosities of the three fluids.

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for
Fluid A, select User defined in the Density of fluid A ρA or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid
A μA list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

• Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar

Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface
The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface is a multiphysics interface
combining The Laminar Flow Interface and The Ternary Phase Field Interface.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interface are listed in Domain,
Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

170 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TERNARY PHASE-FIELD
The available physics features for The Ternary Phase Field Interface are listed in
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Ternary Phase Field Interface.

All domain, boundary, point, and pair nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

THE LAMINAR THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 171

 T he L a m i na r Two- Ph ase Fl ow, Mov i n g
M e s h Inte r f a ce
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed
to model laminar two–phase flow of immiscible fluids separated by a moving interface.
The velocity field, pressure, and mesh deformation are solved for, and the location of
the interface is tracked by the deformed mesh.

When adding the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh multiphysics interface, a
Laminar Flow interface is added to the component, and a Moving Mesh interface with a
Deforming Domain feature is added under the Definitions node. The Laminar Flow
interface adds the Navier–Stokes equations and provides a way of defining the
properties of the fluids. For each of the fluids the density and viscosity must be
specified (these are typically taken from the corresponding materials, but can be user
defined).

Simulations using the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of its
history. There are additional boundary conditions to describe how the fluid-fluid
interface moves from the Laminar Flow context menu under the option Fluid Interface
Features:

• Fluid-Fluid Interface
• Free Surface
• Contact Angle (as a subfeature to the two conditions above)

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics (prior to version 5.4), a

specific physics interface called Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh
(tpfmm) was added to the Model Builder. Now, a predefined multiphysics
coupling approach is used, improving the flexibility and design options
for your modeling. For specific details, see The Multiphysics Branch and
Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

172 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Select Laminar Flow Properties
For a full list of available properties, see The Laminar Flow Interface.

PHYSICAL MODEL
This physics interface deforms the mesh within the domains on either side of the two
fluid interfaces to track its movement.

The Compressibility defaults to Incompressible flow to use the incompressible (constant

density) formulation of the Navier–Stokes equations. Select Compressible flow (Ma<0.3)
to use the compressible formulation.

If flow is occurring at very low Reynolds numbers, the inertial term in the Navier–
Stokes equations can be neglected and the linear Stokes equations can be solved on the
domain. This flow type is referred to as creeping flow or Stokes flow and can occur in
microfluidics and MEMS devices, where the flow length scales are very small. To make
this approximation select the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box, which
significantly improves the solver speed.

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Velocity field and Pressure. The
names can be changed in the corresponding fields, but the names of fields and
dependent variables must be unique within a model.

The following models are found at this Application Library path

Microfluidics_Module/Two-Phase_Flow/<filename>

• Drug Delivery System: viscous_catenary

• Jet Instability — Moving Mesh: jet_instability
• Electrowetting Lens: electrowetting_lens
• Viscous Catenary: viscous_catenary

Deforming Domain
When the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh multiphysics interface is added using
the Model Wizard, a Deforming Domain node is added automatically in the Model Builder
under the Definitions>Moving Mesh node. This node serves to represent domains and
boundaries where the mesh can deform. By default, the selection is all domains. Under

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 173

 the Deforming Domain, you can also choose the Mesh smoothing type, by default set to
Yeoh with a default Stiffening factor of 10. More information of the smoothing type can
be found in the Deforming Domain chapter in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

By default, the mesh is fixed at all external boundaries of the geometry. Use the
Symmetry/Roller node to select the external boundaries, where the fluid-fluid
interface can slide along the boundary. You can also add other types of boundary
conditions for the mesh motion, for details see Moving Mesh Features in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Fluid-Fluid Interface
The Fluid-Fluid Interface node defines the initial position of a fluid-fluid interface and
includes equations to track the evolution of the interface. The Contact Angle subnode
is added by default, and is also available from the context menu (right-click the parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

MODEL INPUT
Enter a value for the Temperature T (SI unit: K). This option is only necessary when
the surface tension coefficient comes from a library of coefficients, as explained below.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation.

The Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m) can be User defined, or select Library
coefficient, liquid/gas interface (default) or Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface select an option from the list — Water/Air
(default), Acetone/Air, Acetic acid/Air, Ethanol/Air, Ethylene glycol/Ethylene glycol vapor,
Diethyl ether/Air, Glycerol/Air, Heptane/Nitrogen, Mercury/Mercury vapor, or
Toluene/Air.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface select an option from the list —
Benzene/Water, 20°C, Corn oil/Water, 20°C, Ether/Water, 20°C, Hexane/Water, 20°C,
Mercury/Water, 20°C, or Olive oil/Water, 20°C.

The predefined correlations are based on the data in Ref. 5, Ref. 6, and Ref. 7.

174 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

MASS FLUX
The mass flux setting specifies the mass transfer across the boundary, due to processes
such as boiling. The default Mass Flux Mf (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) is User defined, with a
value of 0.

NORMAL DIRECTION
The normal direction on the selected boundaries can be reversed by selecting Reverse
normal direction. The direction is indicated by a red arrow in the Graphics window.

The Fluid-Fluid Interface feature imposes a mesh deformation in the

normal direction. On adjacent boundaries, the mesh displacement parallel
to those boundaries cannot be fixed if the contact point is moving. In this
case a Mesh Slip, Symmetry/Roller, Prescribed Normal Mesh
Displacement, or Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity boundary condition
under Definitions>Moving Mesh should be selected. A Mesh Slip condition
is automatically used on boundaries that are adjacent to the Fluid-Fluid
Interface and dot not have a prescribed Moving Mesh boundary
condition.

If a Fluid-Fluid Interface feature is in contact with a solid boundary, the

movement of the contact point is not compatible with the no slip
condition. For laminar flow the Wall boundary condition with the Navier
Slip option should be selected.

Free Surface
The Free Surface node defines the initial position of an external fluid interface - that is,
an interface in which the viscosity in the fluid outside the domain can be neglected. By
applying this feature the motion of the two-phase interface can be tracked. In the
tangential direction the free surface motion is governed by the fluid motion in
combination with the surface tension of the fluid-fluid interface.

The Free Surface node can only be applied to outer boundaries of a Deforming Domain
that do not have any boundary condition assigned under Moving Mesh.

To control the attachment angle between the free surface and adjacent walls, a Contact
Angle subnode is by default added under the Free Surface node. A different contact

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 175

 angle subnode can be added from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

MODEL INPUT
Enter a value for the Temperature T (SI unit: K). This option is only necessary when
the surface tension coefficient comes from a library of coefficients, as explained below.

FREE SURFACE
Enter an External pressure pext (SI unit: Pa).

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation.

The default Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m) can be User defined, or select
Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface (default) or Library coefficient, liquid/liquid
interface.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface select an option from the list — Water/Air
(default), Acetone/Air, Acetic acid/Air, Ethanol/Air, Ethylene glycol/Ethylene glycol vapor,
Diethyl ether/Air, Glycerol/Air, Heptane/Nitrogen, Mercury/Mercury vapor, or
Toluene/Air.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface select an option from the list —
Benzene/Water, 20°C, Corn oil/Water, 20°C, Ether/Water, 20°C, Hexane/Water, 20°C,
Mercury/Water, 20°C, or Olive oil/Water, 20°C.

The predefined correlations are based on the data in Ref. 5, Ref. 6, and Ref. 7.

MASS FLUX
The mass flux setting specifies the mass transfer across the boundary, due to processes
such as boiling. The default Mass Flux Mf (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) is User defined, with a
value of 0.

176 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Free Surface feature imposes a mesh deformation in the normal
direction. On adjacent boundaries, the mesh displacement parallel to
those boundaries cannot be fixed if the contact point is moving. In this
case a Mesh Slip, Symmetry/Roller, Prescribed Normal Mesh
Displacement, or Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity boundary condition
under Definitions>Moving Mesh should be selected. A Mesh Slip condition
is automatically used on boundaries that are adjacent to the Free Surface
and dot not have a prescribed Moving Mesh boundary condition.

If a Free Surface feature is in contact with a solid boundary, the movement

of the contact point is not compatible with the no slip condition. For
laminar flow the Wall boundary condition with the Navier Slip option
should be selected.

Contact Angle
The Contact Angle subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Fluid-Fluid Interface or Free Surface parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu. The condition applies forces on the wall that balance the surface
tension for the prescribed contact angle. Note that the contact angle can only be
enforced when the surface tension force is included in the momentum equation in the
parent feature.

For laminar flow with moving mesh, the Contact Angle node should be used on edges
or points where a Wall feature with the Navier Slip option is prescribed adjacent to the
free surface. In this case, the Navier Slip option is required for the contact line to move
along the wall.

The representation of the contact angle is dependent on the mesh resolution in the
region where the fluid-fluid interface attaches to the wall. If, during the simulation, the
contact angle is found to fluctuate around a given value, this indicates that the
resolution needs to be improved. This can for example be achieved by adding more
mesh boundary layers on the wall.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 177

 CONTACT ANGLE
Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation.

• For Directly enter a Contact angle θw (SI unit: rad). The default is π/2 radians.
• For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for Phase 1-Solid surface
energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface energy density γs2 (SI
unit: J/m2).

NORMAL WALL VELOCITY

Select whether to Constrain the wall-normal velocity. This ensures that the fluid velocity
normal to the wall on the contact edge or point is exactly the desired value. This can
be helpful when the adjacent wall uses a Nitsche Constraints and the no-penetration
condition is satisfied in an integral sense rather than pointwise. Moreover, constraining
the wall-normal velocity simplifies the equilibrium of forces in the wall-normal
direction. This setting should not be selected when the adjacent boundary has an
unknown velocity.

The contact angle θw is defined between the fluid-fluid interface and the
surface of the wall adjacent to phase 1.

The moving mesh boundary condition must be compatible with the

motion of the wall for the problem to have a valid solution.

178 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Level Set and Phase
Field Interfaces
The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field interfaces can be used to model the
flow of two different, immiscible fluids, where the exact position of the interface
between the two fluids is of interest. The fluid-fluid interface is tracked using an
auxiliary function on a fixed mesh. These methods account for differences in the two
fluids’ densities and viscosities and include the effects of surface tension and gravity.

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field
Interfaces theory is described in this section:

• Level Set and Phase Field Equations

• Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations
• Phase Initialization
• Numerical Stabilization
• References for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

Level Set and Phase Field Equations

By default, the Level Set and Phase Field interfaces use the incompressible formulation
of the Navier–Stokes equations:

∂u T
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – p I + μ ( ∇u + ∇u ) ] + F g + F st + F ext + F (4-3)
∂t

∇⋅u = 0 (4-4)

Note that Equation 4-3, and Equation 4-4 are solved in the contained interface,
Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interface. Note that the form of the continuity
equation, appropriate for high density difference mixtures, differs from the definition
in Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces.

USING THE LEVEL SET METHOD

If the level set method is used to track the interface, it adds the following equation:

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 179
 ∂----- ∇φ-
φ- + u ⋅ ∇φ = γ∇ ⋅  ε∇φ – φ ( 1 – φ ) --------- (4-5)
∂t  ∇φ 

where γ is the reinitialization parameter (set to 1 by default), and ε is the interface

thickness controlling parameter (set proportional to hmax where hmax is the maximum
element size in the component). The density is a function of the level set function. Let
ρ1 and ρ2 be the constant densities of Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively. Here, Fluid 1
corresponds to the domain where φ < 0.5, and Fluid 2 corresponds to the domain
where φ > 0.5. When Density averaging is set to Volume average, the density is defined
as,

ρ = ρ 1 + ( ρ 2 – ρ 1 )φ

switching to Heaviside function, the density is defined as,

φ – 0.5
ρ = ρ 1 + ( ρ 2 – ρ 1 )H  -----------------
 lρ 

where H is a smooth step function and lρ is a mixing parameter defining the size of the
transition zone. When the Harmonic volume average is selected,

1
ρ = -----------------------------------------------
( 1 – φ ) ⁄ ρ1 + φ ⁄ ρ2

Similarly, the dynamic viscosity can be defined by setting Viscosity averaging to Volume
average,

μ = μ 1 + ( μ 2 – μ 1 )φ

Heaviside function,

φ – 0.5
μ = μ 1 + ( μ 2 – μ 1 )H  -----------------
 lμ 

Harmonic volume average,

1
μ = ----------------------------------------------
-
( 1 – φ ) ⁄ μ1 + φ ⁄ μ2

Mass average,

ρ 1 ( 1 – φ )μ 1 + ρ 2 φμ 2
μ = ----------------------------------------------------
-
ρ

180 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

or Harmonic mass average,

ρ
μ = -----------------------------------------------------------
-
ρ1 ( 1 – φ ) ⁄ μ1 + ρ2 φ ⁄ μ2

where μ1 and μ2 are the dynamic viscosities of Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively. For
inelastic non-Newtonian fluids, μ1,2 is replaced by μapp1,2 in the previous expressions.
Further details of the theory for the level set method are in Ref. 1.

USING THE PHASE FIELD METHOD

If the phase field method is used to track the interface, it adds the following equations:

∂φ + u ⋅ ∇φ γλ
= ∇ ⋅ -----2- ∇ψ (4-6)
∂t ε

ε ∂f ext
2
ψ = – ∇ ⋅ ε ∇φ + ( φ – 1 )φ +  -----
2 2
(4-7)
λ ∂φ

where the quantity λ (SI unit: N) is the mixing energy density and ε (SI unit: m) is a
capillary width that scales with the thickness of the interface. These two parameters are
related to the surface tension coefficient, σ (SI unit: N/m), through the equation

2 2λ
σ = ----------- ---
3 ε

and γ is the mobility parameter which is related to ε through γ = χε2 where χ is the
mobility tuning parameter (set to 1 by default). The volume fractions of Fluid 1 and
Fluid 2 are computed as

V f, 2 = min ( max ( [ ( 1 + φ ) ⁄ 2 ], 0 ), 1 ), V f, 1 = 1 – V f, 2

where the min and max operators are used so that the volume fractions have a lower
limit of 0 and an upper limit of 1. Let ρ1 and ρ2 be the constant densities of Fluid 1
and Fluid 2, respectively. When Density averaging is set to Volume average, the density
is defined as,

ρ = ρ 1 V f, 1 + ρ 2 V f, 2

switching to Heaviside function, the density is defined as,

V f, 2 – 0.5
ρ = ρ 1 + ( ρ 2 – ρ 1 )H  -------------------------
lρ

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 181
 where H is a smooth step function and lρ is a mixing parameter defining the size of the
transition zone. When the Harmonic volume average is selected,

1
ρ = -----------------------------------------------
-
V f, 1 ⁄ ρ 1 + V f, 2 ⁄ ρ 2

Similarly, the dynamic viscosity can be defined by setting Viscosity averaging to Volume
average,

μ = V f, 1 μ 1 + μ 2 V f, 2

Heaviside function,

V f, 2 – 0.5
μ = μ 1 + ( μ 2 – μ 1 )H  -------------------------
 lμ 

Harmonic volume average,

1
μ = ------------------------------------------------
V f, 1 ⁄ μ 1 + V f, 2 ⁄ μ 2

Mass average,

ρ 1 V f, 1 μ 1 + ρ 2 V f, 2 μ 2
μ = -----------------------------------------------------
-
ρ

or Harmonic mass average,

ρ
μ = -------------------------------------------------------------
ρ 1 V f, 1 ⁄ μ 1 + ρ 2 V f, 2 ⁄ μ 2

where μ1 and μ2 are the dynamic viscosities of Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively. For
inelastic non-Newtonian fluids, μ1,2 are replaced by μapp1,2 in the previous
expressions.

The mean curvature (SI unit: 1/m) can be computed by entering the following
expression:

G
κ = 2 ( 1 + φ ) ( 1 – φ ) ----
σ

where G is the chemical potential defined as:

182 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 2
G = λ  – ∇2φ + φ ( φ – 1 )- + ----- ∂f-
----------------------
ε 2  ∂φ

Details of the theory for the phase field method are found in Ref. 2.

FORCE TERMS
The four forces on the right-hand side of Equation 4-3 are due to gravity, surface
tension, a force due to an external contribution to the free energy (using the phase field
method only), and a user-defined volume force.

The Surface Tension Force for the Level Set Method

For the level set method, the surface tension force acting on the interface between the
two fluids is:

F st = σδκn + δ∇ s σ

where σ is the surface tensions coefficient (SI unit: N/m), n is the unit normal to the
interface, and κ = −∇ ⋅ n is the curvature. δ (SI unit: 1/m) is a Dirac delta function
located at the interface. ∇s is the surface gradient operator

T
∇ s = ( I – nn )∇

The δ-function is approximated by a smooth function according to

δ = 6 ∇φ φ ( 1 – φ )

The Surface Tension Force for the Phase Field Method

The surface tension force for the phase field method is implemented as a body force

∂f- ∇φ
F st =  G – -----
∂φ

where G is the chemical potential (SI unit: J/m3) defined in The Equations for the
Phase Field Method and ∂f/∂φ is a user-defined source of free energy. When Shift
surface tension force to the heaviest phase is selected the surface-tension force is added
as,

V f,1 – 0.5 V f,2 – 0.5 ∂f

F st = ------------------  ρ 1 H  ------------------------ + ρ 2 H  ------------------------   G – ------ ∇φ
2
ρ1 + ρ2   d s, Fst   d s, Fst    ∂φ

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 183
 where ds,Fst is a smoothing factor. This can be used to avoid unphysical acceleration
of a light phase near a phase interface caused by the smearing of the phase interface
across a few mesh cells.

If Include surface tension gradient effects in surface tension force is selected, extra terms
are added to account for the Marangoni effect due to gradients in the surface tension
coefficient (see Ref. 6):

2
∂f- ∇φ +  ------------ φ – 1) 
2 2
∇φ - + (----------------------
F st =  G – -----   ∇λ – ( ∇λ ⋅ ∇φ )∇φ
 ∂φ  2 ∂φ 4ε 2 

The Gravity Force

The gravity force is Fg = ρg where g is the gravity vector. Add this as a Gravity feature
to the fluid domain.

The User-Defined Volume Force

When using a Phase Field interface, a force arising due to a user-defined source of free
energy is computed according to:

∂f
F ext =   ∇φ
∂φ

This force is added when a φ-derivative of the external free energy has been defined in
the External Free Energy section of the Fluid Properties feature.

Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations

When the velocity field is divergence free, you can use either the conservative or the
nonconservative formulation of the level set or phase field equation. The conservative
form perfectly conserves the mass of each fluid, but the computational time is generally
longer.

When the Level Set or Phase Field in Fluids interface are coupled to a fluid flow
interface by means of The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature or The
Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature, improved conservation of the integral
of the level set or phase field variable is obtained using the nonconservative form
provided that the discretization order of the level set or phase field variable is equal to
or lower than the order of the pressure.

184 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Phase Initialization
If the study type Transient with Phase Initialization is used in the model, the level set
or phase field variable is automatically initialized. For this study, two study steps are
created: Phase Initialization and Time Dependent. The Phase Initialization step solves
for the distance to the initial interface, Dwi. The Time Dependent step then uses the
initial condition for the level set function according to the expression

1 -
φ 0 = -----------------------
D ⁄ε
1 + e wi

in domains initially filled with Fluid 1 and

1
φ 0 = -------------------------
-
–D ⁄ ε
1 + e wi

in domains initially filled with Fluid 2.

Correspondingly, the phase field method uses the expressions

D wi
φ 0 = – tanh  ----------
 2ε

in Fluid 1 and

D wi
φ 0 = tanh  ----------
2ε

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 185
 in Fluid 2. The initial condition for the help variable is ψ0 = 0. These expressions are
based on the analytical solution of the steady state solution of Equation 4-5,
Equation 4-6, and Equation 4-7 for a straight, nonmoving interface.

If the Phase Initialization ( ) study step is being used, for the

initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes should use Specify phase: Fluid 1 and the
other Specify phase: Fluid 2. The initial fluid-fluid interface is then
automatically placed on all interior boundaries between both phases. Note
that when the value of Level set variable or Phase field variable is set to
User defined, arbitrary user defined initial values have to be provided. In
this case, the smooth initialization is not used, and a Time Dependent
study should be used instead of Time Dependent with Phase
Initialization.

• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Laminar Two-Phase

Flow, Phase Field Interfaces
• Studies and Solvers and Time Dependent with Phase Initialization in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Numerical Stabilization
Three types of stabilization methods are available for the flow (Navier–Stokes) and
interface (level set or phase field) equations. Two are consistent stabilization methods
— Streamline diffusion and Crosswind diffusion — and one is inconsistent — Isotropic
diffusion.

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
from the Show More Options dialog box.

• Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

• Selection Information in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

186 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

References for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces
1. E. Olsson and G. Kreiss, “A Conservative Level Set Method for Two Phase Flow”,
J. Comput. Phys., vol. 210, pp. 225–246, 2005.

2. P. Yue, J.J. Feng, C. Liu, and J. Shen, “A Diffuse-interface Method for Simulating
Two-phase Flows of Complex Fluids”, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 515, pp. 293–317, 2004.

3. B. Lafaurie, C. Nardone, R. Scardovelli, S. Zaleski, and G. Zanetti “Modelling

Merging and Fragmentation in Multiphase Flows with SURFER.”, J. Comput. Phys.,
vol. 113, no. 1, pp. 134–147, 1994.

4. Y. D. Shikhmurzaev, “The Moving Contact line on a Smooth Solid Surface”,

Int. J. Multiph. Flow, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 589–610, 1993.

5. J. F. Gerbeau and T. Lelièvre, “Generalized Navier Boundary Condition and

Geometric Conservation Law for surface tension”,
Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng, vol. 198, no. 5-8, pp. 644–656, 2009.

6. C. Liu, J. Shen, J. J. Feng, and P. Yue, “Variational Approach in Two-Phase Flows

of Complex Fluids: Transport and Induced Elastic Stress”, Chapter 11 in
Mathematical Models and Methods in Phase Transitions, Alan Miranville, ed, Nova
Publishers, pp. 259–278, 2005.

7. J. J. Jasper, “The Surface Tension of Pure Liquid Compounds”,

J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data., vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 841-1009, 1972.

8. R. C. Weast, ed.,“CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics”, ed. 69, MIT Press,
1988.

9. A. G. Gaonkar, “Interfacial Tensions of Vegetable Oil/Water Systems: Effect of Oil

Purification”, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., vol. 66, no. 8, pp. 1090-1092, 1989.

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 187
 Theory for the Three-Phase Flow,
Phase Field Interface
The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface can be used to model the flow and
interaction of three different, immiscible fluids, when the exact positions of the
interfaces separating the fluids are of interest. The fluid-fluid interfaces are tracked
using a ternary phase field formulation which account for differences in the fluids’
densities and viscosities and include the effects of surface tension.

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface theory is described in the
following sections:

• Governing Equations of the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

• Reference for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

Governing Equations of the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

LAMINAR FLOW EQUATIONS

The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface is used to study the evolution of three
immiscible fluid phases denoted by fluid A, fluid B, and fluid C. The interface solves
the Navier–Stokes equations governing conservation of momentum and mass. The
momentum equations solved correspond to

∂u T 2
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ – p I + μ ( ∇u + ∇u ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u ) I + F st + F (4-8)
∂t 3

where Fst is the surface tension force. The physics interface assumes that the density
of each phase is constant. The density may however vary between the phases. In order
to accurately handle systems where density of the phases are significantly different, as
well as systems with phases of similar density, the following fully compressible
continuity equation is solved by the interface

∂ log ρ- + ∇ ⋅ u + u ⋅ ∇ log ρ = 0
-------------- (4-9)
∂t

188 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TERNARY PHASE-FIELD EQUATIONS
In order to track the interfaces between three immiscible fluids, a ternary phase field
model based on the work of Boyer and co-workers in Ref. 1 is used. The model solves
the following Cahn–Hilliard equations

∂φ M0
--------i + ∇ ⋅ ( uφ i ) = ∇ ⋅  -------- ∇η i
∂t  Σi 
(4-10)
4Σ T 1  ∂F ∂F   3
 ----
η i = ----------
ε  - -------- – -------- – --- εΣ j ∇ 2 φ i
 Σ j  ∂φ
i ∂φ j
 4
j≠i

governing the phase field variable, φi, and a generalized chemical potential, ηi, of each
phase i = A, B, C. The phase field variables vary between 0 and 1 and are a measure
of the concentration of each phase. The phase field variable for phase A is one in
instances containing only this phase, and zero where there is no phase A. Since the
fluids are immiscible, variations in the phase field variable occur, and define the
interface separating two phases. At each point the phase field variables satisfy the
following constraint

 φi = 1 (4-11)
i = A , B, C

The density of each phase is assumed to be constant which implies that the phase field
variable corresponds to the volume fraction of the phase in question. In order to satisfy
Equation 4-11, two sets of the equations shown in Equation 4-10 are solved, namely
those for phase A and phase B. The phase field variable, and correspondingly the mass
fraction, for fluid C is computed from Equation 4-11.

The density and viscosity of the fluid mixture used in Equation 4-3 and 4-4 are defined
as:

ρ = ρA φA + ρB φB + ρC φC
(4-12)
μ = μA φA + μB φB + μC φC

Free Energy
The free energy of the three phase system is defined as a function of the phase field
variables in the manner of:

THEORY FOR THE THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 189

 2 2 2 2 2 2
F = σ AB φ A φ B + σ AC φ A φ C + σ BC φ B φ C +
(4-13)
2 2 2
φ A φ B φ C ( Σ A φ A + Σ B φ B + Σ C φ C ) + Λφ A φ B φ C

Here the σij denotes the surface tension coefficient of the interface separating phase i
and j, and the capillary parameters Σi are defined for each phase in the manner of:

Σ A = σ AB + σ AC – σ BC
Σ B = σ AB + σ BC – σ AC (4-14)
Σ C = σ BC + σ AC – σ AB

Λ in the free energy is a function or parameter specifying the additional free bulk
energy of the system. By default Λ is zero. In this case it can be seen that the free energy
in Equation 4-13 represents the mixing energy, since only interfaces between two
phases (where two phase field variables varies between the limiting values) contributes
to the free energy.

Ternary Phase Field Parameters

In Equation 4-10, ε (SI unit: 1/m) is a parameter controlling the interface thickness,
M0 (SI unit: m3/s) is a molecular mobility parameter, and the parameter ΣT is defined
as

3 = ------
1- + ------
1- + ------
1-
------ (4-15)
ΣT ΣA ΣB ΣC

When using the interface it is recommended that the parameter ε is given a value in the
same order as the elements in the regions passed by the fluid-fluid interfaces. The
mobility determines the time scale of the Cahn–Hilliard diffusion and must be large
enough to retain a constant interfacial thickness, but small enough to avoid damping
the convective transport. In order to ensure that the mobility is in the correct range,
it is recommended to apply a mobility parameter such that the following holds
approximately

–2
M 0 = L c U c ε ⋅ 10 (4-16)

where Lc and Uc are the characteristic length and velocity scales of the system at hand.

SURFACE TENSION
The surface tension force applied in the momentum equations (Equation 4-3) as a
body force computed from the generalized chemical potentials:

190 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 F st =  η i ∇φ i (4-17)
i = A, B , C

Reference for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

1. F. Boyer, C. Lapuerta, S. Minjeaud, B. Piar, and M. Quintard,
“Cahn-Hilliard/Navier–Stokes model for the simulation of three-phase flows,”
Transport in Porous Media, vol. 28, pp. 463–484, 2010.

THEORY FOR THE THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 191

 Theory for the Two-Phase Flow,
Moving Mesh Interface
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface can be used to model the flow
of two different, immiscible fluids, when the exact position of the interface is of
interest. The interface position is tracked by a moving mesh, with boundary conditions
that account for surface tension and wetting, as well as mass transport across the
interface.

In this section:

• Domain Level Fluid Flow

• About the Moving Mesh
• About the Fluid Interface Boundary Conditions
• Contact Angle Boundary Conditions
• References for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

Domain Level Fluid Flow

Two Phase Flow Moving Mesh interface is a predefined physics interface coupling
between a Single-Phase Flow interface and the Moving Mesh interface. Within the
domains corresponding to individual phases the fluid flow is solved using the Navier–
Stokes equations as in the Laminar Flow interface. The general form for the isothermal
Navier–Stokes equations is:

∂ρ- + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0
-----
∂t

∂u
ρ ------- + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F
∂t

where:

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)

192 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• τ is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa).
For a Newtonian fluid the viscous stress tensor, τ, is given by:

2
τ = 2μS – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I (4-18)
3

The dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) is allowed to depend on the thermodynamic
state but not on the velocity field.

Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

About the Moving Mesh

The mesh within the fluid flow domain is deformed to account for the movement of
the interface between the two fluids. The software perturbs the mesh nodes so they
conform with the moving interface and with other moving or stationary boundaries in
the model. The boundary displacement is propagated throughout the domain to
obtain a smooth mesh deformation everywhere. This is done by solving equations for
the mesh displacements (a Laplace, Winslow, or hyperelastic smoothing equation).
Taking two dimensions as an example, a location in the deformed mesh with
coordinates (x, y) can be related to its coordinates in the original undeformed mesh
(X, Y) by a function of the form:

x = x ( X, Y, t ), y = y ( X, Y, t )

The original, undeformed, mesh is referred to as the material frame (or reference
frame) whilst the deformed mesh is called the spatial frame. COMSOL Multiphysics
also defines geometry and mesh frames, which are coincident with the material frame
for this physics interface.

The fluid flow equations (along with other coupled equations such as electric fields or
chemical species transport) are solved in the spatial frame in which the mesh is
perturbed. The movement of the phase boundary is therefore accounted for in these
interfaces.

Deformed Geometry and Moving Mesh in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 193

 About the Fluid Interface Boundary Conditions
The interfaces between phases are tracked with specific boundary conditions for the
mesh displacement and the fluid flow. Two options are available — Free Surface and
Fluid-Fluid Interface. The Free Surface boundary condition is appropriate when the
viscosity of the external fluid is negligible compared to that of the internal fluid. In this
case the pressure of the external fluid is the only parameter required to model the fluid
and the flow is not solved for in the external fluid. For a fluid-fluid interface the flow
is solved for both phases.

FLUID-FLUID INTERFACE
The boundary conditions applied at an interface between two immiscible fluids, fluid 1
and fluid 2 (see Figure 4-2), are given by (Ref. 1):

u 1 = u 2 +  ----- 1-  M n
1- – ----- (4-19)
ρ  f i
1 ρ2

n i ⋅ τ 2 = n i ⋅ τ 1 + f st (4-20)

Mf 
u mesh =  u 1 ⋅ n i – --------
- n (4-21)
 ρ  i
1

where u1 and u2 are the velocities of the fluids 1 and 2 respectively, umesh is the
velocity of the mesh at the interface between the two fluids, ni is the normal of the
interface (outward from the domain of fluid 1), τ1 and τ2 are the total stress tensors in
domains 1 and 2 respectively, fst is the force per unit area due to the surface tension
and Mf is the mass flux across the interface (SI unit: kg/(m2s)).

Figure 4-2: Definition of fluid 1 and fluid 2 and the interface normal.

194 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The tangential components of Equation 4-19 enforce a no-slip condition between the
fluids at the boundary. In the absence of mass transfer across the boundary,
Equation 4-19 and Equation 4-21 ensure that the fluid velocity normal to the
boundary is equal to the velocity of the interface. When mass transfer occurs these
equations result from conservation of mass and are easily derived in the frame where
the boundary is stationary.

The components of the total stress tensor, τuv, represent the uth component of the
force per unit area perpendicular to the v direction. n·τ = nv τuv (using the summation
convention) is therefore interpreted as the force per unit area acting on the boundary
- in general this is not normal to the boundary. Equation 4-20 therefore expresses the
force balance on the interface between the two fluids.

Two boundary conditions (Equation 4-19 and Equation 4-20) are

necessary to couple the two domains as there are two separate sets of
Navier–Stokes equations, one set for each of the domains.

The force due to the surface tension is given by the following expression:

f st = σ ( ∇ s ⋅ n i )n i – ∇ s σ (4-22)

where ∇s is the surface gradient operator (∇s = (I − ni niT)∇ where I is the identity
matrix) and σ is the surface tension at the interface.

In the two dimensional case it is straightforward to see the physical origin of

Equation 4-22. Consider an element of the surface of unit depth into the page as
shown in Figure 4-3. The normal force per unit area Fn on the element in the limit
δs → 0 is:

F n δs = ( σ + δσ ) sin ( δθ ) → σδθ

Because Rδθ → δs in the limit,

σ
F n = ----
R

The quantity ∇s·ni in the first term on the right-hand side of Equation 4-22 is related
to the mean curvature, κ, of the surface by the equation κ=−∇s·ni. In two dimensions
the mean curvature κ = −1/R so ∇s·ni = 1/R. The first term in Equation 4-22 is
therefore the normal force per unit area acting on the boundary due to the surface
tension.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 195

 The tangential force per unit area, Ft, acting on the interface in Figure 4-3 can be
obtained from the force balance along the direction of δs in the limit δs → 0:

F t δs = ( σ + δσ ) cos ( δθ ) – σ → ( σ + δσ ) – σ

( σ + δσ ) – σ
F t → -----------------------------
δs

This is equivalent to the second term on the right of Equation 4-22.

To obtain additional insight into the boundary condition, it is helpful to rewrite

Equation 4-20 as

T T
n i ⋅ ( ( p 1 – p 2 )I – μ 1 ( ∇u 1 – ( ∇u 1 ) ) + μ 2 ( ∇u 2 – ( ∇u 2 ) ) ) = σ ( ∇ s ⋅ n i )n i – ∇ s σ

assuming Newtonian fluids with viscosities μ1 and μ2 for fluids 1 and 2, respectively,
and that p1 and p2 are the pressures in the respective fluids adjacent to the boundary.
This equation expresses the equality of two vector quantities. It is instructive to
consider the components perpendicular and tangential to the boundary. In the
direction of the boundary normal

T T
p 1 – p 2 + n i ⋅ ( μ 2 ( ∇u 2 – ( ∇u 2 ) ) – μ 1 ( ∇u 1 – ( ∇u 1 ) ) ) ⋅ n i = σ ( ∇ s ⋅ n i )n(4-23)
i

whereas in the tangential direction, ti,

T T
n i ⋅ ( μ 2 ( ∇u 2 – ( ∇u 2 ) ) – μ 1 ( ∇u 1 – ( ∇u 1 ) ) ) ⋅ t i = ∇ s σ (4-24)

196 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Figure 4-3: Diagrammatic representation of the forces acting on an element of a
two-dimensional curved surface.

For the case of a static interface, Equation 4-23 expresses the pressure difference across
the interface that results from its curvature. For a moving interface, the surface tension
balances the difference in the total normal stress on either side of the interface.

Equation 4-24 involves only velocity gradients and the gradient of the surface tension.
The implication of this is that surface tension gradients always drive motion; this is
known as the Marangoni effect.

FREE SURFACE
It is often the case that the viscosity of fluid 1 is significantly greater than that of fluid 2
(for example for a liquid-vapor interface). In this case, the viscosity terms in the total
stress from fluid 2 can be neglected and Equation 4-20 becomes:

n i ⋅ τ 1 = – p ext n i + f st (4-25)

The outer fluid (fluid 2) now enters the equation system only through the pressure
term and the system can be represented by a domain consisting solely of the fluid 1
domain with an expression (or constant value) for the external pressure, pext, in the
fluid 2 domain. Since the velocity in fluid 2 does not affect fluid 1, fluid 2 does not
need to be explicitly modeled and Equation 4-19 can be dropped.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 197

 Contact Angle Boundary Conditions
At a three-phase boundary, it is necessary to add force terms on the boundary to ensure
that the fluid maintains a consistent contact angle. Additionally the Wall boundary
condition with the Navier Slip option must be used on the walls. The forces acting on
the contact point are applied to the model by the Contact Angle node.

Figure 4-4: Forces per unit length acting on a fluid-fluid interface at a three phase
boundary with a solid wall. The surface tension force per unit length, σ, is balanced by a
reaction force per unit length at the surface, Fn, and by the forces generated by the surface
energies of the two phases at the interface: γs1 and γs2.

In equilibrium, the surface tension forces and the normal restoring force from the
surface are in balance at a constant contact angle (θc), as shown in Figure 4-4. This
equilibrium is expressed by Young’s equation, which considers the components of the
forces in the plane of the surface:

σ cos ( θ c ) + γ s1 = γ s2 (4-26)

where σ is the surface tension force between the two fluids, γs1 is the surface energy
density on the fluid 1 — solid interface and γs2 is the surface energy density on the
fluid 2 — solid interface.

There is still debate in the literature as to precisely what occurs in nonequilibrium

situations (for example, drop impact) when the physical contact angle deviates from
the contact angle specified by a simple application of Young’s equation. A simple
approach is to assume that the unbalanced part of the in plane Young Force acts on the
fluid to move the contact angle toward its equilibrium value (Ref. 2). COMSOL

198 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Multiphysics employs this approach as it is physically motivated and is consistent with
the allowed form of the boundary condition from thermodynamics (Ref. 3 and
Ref. 4).

The normal force balance at the solid surface is handled by the wall boundary
condition, which automatically prevents fluid flow across the solid boundary by the
application of a constraint force. The contact angle feature applies a force on the fluid
at the interface, fwf, with magnitude:

f wf = σ ( cos ( θ c ) – cos ( θ ) )m s

where θ is the actual contact angle and ms is the binormal to the solid surface, as
defined in Figure 4-5.

Figure 4-5: Diagram showing normal and tangential vectors defined on the interface
between two fluids and a solid surface in 3D (left) and 2D (right). The following vectors
are defined: ni, the fluid-fluid interface unit normal; ns, the solid surface unit normal;
tc, the tangent to the three-phase contact line; and mi and ms, the two unit binormals,
which are defined as mi = tc×ni and ms = tc×ns, respectively.

References for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

1. R. Scardovelli and S. Zaleski, “Direct Numerical Simulation of Free Surface and
Interfacial Flow,” Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., vol. 31, pp. 567–603, 1999.

2. J. Gerbeau and T. Lelièvre, “Generalized Navier Boundary Condition and

Geometric Conservation Law for Surface Tension,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech.
Eng., vol. 198, pp. 644–656, 2009.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 199

 3. W. Ren and E. Weinan, “Boundary Conditions for the Moving Contact Line
Problem”, Phys. Fluids, vol. 19, p. 022101, 2007.

4. W. Ren and D. Hu, “Continuum Models for the Contact Line Problem”, Phys.
Fluids, vol. 22, p. 102103, 2010.

5. J. J. Jasper, “The Surface Tension of Pure Liquid Compounds”,

J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data., vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 841-1009, 1972.

6. R. C. Weast, ed.,“CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics”, ed. 69, MIT Press,
1988.

7. A. G. Gaonkar, “Interfacial Tensions of Vegetable Oil/Water Systems: Effect of Oil

Purification”, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., vol. 66, no. 8, pp. 1090-1092, 1989.

200 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW, TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 5

Mathematics, Moving Interfaces

The Level Set and Phase Field in Fluids Moving Interfaces are available under the
Mathematics>Moving Interface branch ( ) when adding interfaces. See Modeling
Microfluidic Fluid Flows to help you select which interface to use.

• The Level Set Interface

• The Phase Field in Fluids Interface
• The Ternary Phase Field Interface
• Theory for the Level Set Interface
• Theory for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface
• Theory for the Ternary Phase Field Interface

201
 T he L e v e l S e t In t erface
In this section:

• The Level Set Interface

• The Level Set in Porous Media Interface
• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface

The Level Set Interface

The Level Set (ls) interface ( ), found under the Mathematics>Moving Interface
branch ( ) when adding an interface, is used to track moving interfaces in fluid-flow
models by solving a transport equation for the level set function. Simulations using the
Level Set interface are always time dependent because the position of an interface
almost always depends on its history.

The main node is the Level Set Model feature, which adds the level set equation and
provides an interface for defining the level set properties and the velocity field.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Level Set Model, No Flow (the default boundary condition), Initial
Values, and Initial Values, Fluid 2. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Level Set to
select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ls.

STABILIZATION
To display this sections, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select
Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box.

202 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

There are two stabilization methods available — Streamline diffusion and Crosswind
diffusion. Both are active by default and should remain selected for optimal
performance.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this sections, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Specify the Convective term as Nonconservative form (default) or Conservative form.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Level Set interface uses Linear elements. When coupling the physics
interface to a fluid flow interface by means of The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
Coupling Feature, exact conservation of the integral of φ is obtained using the
nonconservative form provided that the discretization order of the level set variable is
equal to or lower than the order of the pressure.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is the Level set variable phi. The name can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.

• Conservative and Nonconservative Form

• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface
• Theory for the Level Set Interface
• Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

The Level Set in Porous Media Interface

The Level Set in Porous Media (ls) interface ( ), found under the Mathematics>Moving
Interface branch ( ) when adding an interface, is used to track moving interfaces in
fluid-flow through porous media models by solving a transport equation for the level
set function. Simulations using the Level Set in Porous Media interface are always time
dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

The main node is the Porous Medium Level Set Model feature, which adds the level
set equation and provides interfaces for defining the level set properties, the velocity
field and the porosity of the porous matrix.

THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 203

 When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Porous Medium, No Flow (the default boundary condition), Initial
Values, and Initial Values, Fluid 2. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Level Set in
Porous Media to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The rest of the settings are the same as for the Level Set interface.

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface
The Level Set Interface has the following domain, boundary, and pair nodes described.

• Continuity • Periodic Condition (see Periodic

• Initial Values Boundary Conditions in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
• Inlet
Manual)
• Level Set Model
• Porous Matrix
• No Flow
• Porous Medium
• Open Boundary
• Symmetry1
• Outlet1
• Thin Barrier
1
Described for the Laminar Flow interface.

Boundary conditions for axial symmetry boundaries are not required. For
the symmetry axis at r = 0, the software automatically provides a suitable
boundary condition and adds an Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the
axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

204 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

Level Set Model
If the Level Set Model node is a domain feature under the The Level Set Interface, it
adds the following transport equation governing a level set function φ:

∂φ + u ⋅ ∇φ ∇φ
= γ∇ ⋅  ε ls ∇φ – φ ( 1 – φ ) ----------
∂t  ∇φ 

If it is a domain subfeature under the Porous Medium domain feature, it adds the
following equation

∂φ ∇φ
εp + u ⋅ ∇φ = γ∇ ⋅  ε ls ∇φ – φ ( 1 – φ ) ----------
∂t  ∇φ 

In both cases the Level Set Model node provides the options to define the associated
level set parameters and the velocity field.

LEVEL SET PARAMETERS

Enter a value or expression for the Reinitialization parameter γ (SI unit: m/s). The
default is 1 m/s.

Enter a value or expression for the Parameter controlling interface thickness εls
(SI unit: m). The default expression is ls.ep_default, a value proportional to the
maximum element size with a proportionality factor dependent on the ratio of the
maximum and minimum element sizes in the domain.

CONVECTION
Enter values or expressions for the components (u, v, and w in 3D, for example) of the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s). The applied velocity field transports the level set
function through convection.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the level set equation. It has two default subfeatures —
the Level Set Model feature where the reinitialization parameter γ (SI unit: m/s) and
the parameter controlling the interface thickness εls (SI unit: m) are defined, and the
Porous Matrix feature where the porosity εp (dimensionless) is specified.

THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 205

 Porous Matrix
This node contains inputs for the material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium parent node.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses by default the value
From material. For User defined the default is 1.

Initial Values
Use the Initial Values node to define the initial values of the level set variable.

INITIAL VALUES
The initial positions of the two fluids, and consequently the separating interface, can
be specified in two ways. The level set function can be specified explicitly, using any
type of variable or expression. Alternatively the fluid occupying the current domain
selection can be specified. Using the former method, a Time Dependent study step can
directly be solved. Using the latter method, a Phase Initialization study step is needed
in order to initialize the level set function across the fluid-fluid interface.

Specify the Level set variable as one of the following:

• To specify the fluid occupying the domain, select Specify phase (default). Then select
the check box Fluid 1 (φ = 0) or Fluid 2 (φ = 1).
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the level set variable φ.

If the Phase Initialization ( ) study step is being used, for the

initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes should use Specify phase: Fluid 1 (φ = 0)
and the other Specify phase: Fluid 2 (φ = 1). The initial fluid-fluid interface
is then automatically placed on all interior boundaries between both
phases. The smooth initialization is not used in domains with User defined
initial values.

See Initializing the Level Set Function.

206 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

Inlet

LEVEL SET CONDITION

Specify Level Set Condition according to one of the following options:

• Fluid 1 (φ = 0)
• Fluid 2 (φ = 1)
• Specify level set function explicitly

When the Specify level set function explicitly is selected, the level set function φ must be
specified explicitly. The value must be in the range from 0 to 1, where the default is 0.

No Flow
The No Flow node adds a boundary condition that represents boundaries where there
is no flow across the boundary. This is the default boundary condition.

Open Boundary
Use this node to set up transport across boundaries where both convective inflow and
outflow can occur. On the parts of the boundary where fluid flows into the domain,
an exterior value of the level set function is prescribed. On the remaining parts, where
fluid flows out of the domain, a condition equivalent to the Outflow node is instead
prescribed.

The direction of the flow across the boundary is typically calculated by a fluid flow
interface and is provided as a model input to the Level Set interface.

LEVEL SET CONDITION

Specify Level Set Condition according to one of the following options:

• Fluid 1 (φ = 0)
• Fluid 2 (φ = 1)
• Specify level set function explicitly

When the Specify level set function explicitly is selected, the level set function φ must be
specified explicitly. The value must be in the range from 0 to 1, where the default is 0.

THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 207

 Thin Barrier
The Thin Barrier feature is available on interior boundaries and introduces a
discontinuity in the level set variable across the boundary. A No Flow condition is
prescribed on each side. This node can be used to avoid meshing thin structures.

Continuity
The Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the level set variable is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the No Flow node is used as fallback unless another feature has been
selected for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Right-click the physics interface and select Pairs>Continuity.

Ribbon
Physics tab with the physics interface selected:

Pairs>Continuity

208 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

The Phase Field in Fluids Interface
The Phase Field in Fluids (pf) interface ( ), found under the Mathematics>Moving
Interface branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to track moving
fluid-fluid interfaces by solving two transport equations, one for the phase field
variable, φ, and one for the mixing energy density, ψ. The position of the interface is
determined by minimizing the free energy.

The main node is the Phase Field Model feature, which adds the phase field equations
and provides an interface for defining the phase field model properties.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Phase Field Model, Wetted Wall (the default boundary condition), Initial
Values, and Initial Values, Fluid 2. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Phase Field in
Fluids to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is pf.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this sections, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
settings options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Specify the Convective term as Nonconservative form (default) or Conservative form.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Phase Field in Fluids interface uses Linear elements.

THE PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS INTERFACE | 209

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines the dependent variables (fields) Phase field variable φ and Phase
field help variable ψ. If required, edit the name, but dependent variables must be
unique within a model.

• Conservative and Nonconservative Forms

• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field in Fluids
Interface
• Theory for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field in Fluids
Interface
The Phase Field in Fluids Interface includes the following domain, boundary, and pair
nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows
users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context
menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• Periodic Condition (see Periodic Boundary

• Continuity
Conditions in the COMSOL Multiphysics
• Initial Values
Reference Manual)
• Inlet
• Phase Field Model
• Interior Wetted Wall
• Symmetry
• Outlet
• Wetted Wall

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

210 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

Phase Field Model
The Phase Field Model node adds the equations described in The Equations for the
Phase Field Method. The node defines the associated phase field parameters including
surface tension and interface thickness.

PHASE FIELD PARAMETERS

Define the following phase field parameters. Enter a value or expression for the:

• Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m).

Parameter controlling interface thickness epf (SI unit: m). The default expression is
pf.ep_default, a value proportional to the maximum element size with a
proportionality factor dependent on the ratio of the maximum and minimum element
sizes in the domain.

• Mobility tuning parameter χ (SI unit: m·s/kg). This parameter determines the time
scale of the Cahn–Hilliard diffusion and it thereby also governs the diffusion-related
time scale for the interface. Select User defined (default) or Calculate from velocity.
For User defined enter a value or expression for the mobility tuning parameter χ. The
default is 1 m·s/kg, which is a good starting point for most models.
For Calculate from velocity enter a value for the expected velocity at the interface U
(SI unit: m/s). χ is then computed as:

Uh max
χ = -----------------
-
3 2σε

where hmax is the largest mesh cell size.

Keep the χ parameter value large enough to maintain a constant interface

thickness but still low enough to not damp the convective motion. A too
high mobility can also lead to excessive diffusion of droplets.

EXTERNAL FREE ENERGY

Add a source of external free energy to the phase field equations. This modifies the last
term on the right-hand side of the equation:

2
ε ∂f
ψ = – ∇ ⋅ ε ∇φ + ( φ – 1 )φ +  -----
2 2
 λ  ∂φ

THE PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS INTERFACE | 211

 The external free energy f (SI unit: J/m3) is a user-defined free energy. In most cases,
the external free energy can be set to zero. Manually differentiate the expression for
the external free energy with respect to φ and then enter it into the φ-derivative of
external free energy field ∂f/∂φ.

CONVECTION
Enter values or expressions for the components (u, v, and w in 3D, for example) of the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s). The applied velocity field transports the phase field
variables through convection.

Additional Sources of Free Energy

Initial Values
Use the Initial Values node to define the initial values of the phase field variable.

INITIAL VALUES
The initial positions of the two fluids, and consequently the fluid-fluid interface, can
be specified in two ways. The phase field variable can be specified explicitly, using any
type of variable or expression. Alternatively the fluid occupying the current domain
selection can be specified. Using the former method, a Time Dependent study step can
directly be solved. Using the latter method, a Phase Initialization study step is needed
in order to initialize the phase field function across the fluid-fluid interface.

Specify the Phase field variable as one of the following:

• To specify the fluid occupying the domain, select Specify phase (default). Then select
the check box Fluid 1 (φ = −1) or Fluid 2 (φ = 1).
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the phase field variable φ.

If the Phase Initialization ( ) study step is being used, for the

initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes is set to Specify phase: Fluid 1 (φ = −1) and
the other to Specify phase: Fluid 2 (φ = 1). The initial fluid-fluid interface
is then automatically placed on all interior boundaries between both
phases. The smooth initialization is not used in domains with User defined
initial values.

212 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

Inlet

SETTINGS
Specify Phase field Condition according to one of the following options:

• Fluid 1 (φ = −1)
• Fluid 2 (φ = 1)
• Specify phase field function explicitly

When Specify phase field function explicitly is selected, the phase field function φ must
be specified in the entire domain. The value must be in the range from −1 to 1, where
the default is 1.

Wetted Wall
The Wetted Wall node is the default boundary condition representing wetted walls.
Along a wetted wall the contact angle for the fluid, θw, is specified, and across it, the
mass flow is zero. This is prescribed by

2 2
n ⋅ ε ∇φ = ε cos ( θ w ) ∇φ

in combination with

γλ
n ⋅ -----2- ∇ψ = 0
ε

The contact angle θw can be defined directly or from Young’s equation, which
considers the components of the forces in the plane of the surface:

σ cos ( θ w ) + γ s2 = γ s1 (5-1)

where γs1 is the surface energy density on the fluid 1 — solid (wall) interface and γs2
is the surface energy density on the fluid 2 — solid (wall) interface.

WETTED WALL
Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation. For Directly enter a value or expression for the Contact angle θw (SI
unit: rad). The default value is π/2 radians. For Through Young’s equation enter values
or expressions for Phase 1-Solid surface energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and
Phase 2-Solid surface energy density γs2 (SI unit: J/m2).

THE PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS INTERFACE | 213

 Interior Wetted Wall
The Interior Wetted Wall feature is available on interior boundaries. It is similar to the
Wetted Wall condition except that it applies on both sides of an interior boundary and
introduces a discontinuity of the phase field variables across the boundary. This node
can be used to avoid meshing thin structures.

Along an interior wetted wall the contact angle for the fluid, θw, is specified on both
sides of the boundary, and across it, the mass flow is zero.

WETTED WALL
Enter a value or expression for the Contact angle θw. The default value is π/2 rad.

Continuity
The Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the phase field variables are continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wetted Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been
selected for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Right-click the physics interface and select Pairs>Continuity.

Ribbon
Physics tab with the physics interface selected:

Pairs>Continuity

214 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

The Ternary Phase Field Interface
The Ternary Phase Field (terpf) interface ( ), found under the Mathematics>Moving
Interface branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to track moving
interfaces separating three different phases. The interface solves four transport
equations: two equations governing phase field variables, φA and φB, and two
equations for the corresponding generalized chemical potentials, ηA and ηB. The
position of the interfaces are determined by minimization of the free energy.

The phase field variables are defined such that they represent the volume fraction of
the respective phase. The volume fraction of the third phase not solved for, but
computed from the natural constraint that the sum of the volume fractions of all phases
is one.

The main node of the interface is the Phase Field Model feature, which adds the phase
field equations and provides an interface for defining the phase field model properties
such as surface tensions and parameters controlling the interface thickness.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Mixture Properties, Wetted Wall and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Ternary Phase Field to select physics features from the context
menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is terpf.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines the dependent variables (fields):

• Phase field variable, fluid A phiA

• Phase field variable, fluid B phiB

THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 215

 • Generalized chemical potential of fluid A etaA
• Generalized chemical potential of fluid B etaB

If required, edit the any of the names, but dependent variables must be unique within
a model.

Theory for the Ternary Phase Field Interface

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Ternary Phase Field
Interface
The Ternary Phase Field Interface includes the following domain, boundary, and pair
nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows
users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking the interface
node to access the context menu (all users).

• Initial Values • Phase Field Model

• Inlet • Symmetry
• Outlet • Wetted Wall

Mixture Properties
The Mixture Properties node adds the equations described in The Equations of the
Ternary Phase Field Method. The node defines the associated phase field parameters,
including the surface tension coefficients and parameters controlling the thickness of
the interfaces.

MODEL INPUTS
The surface tension coefficients can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by
selecting a material. For the latter option, an additional input, the temperature, may
be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,

216 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

PHASE FIELD PARAMETERS

Define the following phase field parameters. Enter a value or expression for the:

Parameter controlling interface thickness ε. The default expression is

terpf.ep_default*sqrt(2), a value proportional to the maximum element size
with a proportionality factor dependent on the ratio of the maximum and minimum
element sizes in the domain.

• Mobility tuning parameter M0. This parameter determines the time scale of the
Cahn–Hilliard diffusion and it thereby also governs the diffusion-related time scale
for the interface. Keep the mobility tuning parameter value large enough to
maintain a constant interface thickness but still low enough to not damp the
convective motion. A too high mobility can also lead to excessive diffusion of
droplets. By default, M0 is set to 1·10−4 m3/s, which is a good starting point for
most models.
• Additional free bulk energy Λ. When needed, add a user-defined expression for the
additional bulk energy.

SURFACE TENSION
Specify the surface tension coefficients for the three types of interfaces present.

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (Water/Air, Glycerol/Air, and so forth).
• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient.

The predefined correlations are based on the data in Ref. 3, Ref. 4, and Ref. 5.

THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 217

 CONVECTION
Enter values or expressions for the components (u, v, and w in 3D, for example) of the
Velocity field u. The applied velocity field transports the phase field variables through
convection.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the phase field variables that can serve as
initial conditions for a transient simulation.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for Phase field variable A and the Phase field variable B
corresponding to the mass fraction of the respective phase. The value must be in the
range from 0 to 1.

Inlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net convective flow
of the phases into the adjacent domain.

INLET
Specify phase field variables, corresponding to the volume fractions, of phase A and
phase B. The value must be in the range from 0 to 1. The volume fraction of phase C
will be evaluated such that the sum of all mass fractions equals one.

Mathematically this boundary condition imposes

M0
φ i = φ i, 0 , n ⋅ -------- ∇η i = 0
Σi

for phases i = A and B.

Outlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net convective
outflow from the domain.

Mathematically this boundary condition imposes

M0
n ⋅ -------- ∇η i = 0
Σi

218 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

for phases i = A and B.

Symmetry
Use this condition on boundaries that represent a geometrical symmetry line across
which the flow of the fluid phases is zero.

Mathematically this boundary condition imposes

M0
n ⋅ -------- ∇η i = 0
Σi

for phases i = A and B.

Wetted Wall
Use this node to represent a solid wall along which the contact angles between the
separating interfaces and the wall should be prescribed.

WETTED WALL
Enter values or expressions for the contact angles for the three interfaces types:

• The Contact angle of interface from phase A to phase C θα.

• The Contact angle of interface from phase B to phase C θβ.
• The Contact angle of interface from phase A to phase B θγ.

THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 219

 The definition of the contact angles with respect to the wall are shown in the figure
below.

Figure 5-1: Definitions of the contact angels in the Wetted Wall feature of the Ternary
Phase Field interface.

220 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

Theory for the Level Set Interface
Fluid flow with moving interfaces or boundaries occur in a number of different
applications, such as fluid-structure interaction, multiphase flows, and flexible
membranes moving in a liquid. One way to track moving interfaces is to use a level set
method. A certain contour line of the globally defined function, the level set function,
then represents the interface between the phases. For The Level Set Interface the
fluid-fluid interface can be advected with an arbitrary velocity field.

In this section:

• The Level Set Method

• Conservative and Nonconservative Form
• Initializing the Level Set Function
• Variables For Geometric Properties of the Interface
• Reference for the Level Set Interface

The Level Set Method

The level set method is a technique to represent moving interfaces or boundaries using
a fixed mesh. It is useful for problems where the computational domain can be divided
into two domains separated by an interface. Each of the two domains can consist of
several parts. Figure 5-2 shows an example where one of the domains consists of two
separated parts. The interface is represented by a certain level set or isocontour of a
globally defined function, the level set function φ. In COMSOL Multiphysics, φ is a
smooth step function that equals zero (0) in one domain and one (1) in the other.
Across the interface, there is a smooth transition from zero to one. The interface is

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 221

 defined by the 0.5 isocontour, or level set, of φ. Figure 5-3 shows the level set
representation of the interface in Figure 5-2.

Figure 5-2: An example of two domains divided by an interface. In this case, one of the
domains consists of two parts. Figure 5-3 shows the corresponding level set representation.

Figure 5-3: A surface plot of the level set function corresponding to Figure 5-2.

The physics interface solves Equation 5-2 in order to move the interface with the
velocity field u:

∂φ + u ⋅ ∇φ ∇φ
= γ∇ ⋅  ε ls ∇φ – φ ( 1 – φ ) ---------- (5-2)
∂t  ∇φ 

The terms on the left-hand side give the correct motion of the interface, while those
on the right-hand side are necessary for numerical stability. The parameter, εls,
determines the thickness of the region where φ varies smoothly from zero to one and
is typically of the same order as the size of the elements of the mesh. By default, εls is

222 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

constant within each domain and proportional to the largest value of the mesh size, h,
within the domain. The parameter γ determines the amount of reinitialization or
stabilization of the level set function. It needs to be tuned for each specific problem. If
γ is too small, the thickness of the interface might not remain constant and oscillations
in φ can appear because of numerical instabilities. On the other hand, if γ is too large
the interface moves incorrectly. A suitable value for γ is the maximum magnitude of the
velocity field u.

Conservative and Nonconservative Form

If the velocity is divergence free, that is, if

∇⋅u = 0 (5-3)

the volume (area for 2D problems) bounded by the interface should be conserved if
there is no inflow or outflow through the boundaries. To obtain exact numerical
conservation in cases where Equation 5-3 is not fully satisfied, switch to the
conservative form

∂φ + ∇ ⋅ ( uφ ) ∇φ
= γ∇ ⋅  ε ls ∇φ – φ ( 1 – φ ) ---------- (5-4)
∂t ∇φ

in Settings window for The Level Set Interface.

Using the conservative level set form, exact numerical conservation of the integral of
φ is obtained. However, the nonconservative form is better suited for numerical
calculations and usually converges more easily. The nonconservative form, which is the
default form, only conserves the integral of the level set function approximately, but
this level of conservation is sufficient for most applications.

When the Level Set interface is coupled to a fluid-flow interface by means of The
Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature, exact conservation of the integral of φ
is obtained using the nonconservative form, provided that the discretization order of
the level set variable is equal to or lower than the order of the pressure.

Rising Bubble: Application Library path

Microfluidics_Module/Two-Phase_Flow/rising_bubble_2daxi

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 223

 The Level Set Equation in Porous Domains
In a porous domain, the equation that determines the evolution of the interface is

∂φ + u  ∇φ-
---------
pore ⋅ ∇φ = γ∇ ⋅  ε ls ∇φ – φ ( 1 – φ ) ∇φ  (5-5)
∂t

Here upore is the pore velocity. Instead using the Darcy velocity u=upore/εp,
multiplying the equation with the porosity εp, and rescaling γ such that it again can be
set proportional to the maximum magnitude of the velocity field u, the equation can
be rewritten as:

∂φ ∇φ
εp + u ⋅ ∇φ = γ∇ ⋅  ε ls ∇φ – φ ( 1 – φ ) ---------- (5-6)
∂t  ∇φ 

This is the nonconservative form of the level set equation that is solved in the Porous
Medium feature.

To obtain exact numerical conservation of the integral of εpφ, switch to the

conservative form

∂ ε ∇φ
( φ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( uφ ) = γ∇ ⋅  ε ls ∇φ – φ ( 1 – φ ) ---------- (5-7)
∂t p  ∇φ 

The conservative form can be derived from the nonconservative form if it is assumed
that the velocity field u satisfies the following continuity equation:

∂ε p
+∇⋅u = 0 (5-8)
∂t

Initializing the Level Set Function

If the study type Transient with Phase Initialization is used in the model, the level set
variable is first initialized so that it varies smoothly between zero and one over the
interface. For that study, two study steps are created, Phase Initialization and Time
Dependent. The Phase Initialization step solves for the distance to the initial interface,
Dwi. The Time Dependent step then uses the initial condition for the level set function
according to the following expression:

1
φ 0 = -------------------------
-
–D ⁄ ε
1 + e wi

224 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

in domains initially outside the interface and

1 -
φ 0 = -----------------------
D ⁄ε
1 + e wi

in domains initially inside the interface. Here, inside refers to domains where φ < 0.5
and outside refers to domains where φ > 0.5.

If the Transient with Phase Initialization ( ) study is being used, then, for
the initialization to work, it is crucial that there are two Initial Values
nodes. One of the Initial Values nodes should use Specify phase: Fluid 1
(φ = 0) and the other Specify phase: Fluid 2 (φ = 1). The initial fluid-fluid
interface is then automatically placed on all interior boundaries between
both phases. The smooth initialization is not used in domains with User
defined initial values.

• The Level Set Interface

• Studies and Solvers and Time Dependent with Initialization in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Variables For Geometric Properties of the Interface

Geometric properties of the interface are often needed. The unit normal to the
interface is given by

∇φ-
n = --------- (5-9)
∇φ φ = 0.5

This variable is available in the physics interface as the interface normal [Link].

Reference for the Level Set Interface

1. E. Olsson and G. Kreiss, “A Conservative Level Set Method for Two Phase Flow,”
J. Comput. Phys., vol. 210, pp. 225–246, 2005.

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 225

 Theory for the Phase Field in Fluids
Interface
The Phase Field in Fluids Interface theory is described in this section:

• About the Phase Field Method

• The Equations for the Phase Field Method
• Conservative and Nonconservative Forms
• Additional Sources of Free Energy
• Initializing the Phase Field Function
• Variables and Expressions
• Reference for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface

About the Phase Field Method

The phase field method offers an attractive alternative to more established methods for
solving multiphase flow problems. Instead of directly tracking the interface between
two fluids, the interfacial layer is governed by a phase field variable, φ. The surface
tension force is added to the Navier–Stokes equations as a body force by multiplying
the chemical potential of the system by the gradient of the phase field variable.

The evolution of the phase field variable is governed by the Cahn–Hilliard equation,
which is a 4th-order PDE. The Phase Field in Fluids interface decomposes the Cahn–
Hilliard equation into two second-order PDEs.

For the level set method, the fluid interface is simply advected with the flow field. The
Cahn–Hilliard equation, on the other hand, does not only convect the fluid interface,
but it also ensures that the total energy of the system diminishes correctly. The phase
field method thus includes more physics than the level set method.

The free energy of a system of two immiscible fluids consists of mixing, bulk distortion,
and anchoring energy. For simple two-phase flows, only the mixing energy is retained,
which results in a rather simple expression for the free energy.

The Equations for the Phase Field Method

The free energy is a functional of a dimensionless phase field parameter, φ:

226 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

   --2- ε ∇φ + f ( φ, T ) dV =
1
 ftot dV
2 2
F ( φ, ∇φ, T ) =

where ε is a measure of the interface thickness. Equation 5-10 describes the evolution
of the phase field parameter:

∂φ + ( u ⋅ ∇ )φ ∂f ∂f tot
= ∇ ⋅ γ∇  tot – ∇ ⋅ (5-10)
∂t ∂φ ∂ ∇φ 

where ftot (SI unit: J/m3) is the total free energy density of the system, and u
(SI unit: m/s) is the velocity field for the advection. The right-hand side of
Equation 5-10 aims to minimize the total free energy with a relaxation time controlled
by the mobility γ (SI unit: m3·s/kg).

The free energy density of an isothermal mixture of two immiscible fluids is the sum
of the mixing energy and elastic energy. The mixing energy assumes the Ginzburg–
Landau form:

1 2 λ 2 2
f mix ( φ, ∇φ ) = --- λ ∇φ + --------2- ( φ – 1 )
2 4ε

where φ is the dimensionless phase field variable, defined such that the volume fraction
of the components of the fluid are (1+ φ)/2 and (1− φ)/2. The quantity λ (SI unit: N)
is the mixing energy density and ε (SI unit: m) is a capillary width that scales with the
thickness of the interface. These two parameters are related to the surface tension
coefficient, σ (SI unit: N/m), through the equation

2 2λ
σ = ----------- --- (5-11)
3 ε

The PDE governing the phase field variable is the Cahn–Hilliard equation:

∂φ + u ⋅ ∇φ = ∇ ⋅ γ ∇G
(5-12)
∂t

where G (SI unit: Pa) is the chemical potential and γ (SI unit: m3·s/kg) is the mobility.
The mobility determines the time scale of the Cahn–Hilliard diffusion and must be
large enough to retain a constant interfacial thickness but small enough so that the
convective terms are not overly damped. In COMSOL Multiphysics the mobility is
determined by a mobility tuning parameter that is a function of the interface thickness
γ = χε2. The chemical potential is:

THEORY FOR THE PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS INTERFACE | 227

 2
G = λ –∇ φ+φ
2 ( φ – 1 )-
---------------------- (5-13)
2
ε

The Cahn–Hilliard equation forces φ to take a value of 1 or −1 except in a very thin

region on the fluid-fluid interface. The Phase Field in Fluids interface breaks
Equation 5-12 up into two second-order PDEs:

γλ-
∂φ + u ⋅ ∇φ = ∇ ⋅ ----- ∇ψ (5-14)
∂t ε
2

2 2
ψ = – ∇ ⋅ ε ∇φ + ( φ – 1 )φ (5-15)

Conservative and Nonconservative Forms

If the velocity field is divergence free, that is, if

∇⋅u = 0 (5-16)

the volume (area for 2D problems) bounded by the interface should be conserved if
there is no inflow or outflow through the boundaries. To obtain exact numerical
conservation in cases where Equation 5-16 is not fully satisfied, switch to the
conservative form

∂φ + ∇ ⋅ uφ γλ
= ∇ ⋅ -----2- ∇ψ
∂t ε

Using the conservative phase field form, exact numerical conservation of the integral
of φ is obtained. However, the nonconservative form is better suited for numerical
calculations and usually converges more easily. The nonconservative form, which is the
default form, only conserves the integral of the phase field function approximately, but
this is sufficient for most applications.

When the Phase Field in Fluids interface is coupled to a fluid flow interface by means
of The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature, conservation of the integral of
φ using the nonconservative form can be improved provided that the discretization
order of the phase field variables is equal to or lower than the order of the pressure.

228 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

Additional Sources of Free Energy
In some cases, the expression for the free energy can include other sources. It is
possible to incorporate these by modifying Equation 5-15:

2
ε ∂f
ψ = – ∇ ⋅ ε ∇φ + ( φ – 1 )φ +  -----
2 2
(5-17)
 λ  ∂φ

where f is a user-defined free energy (SI unit: J/m3).

The expression for the external free energy must be manually

differentiated with respect to φ and then entered into the ∂f/∂φ field. In
most cases, the external free energy is zero.

Initializing the Phase Field Function

If the study type Transient with Phase Initialization is used in the model, the phase field
variable is first initialized so that it varies smoothly between zero and one over the
interface. For this study, two study steps are created, Phase Initialization and Time
Dependent. The Phase Initialization step solves for the distance to the initial interface,
Dwi. The Time Dependent step then uses the initial condition for the phase field
function according to the expression

D wi
φ 0 = – tanh  ----------
 2ε

in Fluid 1 and

D wi
φ 0 = tanh  ----------
2ε

THEORY FOR THE PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS INTERFACE | 229

 in Fluid 2. These expressions are based on a steady, analytic solution to Equation 5-14
and Equation 5-15 for a straight, nonmoving interface.

If the Transient with Phase Initialization ( ) study is being used, for the
initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes is set to Specify phase: Fluid 1 (φ = −1) and
the other to Specify phase: Fluid 2 (φ = 1). The initial fluid-fluid interface
is then automatically placed on all interior boundaries between both
phases. The smooth initialization is not used in domains with User defined
initial values.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Variables and Expressions

The physics interface defines the chemical potential, which can be rewritten in terms
of the dependent variable ψ,

λψ-
G = ------
2
ε

and the surface tension force F = G∇φ.

Geometric properties of the interface are often needed. The unit normal to the
interface is given by

∇φ-
n = --------- (5-18)
∇φ φ = 0.5

This variable is available in the physics interface as the interface normal [Link].

The mean curvature (SI unit: 1/m) of the interface can be computed by entering the
following expression:

G
κ = 2 ( 1 + φ ) ( 1 – φ ) ----
σ

230 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

Reference for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface
1. P. Yue, C. Zhou, J.J. Feng, C.F. Ollivier-Gooch, and H.H. Hu, “Phase-field
Simulations of Interfacial Dynamics in Viscoelastic Fluids Using Finite Elements with
Adaptive Meshing,” J. Comp. Phys., vol. 219, pp. 47–67, 2006.

THEORY FOR THE PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS INTERFACE | 231

 Theory for the Ternary Phase Field
Interface
The Ternary Phase Field Interface theory is described in this section:

• About the Phase Field Method

• The Equations of the Ternary Phase Field Method
• Reference for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface

About the Phase Field Method

The phase field method offers an attractive alternative to more established methods for
solving multiphase flow problems. Instead of directly tracking the interface between
two fluids, the separating interface is identified as the region across which the phase
field variables of the two adjacent phases varies between its two limiting values. The
surface tension force is added to the Navier–Stokes equations as a body force by
multiplying the chemical potentials of the phases by the gradient of the corresponding
phase field variable.

The evolution of each phase field variable is governed by the Cahn–Hilliard

equation, which is a 4th-order PDE. The Ternary Phase Field interface decomposes
each Cahn–Hilliard equation into two second-order PDEs.

For the level set method, the fluid interface is simply advected with the flow field. The
Cahn–Hilliard equation, on the other hand, does not only convect the fluid interface,
but it also ensures that the total energy of the system diminishes correctly. The phase
field method thus includes more physics than the level set method.

The free energy of a system of immiscible fluids consists of mixing, bulk distortion, and
anchoring energy. For simple three-phase flows, only the mixing energy is retained.

The Equations of the Ternary Phase Field Method

The ternary phase field model implemented in COMSOL is based the work of Boyer
and co-workers in Ref. 2. The model is designed in order to study the evolution of the
three immiscible phases, denoted phase A, phase B, and phase C, respectively. Each
phase is represented by a phase field variable φ, which takes values between 0 and 1.
The phase field variables satisfies the constraint

232 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

  φi = 0 (5-19)
i = A, B , C

and density of each phase is assumed to be constant. This implies that the phase field
variable corresponds directly to the volume fraction of the phase in question.

The free energy of the three phase system is defined as a function of the phase field
variables in the manner of:

2 2 2 2 2 2
F = σ AB φ A φ B + σ AC φ A φ C + σ BC φ B φ C +
(5-20)
2 2 2
φ A φ B φ C ( Σ A φ A + Σ B φ B + Σ C φ C ) + Λφ A φ B φ C

Here the σij denotes the surface tension coefficient of the interface separating phase i
and j, and the capillary parameters Σi are defined as

Σ i = σ ij + σ ik – σ jk (5-21)

and Λ is a function or parameter specifying the additional free bulk energy. By default
Λ is zero. In this case it can be seen that the free energy in Equation 5-20 represents
the mixing energy, since only interfaces between two phases (where two phase field
variables varies between the limiting values) contributes to the free energy.

The Cahn–Hilliard equations to be solved for each phase p = A, B, C are

∂φ ∂u j φ i ∂ M 0 ∂η i
--------i + ------------- = --------  -------- --------
∂t ∂x j ∂x j Σ i ∂x j
(5-22)
4Σ T 1-  ∂F ∂F   3
 ---- ∂ ∂η i
η i = ----------  -------- – -------- – --- εΣ j --------  --------
ε  Σ j  ∂φ ∂φ   4 ∂x j  ∂x j 
i j
j≠i

It can be noted that the Cahn–Hilliard equation is originally a 4th-order PDE. In

COMSOL Multiphysics, that PDE is split up into two second-order PDEs by
introducing an additional dependent variable, the generalized potential η, one for each
phase. In order to satisfy Equation 5-20, two sets of the equations shown in
Equation 5-22 are solved, those for phase A and phase B. The phase field variable, and
correspondingly the mass fraction, for fluid C is computed from Equation 5-20.

In Equation 5-22 ε (SI unit: 1/m) is a parameter controlling the interface thickness,
M0 (SI unit: m3/s) is a molecular mobility parameter, and the parameter ΣT is defined
as

THEORY FOR THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 233

 3 = ------
1- + ------
1- + ------
1-
------ (5-23)
ΣT ΣA ΣB ΣC

Reference for the Ternary Phase Field Interface

2. F. Boyer, C. Lapuerta, S. Minjeaud, B. Piar, and M. Quintard, “Cahn–
Hilliard/Navier–Stokes model for the simulation of three-phase flows”, Transport in
Porous Media, vol. 28, pp. 463–484, 2010.

3. J. J. Jasper, “The Surface Tension of Pure Liquid Compounds”,

J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data., vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 841-1009, 1972.

4. R. C. Weast, ed.,“CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics”, ed. 69, MIT Press,
1988.

5. A. G. Gaonkar, “Interfacial Tensions of Vegetable Oil/Water Systems: Effect of Oil

Purification”, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., vol. 66, no. 8, pp. 1090-1092, 1989.

234 | CHAPTER 5: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

 6

Porous Media Flow Interfaces

This chapter discusses the physics interfaces found under the Fluid Flow>Porous
Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ). See Modeling Microfluidic Fluid Flows to
help you select which physics interface to use.

In this chapter:

• The Darcy’s Law Interface

• The Brinkman Equations Interface
• The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
• The Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface
• Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
• Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface
• Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
• Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface

235
 The Darcy’s Law Interface
The Darcy’s Law (dl) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and Subsurface Flow
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to simulate fluid flow through
interstices in a porous medium. It can be used to model low-velocity flows or media
where the permeability and porosity are very small, and for which the pressure gradient
is the major driving force and the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance
within the pores. Set up multiple Darcy's Law interfaces to model multiphase flows
involving more than one mobile phase. The Darcy’s Law interface can be used for
stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Porous Medium Properties node, which provides interfaces for
defining the fluid material and the porous matrix properties.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Porous Medium, No Flow (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and mass sources. You can also right-click Darcy's Law to select
physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is dl.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

GRAVITY EFFECTS
By default there are no gravity effects added to Darcy’s Law interface. Select the check
box Include gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. When this check box is
selected, a global Gravity feature node is shown in the interface model tree.

236 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

Enter a value for the acceleration of gravity. The default value g_const is the
predefined standard acceleration of gravity on earth.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

[Link]

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the pressure variable solved
by the Darcy’s Law interface. The default shape functions are Quadratic Lagrange.

The Compute boundary fluxes check box is not activated by default. When this option
is selected, the solver computes variables storing accurate boundary fluxes from each
boundary into the adjacent domain.

If the check box is cleared, the COMSOL Multiphysics software instead computes the
flux variables from the dependent variables using extrapolation, which is less accurate
in postprocessing results but does not create extra dependent variables on the
boundaries for the fluxes.

Also, the Apply smoothing to boundary fluxes check box is available if the previous check
box is checked. The smoothing can provide a better behaved flux value close to
singularities.

For details about the boundary fluxes settings, see Computing Accurate Fluxes in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transport problems be set to Real which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can
occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 237

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is the Pressure. The name can be changed but
the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s Law
Interface
• Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
• Physical Constants in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• Species Transport in the Gas Diffusion Layers of a PEM: Application

Library path
Fuel_Cell_and_Electrolyzer_Module/Fuel_Cells/pem_gdl_species_transport
_2d
• Steam Reformer: Application Library path
Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Porous_Catalysts/
steam_reformer
• Terzaghi Compaction: Application Library path
Subsurface_Flow_Module/Poromechanics/terzaghi_compaction

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s Law
Interface
The Darcy’s Law Interface has the following domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair
nodes, these nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users),
Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu
(all users).

238 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

DOMAIN

• Porous Medium • Mass Source

• Unsaturated Porous Medium • Cross Section
• Dual Porosity Medium • Initial Values
• Dual Permeability Medium • Unsaturated Porous Medium
• Unsaturated Dual Permeability • ThicknessContributing Velocity
Medium • Porous Electrode Coupling

BOUNDARY, EDGE, AND POINT

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are available on exterior boundaries:

• Atmosphere/Gauge • Outlet
• Electrode Surface Coupling • Pervious Layer
• Flux Discontinuity • Point Mass Source
• Fracture • Precipitation
• Hydraulic Head • Pressure
• Inlet • Pressure Head
• Interior Wall • 1
• Line Mass Source • Symmetry
• Mass Flux • Thin Barrier
• No Flow
1
This node is described for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface

The relevant physics interface condition at interior boundaries is continuity:

n ⋅ ( ρ1 u1 –ρ2 u2 ) = 0

The continuity boundary condition ensures that the pressure and mass flux are
continuous. In addition, the Pressure boundary condition is available on interior
boundaries.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 239

 The continuity boundary condition provides continuity for the pressure and mass flux.
In addition, the following boundary conditions are available on interior boundaries:

• Pressure • Pervious Layer

• Pressure Head • Flux Discontinuity
• Hydraulic Head • Fracture
• Interior Wall • Thin Barrier

Note that some of the above-mentioned domain or boundary conditions

are only available with some products. For a detailed overview of the
functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the equations for modeling flow through porous
domains. By default these are Equation 6-1 and Equation 6-2 (excluding any mass
sources).

∂ ( ε ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q
(6-1)
∂t p m

240 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

 κ
u = – --- ∇p (6-2)
μ

For a steady-state problem the first term in Equation 6-1 disappears. When Mass
Source is active Equation 6-2 is of the following form:

κ
u = – --- ( ∇p – ρg ) (6-3)
μ

The Porous Medium feature has two default subfeatures — the Fluid subfeature where
the fluid density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined
and the Porous Matrix subfeature where the permeability κ (SI unit: m2) and porosity
εp (dimensionless) are specified.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Porous Matrix subnode) should be set according to
the coordinate system selected in this section.

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship using Equation 6-1 and
Equation 6-2.
• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship using Equation 6-1 and

μ
∇p = – --- u – βρ u u
κ

where the nonlinear parameter β (SI unit: 1/m) is further specified in the Porous
Matrix subfeature.

STORAGE MODEL
Define the time dependent storage term by selecting one of the following options from
the drop-down menu:

• From density and porosity (default), uses the formulation of Equation 6-1

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 241

 • Linearized storage, where the following linear equation is used to define the storage:
S p = ε p χ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p

• Poroelastic storage, where Sp = εpχf

• Quasistatic, where the storage term is set to zero
• User defined to directly specify the storage coefficient Sp

• Porous Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow
Module User’s Guide
• Storage Models in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

Fluid
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Porous Medium, the
Unsaturated Porous Medium, the Dual Porosity Medium, the Dual Permeability
Medium, or the Unsaturated Porous Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The available options for the Fluid type are Incompressible, Compressible, Compressible,
linearized, or Ideal gas. The selection determines how the density and compressibility
of the fluid are set.

Incompressible
The default Reference density ρref uses values From material. For User defined enter
another value or expression.

242 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

Compressible
The default Density ρ uses values From material. For User defined enter another value or
expression as a function of the absolute pressure. The compressibility of the fluid is
computed from it.

Compressible, Linearized
The default Reference density ρref and the Fluid compressibility χf use values From
material. For User defined enter another value or expression. The fluid density increases
linearly as a function of the fluid pressure.

Ideal Gas
For Ideal gas it uses the ideal gas law to describe the gas density. In this case, specify
the thermodynamics properties. Select a Gas constant type — Specific gas constant Rs
(the default) or Mean molar mass Mn (SI unit: J/(mol·K)). For Mean molar mass the
universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K) is used as the built-in physical constant.
For both properties, the defaults use values From material. For User defined enter
another value or expression.

For all fluid types specify the Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) uses values From
material. For User defined enter another value or expression.

Porous Matrix
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium or Unsaturated Porous Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The default Porosity εp of the solid matrix is taken From material. In a Porous Material
node, the porosity is defined as follows:

εp = 1 –  θsi – θimfi
i i

where θsi and θimfi are the porosities of the Solid and Immobile Fluids subnodes under
the Porous Material node. See Porous Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual for more information.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 243

 Select User defined to enter a value or expression for εp.

If required by a Storage model in the parent node, specify the Effective compressibility
of the porous matrix. The default value is χp = 10−4 1/Pa.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. Which options are available depends on the Flow model setting in the parent node.
Note that for the Unsaturated Porous Medium parent node only the Darcian Flow
models are available.

Darcian Flow
If Darcian flow is selected in the parent Porous medium node, select between the
following options for the Permeability model:

• Select Permeability (default) to define the permeability of the porous matrix. The
default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.
• Select Hydraulic conductivity or define a combination of fluid permeability and
dynamic viscosity. For Hydraulic conductivity K (SI unit: m/s) select Isotropic to
define a scalar value or Diagonal or Symmetric to define a tensor value. The default is
2.94·10−4 m/s.
• Select Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean particle
diameter. Enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value is
0.5 mm.

Non-Darcian Flow
If Non-Darcian flow is selected in the parent node, select between the following options
for the Permeability model:

• For Forchheimer, the default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From
material. Furthermore, the dimensionless Forchheimer parameter cF can be defined.
The default value is 0.55.
• If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm).

244 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

• For Burke–Plummer, specify the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm).
• For Klinkenberg, the default Permeability κ∞ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From
material. Enter the Klinkenberg parameter bK. Its default value is 103 Pa.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

RETENTION MODEL
For an Unsaturated Porous Medium select between the following options for the
retention model:

• van Genuchten, to specify the retention model using the van Genuchten relationship.
Enter the constitutive relation constants α (the default value is 1, and the SI unit is
1/m), n (default value is 2), and l (default value is 0.5). The constitutive parameter
m is equal to 1 − 1/n.
• Brooks and Corey to use the retention model according to the Brooks and Corey
relationships.
• User defined to use a different retention model. Enter user defined expressions for
the Effective saturation Se, the Liquid volume fraction θl. The default is εp (the
porosity variable). Specify the Specific moisture capacity Cm (SI unit: 1/m). The
default value is 0 (1/m). Enter an expression for the Relative permeability κr. The
default value is 1.

If there is a residual volume of liquid that cannot move through the pore network, also
enter a value between 0 and 1 for the Residual liquid volume fraction θr. The default
value is 0.

Retention and Permeability Relationships in the Subsurface Flow Module

User’s Guide

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 245

 Unsaturated Porous Medium
The Unsaturated Porous Medium node adds the Richards’ equation (Equation 6-4) for
flow in variably saturated porous media.

Cm ∂p κr κ
- + S e S p ------ + ∇ ⋅ ρ  – -------- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = Q m
ρ  ------- (6-4)
 ρg  ∂t  μ 

The Unsaturated Porous Medium feature has two default subfeatures: the Fluid
subfeature, where the fluid density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s)
are defined, and the Porous Matrix subfeature, where the permeability κ (SI unit: m2)
and porosity εp (dimensionless) are specified as well as the retention model.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Porous Matrix subnode) should be set according to
the coordinate system selected in this section.

STORAGE MODEL
With this option, define the first term in Equation 6-4. Therefore, choose from a
drop-down menu one of the following formulations:

• From retention model

• Linearized storage (default)
• From liquid content
• User defined

If From retention model is chosen, the first term of Equation 6-4 accounts only for the
specific moisture capacity Cm which is defined by the Retention Model in the Porous
Matrix subnode:

C m ∂p
-------- .
g ∂t

For the option Linearized storage the storage coefficient Sp in Equation 6-4 is defined
as

246 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

 S p = ε p χ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p .

From liquid content enforces the first term of Equation 6-4 to be defined in terms of
liquid volume fraction as

∂( ρθ l )
----------------
∂t

and the User defined option allows to define the storage coefficient Sp in Equation 6-4
directly.

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

Dual Porosity Medium

Use the Dual Porosity Medium if the flow through macropores is governed by Darcy's
law and the micropores do not significantly contribute to the overall flow in the porous
medium.

The feature has three default subfeatures —the Fluid subfeature where the fluid density
ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined, the Macropores
subfeature where the hydraulic properties of the macroporous matrix are defined, and
the Micropores where the hydraulic properties of the microporous matrix are defined.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Macropores and Micropores subnodes) should be set
according to the coordinate system selected in this section.

STORAGE MODEL
Choose from a drop-down menu one of the following formulations:

• From density and porosity (default), uses the formulation equivalent to Equation 6-1

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 247

 • Linearized storage, where the following linear equation is used to define the storage
in the macropores as S p = ε p χ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p and in the micropores as
S p,m = ε p,m χ f + ( 1 – ε p,m )χ p .
• Poroelastic storage, where Sp = εpχf in the macropores and Sp,m = εp,mχf in the
micropores.
• Quasistatic, where the storage term is set to zero
• User defined to directly specify the storage coefficient Sp and Sp,m for the macro-
and micropores respectively.

• Storage Models in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

INTERPOROSITY FLOW
Specify the Fluid Transfer Function αw which is used to calculate the interporosity flow,
the mass exchange between macro- and microscale system:

Q ip = α w ( p M – p m ) (6-5)

with pM being the pressure within the macropores and pm the pressure within the
micropores.

Find more information in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

• Dual Porosity & Dual Permeability Modeling

• Dual Porosity and Dual Permeability Theory

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

Dual Permeability Medium

Use the Dual Permeability Medium feature to model transport in a saturated dual
permeability medium where Darcy’s Law describes the transport in each system.

The feature has three default subfeatures —the Fluid subfeature where the fluid density
ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined, the Macropores

248 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

subfeature where the hydraulic properties of the macroporous matrix are defined, and
the Micropores where the hydraulic properties of the microporous matrix are defined.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Macropores and Micropores subnodes) should be set
according to the coordinate system selected in this section.

STORAGE MODEL
With this option under the Porous Medium section, Equation 6-1 is formulated with
respect to a storage term (analogous to Equation 4-4). Therefore, choose from a
drop-down menu one of the following formulations:

• From density and porosity (default), uses the formulation of Equation 4-4
• Linearized storage, where the following linear equation is used to define the storage:
S p,i = ε p,i χ f + ( 1 – ε p,i )χ p,i

with i=M for the macropores and i=m for the micropores.

• Poroelastic storage, where Sp,i = εp,iχf

• Quasistatic, where the storage term is set to zero
• User defined to directly specify the storage coefficient Sp

• Storage Models in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

INTERPOROSITY FLOW
Specify the Fluid Transfer Function αw which is used to calculate the interporosity flow,
which is the mass exchange between macro- and microscale system:

Q ip = α w ( p M – p m ) (6-6)

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 249

 with pM being the pressure in the macropores and pm the pressure in the micropores.

Find more information in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

• Dual Porosity & Dual Permeability Modeling

• Dual Porosity and Dual Permeability Theory

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium

Use the Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium feature to model the transport in an
unsaturated dual permeability medium where the Richards’ Equation (Equation 6-4)
describes the transport in each system.

C m,M ∂p M
θ M  ρ  S e,M S p,M + -------------
- ----------- + ∇( ρu M ) = – Q ip + θ M Q m
  ρg  ∂t 
C m,m ∂p m (6-7)
( 1 – θ M )  ρ  S e,m S p,m + ------------
- ---------- + ∇( ρu m ) = Q ip + ( 1 – θ M )Q m
  ρg  ∂t 
p = θ M p M + ( 1 – θ M )p m

θM is the volume fraction of the macropores, Qip is the interporosity flow which is the
mass transfer from the macroscale to the microscale system. The indices M and m stand
for macropores and micropores, respectively.

The feature has three default subfeatures —the Fluid subfeature where the fluid density
ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined, the Macropores
subfeature where the hydraulic properties of the macroporous matrix are defined, and
the Micropores where the hydraulic properties of the microporous matrix are defined.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

250 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Macropores and Micropores subnodes) should be set
according to the coordinate system selected in this section.

STORAGE MODEL
With this option, define the first term in Equation 6-7. Therefore, choose from a
drop-down menu one of the following formulations:

• From retention model

• Linearized storage (default)
• From liquid content
• User defined

If From retention model is chosen, the first term of Equation 6-7 accounts only for the
specific moisture capacity Cm,i which is defined by the Retention Model in the
Macropores (i=M) or Micropores (i=m) subnode:

C m i ∂p
----------- .
g ∂t

For the option Linearized storage the storage coefficient Sp,i in Equation 6-7 is defined
as

S p,i = ε p,i χ f + ( 1 – ε p,i )χ p,i .

From liquid content enforces the first term of Equation 6-7 to be defined in terms of
liquid volume fraction as

∂( ρθ l,i )
------------------
∂t

• and the User defined option allows to define the storage coefficient Sp,i in
Equation 6-7 directly.

• Storage Models in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

INTERPOROSITY FLOW
Specify the Fluid Transfer Function αw which is used to calculate the interporosity flow,
which is the mass exchange between macro- and microscale system:

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 251

 Q ip = α w ( p M – p m ) (6-8)

with pM being the pressure within the macroscale system and pm the pressure within
the microscale system.

• Dual Porosity & Dual Permeability Modeling in the Subsurface Flow

Module User’s Guide

Macropores
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the macroporous matrix of
the Dual Porosity Medium, the Dual Permeability Medium, or the Unsaturated Dual
Permeability Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

VOLUME FRACTION
Here enter the Volume Fraction of Macropores, θM.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The default Porosity εp,M of the solid matrix of the macropore system is taken From
material. Select User defined to enter a value or expression for εp,M.

If required by a Storage model in the parent node, specify the Effective compressibility
of the porous matrix of the macropore system. The default value is χp,M = 10−4 1/Pa.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. For the macropore settings only the Darcian Flow models are available. Select
between the following options for the Permeability model:

• Select Permeability (default) to define the permeability of the porous matrix. The
default Permeability κM (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.
• Select Hydraulic conductivity or define a combination of fluid permeability and
dynamic viscosity. For Hydraulic conductivity KM (SI unit: m/s) select Isotropic to

252 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

 define a scalar value or Diagonal or Symmetric to define a tensor value. The default is
2.94·10−4 m/s.
• Select Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean particle
diameter. Enter the mean Particle diameter dp,M (SI unit: m), the default value is
0.5 mm.

RETENTION MODEL
For an Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium select between the following options
for the retention model:

• van Genuchten, to specify the retention model using the van Genuchten relationship.
Enter the constitutive relation constants α (the default value is 1, and the SI unit is
1/m), n (default value is 2), and l (default value is 0.5). The constitutive parameter
m is equal to 1 − 1/n.
• Brooks and Corey to use the retention model according to the Brooks and Corey
relationships.
• User defined to use a different retention model. Enter user defined expressions for
the Effective saturation Se,M, the Liquid volume fraction θl,M. The default is εp,M (the
porosity variable). Specify the Specific moisture capacity Cm,M (SI unit: 1/m). The
default value is 0 (1/m). Enter an expression for the Relative permeability κr,M. The
default value is 1.

If there is a residual volume of liquid that cannot move through the pore network, also
enter a value between 0 and 1 for the Residual liquid volume fraction θr. The default
value is 0.

Retention and Permeability Relationships in the Subsurface Flow Module

User’s Guide

Micropores
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the microporous matrix of
the Dual Porosity Medium, Dual Permeability Medium, or the Unsaturated Dual
Permeability Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section is only available for the Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium parent
node and contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 253

 properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The default Porosity εp,m of the solid matrix of the micropore system is taken From
material. Select User defined to enter a value or expression for εp,m.

If required by a Storage model in the parent node, specify the Effective compressibility
of the microscale porous matrix. The default value is χp,m = 10−4 1/Pa.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity to transmit flow for the porous
material of the microscale system. Here, only the Darcian Flow models are available.
Select between the following options for the Permeability model:

• Select Permeability (default) to define the permeability of the porous matrix. The
default Permeability κm (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.
• Select Hydraulic conductivity or define a combination of fluid permeability and
dynamic viscosity. For Hydraulic conductivity Km (SI unit: m/s) select Isotropic to
define a scalar value or Diagonal or Symmetric to define a tensor value. The default is
2.94·10−4 m/s.
• Select Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean particle
diameter. Enter the mean Particle diameter dp,m (SI unit: m), the default value is
0.5 mm.

RETENTION MODEL
For an Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium select between the following options
for the retention model:

• From macropores to take over the retention model settings from the Macropores
node.
• van Genuchten, to specify the retention model using the van Genuchten relationship.
Enter the constitutive relation constants α (the default value is 1, and the SI unit is
1/m), n (default value is 2), and l (default value is 0.5). The constitutive parameter
m is equal to 1 − 1/n.
• Brooks and Corey to use the retention model according to the Brooks and Corey
relationships.
• User defined to use a different retention model. Enter user defined expressions for
the Effective saturation Se,m, the Liquid volume fraction θl,m. The default is εp,m (the

254 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

 porosity variable). Specify the Specific moisture capacity Cm,m (SI unit: 1/m). The
default value is 0 (1/m). Enter an expression for the Relative permeability κr,m. The
default value is 1.

If there is a residual volume of liquid that cannot move through the pore network, also
enter a value between 0 and 1 for the Residual liquid volume fraction θr. The default
value is 0.

Retention and Permeability Relationships in the Subsurface Flow Module

User’s Guide

INITIAL VALUES
Define the initial pressure of the microscale system. The default is to use the initial
values defined in the Initial Values feature node which means that the same initial
values apply to the macroscale and the microscale system.

Select User Defined to specify an initial pressure for the microscale system pm0,init.

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

Mass Source
The Mass Source node adds a mass source Qm, which appears on the right-hand side of
the Darcy’s Law equation (Equation 6-1).

∂ ( ρε ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q (6-9)
m
∂t

For the Fracture Flow interface, the mass source is applicable to the right-hand side of
Equation 4-40 in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide (where it is multiplied
with the fracture thickness).

MASS SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Mass source Qm (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default
is 0 kg/(m3·s).

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 255

 Contributing Velocity
The Contributing Velocity node adds a velocity contribution uctrb to the velocity field
ud that is computed from the flow model selected in the parent Porous Medium,
Unsaturated Porous Medium, or Dual Porosity Medium feature. The total velocity
field used in the continuity equation is therefore

u = u d + u ctrb (6-10)

Such velocity contributions can arise in multiphysics models that involve, for example,
transport of solutes. If several Contributing Velocity nodes are added under the same
parent feature, the contributions are treated additively. The sum of all contributing
velocity fields is available in the variables [Link] (material frame) and
[Link] (spatial frame), with name being the Name of the physics interface (for
example, dl).

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list to specify the coordinate
system in which the contributing velocity field is given. The default is the Global
coordinate system. Note that the coordinate system used to specify the components of
the contributing velocity field can be selected independently of the coordinate system
of the parent feature.

CONTRIBUTING VELOCITY
The default contributing velocity field uctrb is User defined, which lets you enter the
components of the contributing velocity field explicitly. If a matching velocity field is
announced by another feature, it will be available in the selection list.

ADVANCED
Select the Frame in which the contributing velocity field is specified. The default is the
Reference configuration, which means that the velocity field follows the material under,
for example, a rotation of the domain. If instead your contributing velocity field
follows a fixed direction in space, select the Deformed configuration. This section is only
displayed if Advanced Physics Options is activated and the spatial and material frame of
the component differ, such as in the presence of a Moving Mesh or Solid Mechanics
interface.

256 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the pressure that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

If you have the Subsurface Flow Module licensed, you can specify the pressure either
directly or as an expression for the pressure head, Hp, or the hydraulic head, H; the
hydraulic head and the pressure head relate to the pressure p as

p;
H p = ------ H = Hp + D
ρg

where ρ is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3); g denotes the acceleration of gravity
(SI unit: m/s2); and D is the elevation (SI unit: m).

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The
default value is 0 Pa.

In case the Subsurface Flow Module is available, click the Pressure head button to enter
a value or expression for Hp (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m. Click the Hydraulic head
button to enter a value or expression for H (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.

Gravity
The Gravity node is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at interface
level in the Darcy’s Law settings and it is active in all domains in which the Darcy’s Law
interface is applied.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. It can be used when
prescribing the direction of the gravitational forces.

GRAVITY
Specify either the acceleration vector or — in case you have a Subsurface Flow Module
license — the elevation.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 257

 When Acceleration is selected from the list, enter the components of the Gravity vector
g. The default value is g_const which is the physical constant having the value
9.8066 m/s2.

• For 3D and 2D axisymmetric models, the default value is -g_const in the

z direction.
• For 2D models, the default value is -g_const in the y direction.

When Elevation is selected from the list, specify the Elevation D (SI unit: m). The
Acceleration of gravity is taken From physics interface by default but could be overridden
when User defined is selected.

When the check box Include gravity is not selected in the Darcy’s Law interface
Settings, the elevation D is set equal to zero.

Select the check box Specify reference position to define a reference position for the
gravity calculation.

Cross Section
Use this node with 1D components to model domains with another cross-sectional
area than the global one that is used in the interface Physical Model section. In 1D
geometries, the pressure is assumed to be constant in the radial direction, and Darcy’s
Law accounts for that.

CROSS SECTION
Enter values for the Cross-sectional area Ac to set the cross section of the domain in the
plane perpendicular to the 1D geometry.

Thickness
Use this node with 2D and 1D axisymmetric components to model domains with
another thickness than the overall thickness that is specified in the interface Physical
Model section. In 2D geometries, the pressure is assumed to be constant in the
out-of-plane direction (the z direction with default spatial coordinate names). In 1D
axisymmetric geometries the thickness represents the z direction.

THICKNESS
Specify a value for the Thickness dz of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. This
value replaces the overall thickness in the domains that are selected in the Domain
Selection section, and is used to multiply some terms into the heat equation.

258 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

Porous Electrode Coupling
Use the Porous Electrode Coupling node to define a mass source based on the volumetric
current densities of one or multiple Porous Electrode Reaction nodes in an
Electrochemistry interface.

The source (or sink) is proportional to the Molar mass (kg/mol) of the reacting species,
the current densities and the stoichiometric coefficients according to Faraday’s law as
defined by summation over the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

SPECIES
Based on the number of species required for the model, use the Add ( ) and
Delete ) buttons under the table to add or remove Species. Then enter a value for
the Molar mass (kg/mol) in the applicable rows for each species.

The setting in the table will determine the number of available fields for entering the
stoichiometric coefficients of the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

Electrode Surface Coupling

Use the Electrode Surface Coupling node to define a combined wall and inflow/outflow
boundary condition based on current densities of one or multiple Electrode Reaction
nodes in an Electrochemistry interface.

The flow is proportional to the Molar mass (kg/mol) of the reacting species, the current
densities and the stoichiometric coefficients according to Faraday’s law as defined by
summation over the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

SPECIES
Based on the number of species required for the model, use the Add ( ) and
Delete ) buttons under the table to add or remove Species. Then enter a value for
the Molar mass (kg/mol) in the applicable rows for each species.

The setting in the table will determine the number of available field for entering the
stoichiometric coefficients of the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

Pressure
Use the Pressure node to specify the pressure on a boundary. In many cases the
distribution of pressure is known, giving a Dirichlet condition p = p0 where p0 is a

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 259

 known pressure given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving time, t,
for example.

PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa). Enter a relative pressure
value in p0 (SI unit: Pa).

For the Subsurface Flow Module, the Pressure node provides the pressure P0 as a
condition on edges in 3D models. Then select the edges under Edge Selection.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

As an attribute to the Fracture boundary condition or as boundary condition to The

Fracture Flow Interface (which are available in the Subsurface Flow Module and the
Porous Media Flow Module), the pressure can also be specified on edges (in 3D) or
points (in 2D) surrounding the fracture domain. In other cases, pressure constraints
on edges or points are not implemented.

If the boundary condition is adjacent to an Unsaturated Dual

Permeability Medium feature it constrains the pressures in the
Macropores and Micropores to p0.

Mass Flux
Use the Mass Flux node to specify the mass flux into or out of the model domain
through some of its boundaries. It is often possible to determine the mass flux from
the pumping rate or from measurements. With this boundary condition, positive
values correspond to flow into the model domain:

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = N 0
μ

where N0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy flux. D
is the elevation head which is set to zero for other than Subsurface Flow Module
applications.

260 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

MASS FLUX
Enter a value or expression for the Inward mass flux N0. A positive value of N0
represents an inward mass flux whereas a negative value represents an outward mass
flux. The units are based on the geometric entity: Boundaries: (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)).

Line Mass Source

The Line Mass Source node adds mass flow originating from a tube of infinitely small
radius.

SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the symmetry axis
3D Edges

LINE MASS SOURCE

Enter a value or expression for the source strength, N0 (SI unit: kg/(m·s)). A positive
value results in mass injection from the line into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the mass is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This
effect makes the physical strength of a line source located in a symmetry plane twice
the given strength.

Fracture Flow
The equivalent feature available for fracture flow is the Mass Source attribute of the
Fracture boundary condition and the Mass Source point feature of the Fracture Flow
Interface, both available in 3D only.

Point Mass Source

The Point Mass Source node models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
sphere centered around a point. It is available for points in 3D geometries.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 261

 POINT MASS SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the source strength, N0 (SI unit: kg/(s)). A positive
value results in mass injection from the point into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the mass is removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that the physical strength of a point source
located in a symmetry plane is twice the given strength.

Inlet
The Inlet node adds a boundary condition for the inflow (or outflow) perpendicular
(normal) to the boundary. It has three options that can be used to specify inlet
condition on a boundary, as follows:

VELOCITY
Enter a value or expression for the Normal inflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). A positive
value of U0 represents an inflow velocity. A negative value represents an outflow
velocity. The inlet velocity boundary condition is implemented as;

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = ρU 0
μ

where U0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy velocity.
A positive value of the velocity U0 corresponds to flow into the model domain whereas
a negative value represents an outflow. D is the elevation head which is set to zero for
other than Subsurface Flow Module applications.

PRESSURE
Use the Pressure option to specify the inlet pressure on a boundary. In many cases the
distribution of pressure is known, giving a Dirichlet condition p = p0 where p0 is a
known pressure given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving time, t,
for example. Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa).

MASS FLOW
If you select Mass flow as the inlet condition, specify the total Mass flow rate M0 (SI
unit: kg/s), or the Pointwise mass flux N0 (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)).

With Mass flow rate boundary condition, positive values correspond to flow into the
model domain:

262 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

 –  ρ ( u ⋅ n ) dS = M0
∂Ω

where M0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy flux.

Pointwise mass flux boundary condition, positive values correspond to flow into the
model domain:

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = N 0
μ

where N0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy flux.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node describes a symmetry boundary. The following condition
implements the symmetry condition on an axis or a flow divide:

κ
n ⋅ --- ∇p = 0
μ

κ
n ⋅ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = 0
μ

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry

boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry node that
is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

No Flow
The No Flow node is the default boundary condition stating that there is no flow across
impermeable boundaries. The mathematical formulation is:

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = 0
μ

where n is the vector normal to the boundary. D is the elevation head which is set to
zero for any other than Subsurface Flow Module applications.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 263

 Flux Discontinuity
Use the Flux Discontinuity node to specify a mass flux discontinuity through an interior
boundary. The condition is represented by the following equation:

– n ⋅ ( ρu 1 – ρ u 2 ) = N 0

In this equation, n is the vector normal (perpendicular) to the interior boundary, ρ is

the fluid density, u1 and u2 are the Darcy velocities in the adjacent domains (as defined
in Equation 6-11) and N0 is a specified value or expression for the flux discontinuity.

κ
u = – --- ∇p (6-11)
μ

For this boundary condition, a positive value of N0 corresponds to a flow discontinuity

in the opposite direction to the normal vector of the interior boundary.

MASS FLUX
Enter a value or expression for the Inward mass flux N0 (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)). A positive
value of N0 represents a mass flux discontinuity in the opposite direction to the normal
vector of the interior boundary.

Outlet
The Outlet node adds a boundary condition for the outflow (or inflow) perpendicular
(normal) to the boundary. It has different options that can be used to specify inlet
condition on a boundary, as follows:

VELOCITY
Enter a value or expression for the Normal outflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). A positive
value of U0 represents an outflow velocity whereas a negative value represents an
inflow velocity.

κ
– n ⋅ ρ --- ∇p = ρU 0
μ

where U0 is a specified value or expression for the outward (or inward) Darcy velocity.

PRESSURE
Similar to the inlet Pressure option, the outlet pressure on a boundary can be specified.
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa).

264 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

DISCHARGE
Enter a value or expression for the discharge QD to specify the volumetric flow rate
through the boundary. The mass flux ρu is related to the discharge as follows:

 ρu ⋅ ds = ρQ D . (6-12)
∂Ω

The mean normal outflow velocity at the boundary can then be calculated as Uout =
QD/A, where A is the cross sectional area of the boundary.

Precipitation
Enter a value or expression for the Precipitation rate which then contributes to the mass
flux at the boundaries selected. If the boundary is inclined, a Slope correction can be
applied.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries. It is
similar to the No Flux boundary available on exterior boundaries except that it applies
on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of velocity and pressure
across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to avoid
meshing thin structures by applying no-flux condition on interior curves and surfaces
instead.

Thin Barrier
The Thin Barrier boundary condition models interior permeable walls, membranes,
geotextiles, or perforated plates as thin permeable barriers. The Thin Barrier boundary
condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

WALL
Enter a value or expression for the Thickness db (SI unit: m, the default is 0.1 m) and
for the Permeability κb (SI unit: m2). The default Permeability κb uses the value From
material. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal, Symmetric,
or Full to define a tensor value and enter another value or expression in the field or
matrix.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 265

 Pressure Head
Use the Pressure Head node to specify the pressure head (instead of the pressure) on a
boundary. It adds this boundary condition for the pressure head Hp = Hp0, where Hp0
is a known pressure head given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving
time, t, for example. The dimension of the pressure head is length (SI unit: m).

PRESSURE HEAD
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure head Hp0 (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Hydraulic Head
Use the Hydraulic Head node to specify the hydraulic head (instead of the pressure) on
a boundary. This adds the Dirichlet condition for the hydraulic head H = H0 where H0
is a known hydraulic head given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving
time, t, for example.

HYDRAULIC HEAD
Enter a value or expression for the Hydraulic head H0 (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Atmosphere/Gauge
The Atmosphere/Gauge node specifies an atmospheric pressure or gauges the pressure
to the atmospheric value. This means that the total hydraulic potential reduces to the
gravitational pressure at the free surface. At a free surface, such as a spring or a seepage
face, the pressure is atmospheric. If the pressures in the model is gauged to the
atmospheric value (p = 0), the total hydraulic potential reduces to the gravitational
potential at the free surface — for example, the height of the free surface multiplied by
the fluid weight, or ρf gD. This boundary condition sets the pressure at the boundary
to zero and p = 0.

266 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Pervious Layer
The Pervious Layer node provides a boundary condition that describes a mass flux
through a semi-pervious layer connected to an external fluid source at different
pressure, pressure head, or hydraulic head. The model domain might connect to a
larger body of water through the semi-pervious layer. This condition is represented
with the following boundary condition:

κ ( pb – p )
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = ρR b -------------------
- + ( Db – D ) (6-13)
μ ρg

In this equation, pb (SI unit: Pa) and Db (SI unit: m) are the pressure and the elevation
of the distant fluid source, respectively, and Rb (SI unit: 1/s) is the conductance of
materials between the source and the model domain (conductance to flow in the
semi-pervious layer adjacent to the boundary). Typically Rb = K′/B′, where K′ is the
hydraulic conductivity (SI unit: m/s) of the layer and B′ (SI unit: m) is its thickness.
Using logical relationships, it is possible to activate these expressions at different times
or under various flow conditions.

When the pressure head Hp is specified instead of the pressure, the boundary condition
is the following:

n ⋅ ρK∇ ( H p + D ) = ρR b [ ( H pb – H p ) + ( D b – D ) ] (6-14)

Hpb is the pressure head (SI unit: m) at the edge of the layer.

When the hydraulic head H is specified instead of the pressure head, the boundary
condition becomes:

n ⋅ ρK∇H = ρR b [ H b – H ] (6-15)

Hb is the hydraulic head (SI unit: m) at the edge of the layer.

K in Equation 6-14 and Equation 6-15 is the hydraulic conductivity.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 267

 At a free surface, such as a water table or seepage face, the pressure is atmospheric (here
taken to be zero), so the total hydraulic potential equals gravitational potential, which
is defined on D.

Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include
gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. Setting the elevation D to
zero also turns off gravity effects.

PERVIOUS LAYER
Specify the material properties whether to specify an external pressure, pressure head,
or hydraulic head.

Select an External variable to specify — Pressure and elevation to specify the external
pressure, Pressure head and elevation to specify the external pressure head, or Hydraulic
head. For all selections, enter a value for the Conductance Rb (SI unit: 1/s).

• For Pressure and elevation enter an External pressure pb (SI unit: Pa) and External
elevation Db (SI unit: m).
• For Pressure head and elevation enter an External pressure head Hpb (SI unit: m), Hpb
(SI unit: m) and External elevation Db (SI unit: m).
• For Hydraulic head enter the Hydraulic head Hb (SI unit: m).

Well
The Well feature is intended to model injection or production wells and is available
with the Subsurface Flow Module.

WELL
Enter a value or expression for the Well diameter dw (SI unit: m, the default is 0.1 m).
Select the Well type from the list: Production or Injection.

Specify either the Pressure (SI unit: Pa), Pressure head (SI unit: m), Hydraulic head (SI
unit: m), or the Mass flow. If you select Mass flow, specify the total Mass flow rate (SI
unit: kg/s), the Mass flow rate per unit length (SI unit: kg/(m·s)) or the Mass flux (SI
unit: kg/(m2·s)).

268 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

Fracture
Use the Fracture node to model flow along a boundaries representing fractures within
a porous medium. By default, it adds the tangential form of the continuity equation
and of Darcy’s Law.

∂
d f ----- ( ε p ρ ) + ∇ T ⋅ ( d f ρu ) = d f Q m (6-16)
∂t

κ
u = – --- ∇Tp (6-17)
μ

The Fracture feature has two default subfeatures — the Fluid (Fracture) subfeature
where the fluid density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are
defined and the Fracture Material subfeature where the permeability κ (SI unit: m2)
and porosity εp (dimensionless) are specified.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Fracture Material subnode) should be set according to
the coordinate system selected in this section.

APERTURE
Enter a value for the Fracture thickness df.

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship using Equation 6-16 and
Equation 6-17.
• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship using Equation 6-16 and the
pressure-velocity relationship

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 269

 μ
∇Tp = – --- u – βρ u u
κ

where the nonlinear parameter β (SI unit: 1/m) is further specified in the Fracture
Material subfeature.

STORAGE MODEL
Equation 6-16 can also be formulated with respect to a storage term.

∂p κ
ρS ------ + ∇ ⋅ ρ – --- ( ∇p ) = Q m
∂t μ

The storage coefficient S can be interpreted as the weighted compressibility of the

porous material and the fluid. Define the time dependent storage term by selecting one
of the following options from the drop-down menu:

• From density and porosity (default), uses the formulation of Equation 6-16
• Linearized storage, where the following linear equation is used to define the storage:
S = ε p χ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p

• User defined to directly specify the storage coefficient S

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Storage Models in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

FRACTURE MODEL
Choose between two options to model fractures that have different characteristics.

• Highly conductive fracture represents a fracture filled with a highly permeable

material.
• Thin conducting barrier represents a fracture that is filled with a low permeable
material and therefore acts as a barrier for the flow which adds a jump in the pressure
across the boundary:

270 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

 ( p d,u – p u,d ) κ b
– n u,d ⋅ ( ρu ) u,d = ρ ------------------------------- ------
db μ

The barrier thickness db and permeability κb are defined in the Fracture Material
subnode.
In addition, either on the upside, downside, or on both sides a highly conductive
fracture material is present and Equation 6-16 and Equation 6-17 are solved for the
highly conductive side. Further specifications are done in the Fracture Material
subnode.

Note that the option to specify the Fracture Model is only available for the
Fracture feature within the Darcy’s Law interface.

For the Fracture boundary node several subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. As they are
almost identical to the boundary conditions of the Fracture Flow interface, see
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Fracture Flow Interface in
the Subsurface Flow User’s Guide for further description. Note that Precipitation is
only available for the Fracture Flow interface.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the

functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

Flow in a Fractured Reservoir: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Fluid_Flow/fractured_reservoir_flow

Fluid (Fracture)
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Fracture parent node. The
fluid can be specified as general gas or liquid or as an ideal gas.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 271

 FLUID PROPERTIES
The available options for the Fluid type are Gas/Liquid (default) or Ideal gas. The
selection determines how the density and compressibility of the fluid are set. The latter
is only required if a linearized storage model has been selected in the parent Fracture
node. For all fluid types specify the dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s).

Gas/Liquid
This option specifies the Density and the Compressibility for a general gas or liquid.

Ideal Gas
For Ideal gas it uses the ideal gas law to describe the fluid. In this case, specify the
thermodynamics properties. Select a Gas constant type — Specific gas constant Rs (the
default) or Mean molar mass Mn (SI unit: J/(mol·K)). For Mean molar mass the
universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K) is used as the built-in physical constant.
For both properties, the defaults use values From material. For User defined enter
another value or expression.

If required by a Storage Model, the Compressibility of the ideal gas is calculated as χf =

1/pA with the absolute pressure pA (Pa).

If Hydraulic conductivity is selected as the Permeability model (see the

Fracture Material section), dynamic viscosity is not available. The
hydraulic conductivity is defined using a combination of fluid and fracture
material properties and replaces the need of defining the dynamic
viscosity.

Fracture Material
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the
Fracture parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

BARRIER PROPERTIES
This section appears if the Thin conducting barrier option for the Fracture model is
chosen in the parent Fracture feature.

272 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

Enter the values for the barrier thickness db and permeability κb.

Note that the Thin Conductive barrier option is only available for the Fracture feature
within the Darcy’s Law interface.

FRACTURE MATERIAL PROPERTIES

If the Thin conducting barrier option for the Fracture model is chosen in the parent
Fracture feature you can specify the Conductive layer position here. Choose between
Both sides, Upside, and Downside. A sketch above shows the position of conductive
layers and barrier within the fracture.

The Porosity εp of the fracture material is taken From material by default. Select User
defined to enter a value or expression for εp.

If required by a Storage model in the parent node, specify the Effective compressibility
of the porous matrix. The default value is χp = 10−4 1/Pa.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the fracture material to transmit
flow. Which options are available depends on the Flow model setting in the parent node.

• Select Permeability (default) to define the permeability of the fracture material.

• Select Hydraulic conductivity or define a combination of fluid permeability and
dynamic viscosity. For Hydraulic conductivity K (SI unit: m/s) select Isotropic to
define a scalar value or Diagonal or Symmetric to define a tensor value. The default is
2.94·10−4 m/s.
• Select Cubic law to define the permeability from the fracture thickness specified in
the parent node and the roughness factor ff.

If the Non-Darcian Flow Model is selected in the parent Fracture feature enter a value
for the Inertial resistance coefficient β.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 273

 The Brinkman Equations Interface
The Brinkman Equations (br) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to compute fluid
velocity and pressure fields of single-phase flow in porous media in the laminar flow
regime. The physics interface extends Darcy’s law to describe the dissipation of the
kinetic energy by viscous shear, similar to the Navier–Stokes equations. Fluids with
varying density can be included at Mach numbers below 0.3. Also the viscosity of a
fluid can vary, for example, to describe non-Newtonian fluids. To simplify the
equations, select the Stokes–Brinkman flow feature to reduce the dependence on
inertial effects when the Reynolds number is significantly less than 1. The physics
interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main node is the Porous Medium feature, which adds the Brinkman equations and
provides interfaces for defining the fluid material and the porous matrix.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Porous Medium, Wall (the default boundary type, using No slip as the
default boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add
other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces.
You can also right-click Brinkman Equations to select physics features from the context
menu.

The boundary conditions are essentially the same as for the Laminar Flow interface.
Differences exist for the following boundary types: Outlet, Symmetry, Open
Boundary, and Boundary Stress where the viscous part of the stress is divided by the
porosity to appear as

1 T 2 
-----  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I 
εp  3 

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections such as Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, Inconsistent Stabilization, and
Advanced Settings, all accessed by clicking the Show button ( ) and choosing the
applicable option. You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

274 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is br.

PHYSICAL MODEL
This node specifies the properties of the Brinkman Equations interface, which describe
the overall type of fluid flow model.

Compressibility
By default the physics interface uses the Incompressible flow formulation of the
Brinkman equations to model constant density flow. Alternatively, from the
Compressibility list select Weakly compressible flow, which should be used when the
pressure dependency of the density can be neglected, or Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) to
solve for the full compressible flow of which, however, the Mach number must be
below 0.3.

Swirl Flow
For 2D axisymmetric models, select the Swirl flow check box to include the swirl
velocity component, that is the velocity component uϕ in the azimuthal direction.
While uϕ can be nonzero, there can be no gradients in the ϕ direction.

Note that this feature is only available for specific modules. See
[Link] for a detailed overview.

Neglect Inertial Term (Stokes–Brinkman Flow)

The Neglect inertial term (Stokes–Brinkman) check box is selected by default to model
flow at low Reynolds numbers for which the inertial term can be neglected. This results
in the linear Stokes–Brinkman equations.

Include Gravity
Gravity is not included by default. Select the Include gravity check box to activate the
acceleration of gravity. This automatically adds a global Gravity feature node to the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 275

 are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity.

Porous Treatment of No Slip Condition

Choose how the No Slip condition on Wall boundaries and Interior Wall boundaries
adjacent to Porous Medium should be treated. The options are Standard no slip
formulation and Porous slip (default) . The latter option provides a unified treatment
when the porous matrix is fully resolved as well as when it is under resolved ensuring
a smooth transition between regions with different resolutions; see No Slip under Wall
in the The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow Interfaces section.

Reference Pressure Level

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

Reference Temperature Level

Enter a Reference temperature level Tref (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15[K].

Reference Position
If Include gravity is selected, a Reference position rref (SI unit: m) can be specified which
is then used for the calculation of the hydrostatic pressure.

TURBULENCE
Turbulent flow can be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS
(Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes). If turbulent flow is activated, you can set the
Turbulence model either to one of the algebraic turbulence models, Algebraic yPlus (the
default) or L-VEL, or to one of the following two-equation turbulence models: k-ε, Low
Reynolds Number k-ε. The Wall treatment is set to Automatic (default) or Low Re while
Wall functions is the only option for k-ε. For more information about turbulence
modeling, see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s
Guide.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components, and the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

276 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form option adds pseudo time
derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used in order to speed
up convergence. When selected, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For
the default Automatic option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy condition) is determined by a PID regulator.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman Equations
Interface
• Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models and Pseudo Time
Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
• Nitsche Constraints

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman

Equations Interface
The Brinkman Equations Interface has the following domain, boundary, point, and
pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access
the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

These nodes are described in this section:

• Porous Medium • Volume Force

• Initial Values • Fluid Properties
• Mass Source

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 277

 The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described for the Laminar Flow
interface :

• Flow Continuity • Periodic Flow Condition

• Inlet • Point Mass Source
• Line Mass Source • Pressure Point Constraint
• Boundary Stress • Symmetry
• Outlet • Wall
• Open Boundary

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the Brinkman equations: Equation 4-34 and
Equation 4-35 (excluding any mass sources). It has two default subfeatures — the
Fluid subfeature where the fluid density ρ(SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI
unit: Pa·s) are defined and the Porous Matrix subfeature where the permeability κ (SI
unit: m2) and porosity εp (dimensionless) are specified.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
(in the Porous Matrix subnode) should be set according to the coordinate system
selected in this section.

278 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship characteristic for low Reynolds
number laminar flows.
• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship due to inertial or turbulence
effects.

POROUS MEDIUM TURBULENCE MODEL

If in the parent feature node a turbulence model other than Algebraic yPlus or L-VEL is
selected, define a model which complements the basic turbulence model and accounts
for the influence of the porous matrix on turbulent flow in porous media.

• For Default and Nakayama-Kuwahara specify the Coefficient of subgrid turbulence

generation by porous matrix Cstpm which by default is set to 0.212.
• For Pedras-de Lemos, specify the Choice of the Pedras-de Lemos model coefficient.
When User defined is chosen, specify the Coefficient of subgrid turbulence generation
by porous matrix Cstpm with default value 0.212. Choosing Original results in
C stpm = 0.28 ⋅ ε p , while choosing Recalibrated results in Cstpm = 0.18.

DISTANCE EQUATION
This section is available for the turbulence models Algebraic yPlus or L-VEL. Select how
the Reference length scale lref (SI unit: m) is defined — Automatic (default) or Manual:

• For Automatic the wall distance is automatically evaluated to one tenth of the
shortest side of the geometry bounding box. This is usually quite accurate but it can
sometimes give a too high value if the geometry consists of several slim entities. In
such cases, define the reference length scale manually.
• For Manual it defines a different value or expression for the length scale. The default
is 1 m.

lref controls the result of the distance equation. Objects that are much smaller than lref
are effectively be diminished while the distance to objects much larger than lref are
accurately represented.

Fluid
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Porous Medium parent
node.

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 279

 MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

FLUID PROPERTIES
Specify the Density ρ and the Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) of the fluid. The
defaults use values From material, for User defined enter a value or expression.

The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the
shear rate in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often
described as thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity.

Porous Matrix
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses by default the value
From material. For User defined the default value is 1.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. Depending on the Flow model selection in the parent Porous Medium feature node
you can choose between the following options:

• Permeability (the default) to directly enter the permeability of the porous matrix or
Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean Particle
diameter for Darcian flow or
• Forchheimer or Ergun for Non-Darcian flow.

Note that some of these options are only available for certain modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

280 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material list. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.

For Kozeny-Carman, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value
is 0.5 mm.

In case a Non-Darcian flow model is chosen in the parent node, Forchheimer is the
default selection for the Permeability model. For Forchheimer, the default Permeability
κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material. Furthermore, the dimensionless
Forchheimer parameter cF can be defined. The default value is 0.55.

If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm). The
permeability κ is then calculated using Equation 2-4 in the Porous Media Flow
Module User’s Guide.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

Mass Source
The Mass Source node adds a mass source (or mass sink) Qm to the right-hand side of
the continuity equation: Equation 6-28. This term accounts for mass deposit and/or
mass creation in porous domains. The physics interface assumes that the mass
exchange occurs at zero velocity.

∂ ε
( ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (6-18)
∂t p

DOMAIN SELECTION
Only Porous Matrix domains are available.

MASS SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Source term Qbr (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default
is 0 kg/(m3·s).

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 281

 Volume Force
Use the Volume Force node to specify the force F on the right-hand side of
Equation 6-29. It then acts on each fluid element in the specified domains.

ρ-  ∂u u
---- + ( u ⋅ ∇ ) ----- =
εp  ∂ t ε p
(6-19)
1 T 2   Q m
– ∇ p + ∇ ⋅ -----  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  –  κ –1 μ + -------
- u + F
εp  3   ε p2 

VOLUME FORCE
Enter the components of Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field and the pressure that can
serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and the Pressure
p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0 m/s and 0 Pa, respectively.

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations to solve for
free flow in nonporous domains. The node also provides an interface for defining the
material properties of the fluid.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through user inputs,
variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs — for
example, temperature or pressure — may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the single-phase flow interfaces are set to model isothermal flow. Hence,
the Temperature is User defined and defaults to 293.15 K. If a Heat Transfer interface
is included in the component, the temperature may alternatively be selected from this
physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a

282 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht)
option is available.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The choice of pressure variable depends on the system of equations being solved. For
example, in a unidirectional incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop over the
modeled domain is probably many orders of magnitude smaller than the atmospheric
pressure, which, when included, may reduce the stability and convergence properties
of the solver. In other cases, such as when the pressure is part of an expression for the
gas volume or the diffusion coefficients, it may be more convenient to solve for the
absolute pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes equations, and pref is from the user input defined at the
physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a gauge
pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be set to
0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

FLUID PROPERTIES
If density variations with respect to pressure are to be included in the computations,
the flow must be set to compressible.

The Dynamic viscosity μ describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have low viscosities, and substances often
described as thick (such as oil) have higher viscosities.

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value. When a turbulence model that solves for the turbulent

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 283

 kinetic energy, k, is used, the option Include buoyancy-induced turbulence is available.
When selected, the Buoyancy contribution is by default set to Automatic from
multiphysics. Contributions are only obtained from multiphysics couplings that
support buoyancy-induced turbulence, such as Nonisothermal Flow. If the Buoyancy
contribution is switched to User defined, a text field for the Turbulent Schmidt number
appears. See also Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit [Link]

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

284 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

The Free and Porous Media Flow,
Br i nk m a n Interfac e
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman (fp) interface ( ) is found under the Porous
Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface. It is used to
compute fluid velocity and pressure fields of single-phase flow where free flow is
connected to porous media. The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman interface is
used over at least two different domains: a free channel and a porous medium. The
physics interface is well suited for transitions between slow flow in porous media,
governed by the Brinkman equations, and fast flow in channels described by the
Navier–Stokes equations. Fluids with varying density can be included at Mach
numbers below 0.3. Also the viscosity of a fluid can vary, for example, to describe
non-Newtonian fluids. The physics interface can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analyses.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add a Porous Medium node to be used on the domain selection corresponding
to the porous media, or add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Free and Porous Media Flow,
Brinkman to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is fp.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Compressibility
By default the physics interface uses the Incompressible flow formulation of the Navier–
Stokes and Brinkman equations to model constant density flow. If required, select

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 285

 Weakly compressible flow from the Compressibility list, to account for small variations in
the density, which are only dependent on the temperature (nonisothermal flow) or
Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) for fully compressible flow. However, for the flow modeled
with this physics interface, the Mach number must be below 0.3.

Swirl Flow
For 2D axisymmetric components, select the Swirl flow check box to include the swirl
velocity component, that is the velocity component uϕ in the azimuthal direction.
While uϕ can be nonzero, there can be no gradients in the ϕ direction. Note that this
feature is only available for specific modules. Visit
[Link] for a detailed overview.

Neglect Inertial Term

Select the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box if the inertial forces are small
compared to the viscous forces. This is typical for creeping flow, where Re << 1.

Enable porous media domains

The Enable porous media domains check box is selected by default to solve the
Brinkman equations in porous domains. If it is unchecked, the Porous Medium node is
no longer available in this interface.

Include Gravity
Gravity is not included by default. Select the Include gravity check box to activate the
acceleration of gravity. This automatically adds a global Gravity feature node to the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes
are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity.

Porous Treatment of No Slip Condition

Choose how the No Slip condition on internal boundaries should be treated. The
options are Standard no slip formulation and Porous slip (default). The latter option
provides a unified treatment when the porous matrix is fully resolved as well as when
it is under resolved ensuring a smooth transition between regions with different
resolutions; see No Slip under Wall in the The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow
Interfaces section.

Reference Pressure Level

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

286 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

Reference Temperature
Enter a Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15[K].

Reference Position
If Include gravity is selected, a Reference position rref (SI unit: m) can be specified which
is then used for the calculation of the hydrostatic pressure.

TURBULENCE
Turbulent flow can be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS
(Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes) or Large Eddy Simulation (which is only available
in 3D). If turbulent flow is activated, you can choose from different Turbulence models
and options for Wall treatment. For a description of the different turbulence models,
wall treatment options, and turbulence model parameters see Theory for the
Turbulent Flow Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components, and the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
• Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface has the following domain,
boundary, point, and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics
ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or
right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 287

 • Fluid Properties • Porous Medium
• Gravity • Mass Source
• Initial Values • Volume Force
• Wall

Note that some features are only available with certain COMSOL products (see
[Link]

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described for the Laminar Flow
interface:

• No Viscous Stress • Open Boundary

• Flow Continuity • Periodic Flow Condition
• Inlet • Point Mass Source
• Line Mass Source • Pressure Point Constraint
• Outlet • Symmetry

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Fluid Properties
Use the Fluid Properties node to define the fluid material, density, and dynamic
viscosity.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Fluid material uses the Domain material (the material defined for the
domain). Select another material as needed.

The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material based on the Fluid
material selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is
0 kg/m3.

288 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

The Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) uses values From material based on the Fluid
material selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is
0 Pa·s.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the Brinkman equations (excluding any mass sources)
to the interface. It has two default subfeatures — the Fluid subfeature where the fluid
density ρ(SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined and the
Porous Matrix subfeature where the permeability κ (SI unit: m2) and porosity εp
(dimensionless) are specified.

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship characteristic for low Reynolds
number laminar flows.
• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship due to inertial or turbulence
effects.

POROUS MEDIUM TURBULENCE MODEL

Defines a model which complements the basic turbulence model and accounts for the
influence of the porous matrix on turbulent flow in Porous Media.

• Default and Nakayama-Kuwahara specify Coefficient of subgrid turbulence generation

by porous matrix Cstpm which by default is set to 0.212.
• Pedras-de Lemos asks to specify Choice of the Pedras-de Lemos model coefficient. When
User defined is chosen, specify Coefficient of subgrid turbulence generation by porous
matrix Cstpm with default value 0.212. Choosing Original results in
C stpm = 0.28 ⋅ ε p , while choosing Recalibrated results in C stpm = 0.18 .

Fluid
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Porous Medium parent
node.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 289

 MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

FLUID PROPERTIES
Specify the Density ρ and the Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) of the fluid. The
defaults use values From material, for User defined enter a value or expression.

The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the
shear rate in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often
described as thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity.

Porous Matrix
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses by default the value
From material. For User defined the default value is 1 which is equivalent to free flow.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. Depending on the Flow model selection in the parent Porous Medium feature node
you can choose between the following options:

• Permeability (the default) to directly enter the permeability of the porous matrix or
Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean Particle
diameter for Darcian flow or
• Forchheimer or Ergun for Non-Darcian flow.

Note that some of these options are only available for certain modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

290 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material list. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.

For Kozeny-Carman, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value
is 0.5 mm.

In case a Non-Darcian flow model is chosen in the parent node, Forchheimer is the
default selection for the Permeability model. For Forchheimer, the default Permeability
κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material. Furthermore, the dimensionless
Forchheimer parameter cF can be defined. The default value is 0.55.

If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm). The
permeability κ is then calculated using Equation 2-4 in the Porous Media Flow
Module User’s Guide.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

Mass Source
Enter a value or expression for an optional mass source (or sink) Source term Qm (SI
unit: kg/(m3·s)). This term accounts for mass deposit or mass creation within porous
domains. The physics interface assumes that the mass exchange occurs at zero velocity.

Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the force F on the right-hand side of the Navier–
Stokes or Brinkman equations, depending on whether a Fluid Properties or Porous
Medium node is active on the domain. It then acts on each fluid element in the
specified domains.

VOLUME FORCE
Enter the components of the Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 291

 Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field and the pressure that can
serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and for the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0 m/s and 0 Pa, respectively.

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value. When a turbulence model that solves for the turbulent
kinetic energy, k, is used, the option Include buoyancy-induced turbulence is available.
When selected, the Buoyancy contribution is by default set to Automatic from
multiphysics. Contributions are only obtained from multiphysics couplings that
support buoyancy-induced turbulence, such as Nonisothermal Flow. If the Buoyancy
contribution is switched to User defined, a text field for the Turbulent Schmidt number
appears. See also Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit [Link]

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

Microfluidic Wall Conditions

Use the Microfluidic Wall Conditions node to add boundary conditions to the moving
wall and specify whether to use viscous slip or thermal creep.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The default Boundary condition for the wall is Slip velocity. Enter values or expressions
for the components of the Velocity of moving wall uw (SI unit: m/s).

292 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

Use Viscous Slip
Select the Use viscous slip check box to define the slip length:

• The default is User defined. Enter a value for Ls (SI unit: m). The default is 1e-7 m.
• Select Maxwell’s model to calculate it from:

2 – αv
L s =  --------------- λ
 αv 

• Then enter values or expressions for the Tangential momentum accommodation

coefficient (TMAC) av (dimensionless) (the default is 0.9) and the Mean free path λ
(SI unit: m) (the default is 1e-6 m).

Use Thermal Creep

Select the Use thermal creep check box to activate the thermal creep component of the
boundary condition. Enter the fluid’s Temperature T (SI unit: K) and the Thermal slip
coefficient σT. The default temperature is 293.15 K and the default thermal slip
coefficient is 0.75.

If you also have a license for the MEMS Module, an additional Boundary condition
option Electroosmotic velocity is available. This is described in the MEMS Module
User’s Guide.

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at stationary, moving, and leaking walls.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the wall.

• No Slip1 • Leaking Wall

• Slip

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for a stationary solid wall for laminar flow
(and SST, Low Re k-ε, Algebraic yPlus, L-VEL, and Spalart–Allmaras turbulence
models). The condition prescribes u = 0; that is, the fluid at the wall is not moving.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 293

 Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n = 0. It is implicitly assumed
that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer develops.
From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation if the main
effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.

Leaking Wall
This boundary condition may be used to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or
leaving the domain with the velocity u = ul through a perforated wall. The
components of the Fluid velocity ul on the leaking wall should be specified.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

294 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

The Free and Porous Media Flow,
Darcy Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy interface ( ) combines the Darcy’s Law and
Laminar Flow interfaces to compute fluid velocity and pressure fields where free flow is
connected to porous media. The physics interface is suited for situations when both
the free flow and the flow in the porous media are laminar.

When a predefined Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy interface is added from the Porous
Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics window, the
Darcy’s Law and Laminar Flow interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition,
the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the Free and Porous Media
Flow Coupling multiphysics coupling.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Darcy’s Law interface is used to simulate fluid flow through interstices in a porous
medium. It can be used to model low-velocity flows in media where the permeability
and porosity are very small, and for which the pressure gradient is the major driving
force and the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance within the pores.

The Laminar Flow interface is used to compute the velocity and pressure for a fluid flow
in the laminar flow regime. A flow will remain laminar as long as the Reynolds number
is below a certain critical value. At higher Reynolds numbers, disturbances have a
tendency to grow and cause transition to turbulence.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example Free
and Porous Media Flow, Darcy, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces
and the coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

Free and Porous Media Flow Coupling (Multiphysics Coupling)

The Free and Porous Media Flow Coupling multiphysics coupling node ( )
bidirectionally links the Laminar Flow and Darcy’s Law interfaces.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, DARCY INTERFACE | 295

 SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is nsd1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the multiphase flow
coupling, or select All domains as needed.

When the Free and Porous Media Flow Coupling is added as an effect of adding a Free
and Porous Media Flow, Darcy multiphysics interface, the selection is the intersection
of the boundaries of the participating physics interfaces.

Only boundaries that are active in the participating physics interfaces (which are
chosen from the Coupled Interfaces selection list) can be selected.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Free flow
and Porous media flow lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how the coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is selected in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Free and Porous Media Flow
Coupling node from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the
Model Builder, for example Darcy’s Law is deleted, then the Porous media flow list
defaults to None as there is nothing to couple to.

296 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

COUPLING SETTINGS
This section defines the settings for the Free flow boundary condition.

• When No slip is selected, the tangential component of the fluid velocity at the
free-porous interface on the free-flow side (computed in the Free flow interface) is
set to zero.
• When Continuous tangential velocity is selected, the tangential velocity component
of the flow on both sides of the free-porous interface is continuous. In addition,
continuity of normal stresses and conservation of mass across the interface are
ensured.
• When Beavers-Joseph is selected, the difference of the tangential velocity
components of the flow on both sides of the free-porous interface is proportional to
the shear stress at the free-porous interface on the free-flow side. For this option,
enter a value or expression for the Beavers and Joseph parameter aBJ (dimensionless)
that determines the proportionality. In addition, select the check box Use projected
permeability to use only the component of the permeability tensor in the direction
of the difference of the tangential velocities on both sides of the interface, instead
of the trace of the permeability tensor, in determining the proportionality.
• When Beavers-Joseph-Saffman is selected, the tangential velocity component of the
flow at the free-porous interface on the free-flow side is proportional to the shear
stress at the interface on the free-flow side. For this option also, enter a value or
expression for the Beavers and Joseph parameter aBJ (dimensionless) that determines
the proportionality. In addition, select the check box Use projected permeability to
use only the component of the permeability tensor in the direction of the difference
of the tangential velocities on both sides of the interface, instead of the trace of the
permeability tensor, in determining the proportionality.
• When Viscous slip is selected, the difference of the tangential velocity components
of the flow on the free-flow side and a user-supplied interfacial velocity is
proportional to the shear stress at the free-porous interface on the free-flow side.
Enter values for the Slip length Ls (SI unit: m, the default is 1e-7 m), and an
Interfacial velocity ub (SI unit: m/s, the default is 0 m/s).

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, DARCY INTERFACE | 297

 In all the above cases, additionally continuity of normal stresses and conservation of
mass across the interface are ensured.

Please find related information in the CFD Module User’s Guide:

• The Darcy’s Law Interface

• Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
• The Laminar Flow Interface
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface

298 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
The Darcy’s Law Interface theory is described in this section:

• About Darcy’s Law

• Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation
• Storage Models
• Average Linear Velocity
• Dual Porosity and Dual Permeability Theory
• References for the Darcy’s Law Interface

About Darcy’s Law

In a porous medium, the global transport of momentum by shear stresses in the fluid
is often negligible, because the pore walls impede momentum transport to the fluid
outside the individual pores. A detailed description, down to the resolution of every
pore, is not practical in most applications. A homogenization of the porous and fluid
media into a single medium is a common alternative approach. Darcy’s law together
with the continuity equation and equation of state for the pore fluid (or gas) provide
a complete mathematical model suitable for a wide variety of applications involving
porous media flows, for which the pressure gradient is the major driving force.

Darcy’s law describes fluid movement through interstices in a porous medium.

Because the fluid loses considerable energy to frictional resistance within pores, flow
velocities in porous media are very low. The Darcy’s Law interface can be applied to
small-scale tasks in chemical engineering as well as to large-scale geophysical or
hydrological tasks such as water moving in an aquifer or stream bank, oil migrating to
a well, and even magma rising through the earth to a chamber in a volcano (see Ref. 1,
Ref. 2, Ref. 3, and Ref. 4). Also set up multiple Darcy’s Law interfaces to model
multiphase flows involving more than one mobile phase.

Darcy’s law describes flow in porous media driven by gradients in the hydraulic
potential field, which has units of pressure. For many applications it is convenient to
represent the total hydraulic potential or the pressure and the gravitational
components with equivalent heights of fluid or head. Division of potential by the fluid
weight can simplify modeling because units of length make it straightforward to
compare to many physical data. Consider, for example, fluid levels in wells, stream
heights, topography, and velocities. The physics interface also supports specifying

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 299

 boundary conditions and result evaluation using hydraulic head and pressure head. In
the physics interface, pressure is always the dependent variable.

Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation

Darcy’s law states that the velocity field is determined by the pressure gradient, the
fluid viscosity, and the structure of the porous medium:

κ
u = – --- ∇p (6-20)
μ

In this equation, u is the Darcy’s velocity or specific discharge vector (SI unit: m/s);
κ is the permeability of the porous medium (SI unit: m2); μ is the fluid’s dynamic
viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s); p is the pore pressure (SI unit: Pa) and ρ is the density of the
fluid (SI unit: kg/m3).

• The above equation formulation is called linear Darcy’s law. The

applicability of this formulation is discussed in the chapter About
Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow Module
User’s Guide.
• Permeability can be defined in different ways, either directly or based
on predefined permeability models. These are described in detail in the
chapter Permeability Models.
• For a detailed overview of the permeability models available in each
product visit [Link]

The Darcy’s Law interface combines Darcy’s law with the continuity equation

∂ ρε
( p ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (6-21)
∂t

In the above equation, ρ is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3), εp is the porosity, and
Qm is a mass source term (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). Porosity is defined as the fraction of
the control volume that is occupied by pores. Thus, the porosity can vary from zero
for pure solid regions to unity for domains of free flow.

For large-scale applications it might be necessary to take gravity effects into account.
Darcy’s law then applies when the gradient in hydraulic potential drives fluid
movement in the porous medium. Darcy’s law then has the form:

300 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

 κ
u = – --- ( ∇p – ρ g ) (6-22)
μ

• See the section Gravity Effects in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s
Guide.
• Note that gravity effects are only included in some modules. For a
detailed overview of the functionality available in each product visit
[Link]
• Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include
gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. Setting the elevation D to
zero also turns off gravity effects.

Storage Models
The continuity equation (Equation 6-21) allows flexible specification of relationships
between parameters like density or permeability with respect to variables such as
pressure, temperature, concentration, and more.

Expanding the time-derivative term and defining the porosity and density as functions
of the pressure and using the chain rule results in

∂ ( ρε ) = ε ∂-----
ρ- ∂ε p ∂ρ- ∂-----
p- ∂ε p ∂p
p
-------- ----- -------- ------
p ∂t + ρ ∂t = ε p ∂p ∂t + ρ ∂p ∂t
∂t

By inserting the definition of fluid compressibility χf = (1/ρ)(∂ρ/∂p) to the right-hand

side and rearrange the following expression is obtained

∂( ρε p ) ∂ε ∂p ∂p
---------------- = ρ  ε p χ f + -------p- ------ = ρS p ------
∂t  ∂p  ∂t ∂t

Using this relation, the generalized governing equation (Equation 6-21) takes the
following form:

∂p
ρS p ------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (6-23)
∂t

In this equation, Sp is the storage coefficient (SI unit: 1/Pa), which can be interpreted
as the weighted compressibility of the porous material and the fluid. The storage can
be an expression involving results from a solid-deformation equation or an expression
involving temperatures and concentrations from other analyses. The Darcy’s Law

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 301

 interface implements Equation 6-23 in the Porous Medium node, which explicitly
includes different storage models to choose from:

• From density and porosity, where the storage directly depends on changes in porosity
or fluid density
• Linearized storage, which defines Sp using the compressibility of the fluid χf and of
the porous matrix χp according to
S p = ε p χ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p

• Poroelastic storage where

Sp = εp χf .

Storage models are only available for the Subsurface Flow Module and
the Porous Media Flow Module. For a detailed overview of the
functionality available in each product visit
[Link]

Average Linear Velocity

Because fluids typically occupy only 10% to 50% of a porous medium, it follows that
velocities within the pore channels exceed the Darcy velocity, u, on the order of two
to ten times. For clarity, the physics interface includes the average linear velocity within
the pores, uα, (also termed the seepage velocity) defined as uα = u/εp, where εp is the
porosity.

Dual Porosity and Dual Permeability Theory

The first well known publication on this topic is “The Behavior of Naturally Fractured
Reservoirs” by [Link] and P.J. Root from 1963. Since then the researchers further
developed the idea of a dual porosity/permeability type of a porous medium. One of
the well established models is based on the findings of H. Gerke and M. van
Genuchten (Ref. 9). Basically the idea behind is to solve for each part of the porous
medium (macro- and micropores) the relevant equations and connect them via an
exchange term.

DUAL POROSITY MEDIUM

Darcy's Law is solved for the macropores and taking into account their volume fraction
θM the equation reads:

302 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂p M
θ M  ρS p,M ----------- + ∇( ρu M ) = θ M Q M – Q ip (6-24)
∂t

The term Qip describes the mass source from the Interporosity Flow which is the mass
transfer from the macropores to the micropores system. An additional ODE for the
(passive) micropores is solved which only act as additional storage volume:

∂p m
( 1 – θ M )  ρS p,m ---------- = ( 1 – θ M )Q M + Q ip .
 ∂t 

The indices M and m stand for macropores and micropores, respectively.

DUAL PERMEABILITY MEDIUM

Darcy’s law has to be solved for both the macroscale system and the microscale system:

∂
θ M  ( ε p,M ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu M ) = – Q ip + θ M Q m
∂t
(6-25)
( 1 – θ M )  ∂ ( ε p,m ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu m ) = Q ip + ( 1 – θ M )Q m
∂t
p = θ M p M + ( 1 – θ M )p m

θM is the volume fraction of the macropores, Qip denotes the interporosity flow,
signifying the mass transfer from the macropores (identified by index M) to the
micropores (identified by index m).

Solving Darcy’s law for both systems entails solving two equations, each associated
with dependent pressure variables pm and pM. These equations are coupled via Qip.
From this, average quantities for the dual permeability medium as a whole are
computed. The average pressure of the dual permeability medium is defined as:

p = θ M p M + ( 1 – θ M )p m

Likewise, average values for permeability, storage, velocity and other relevant
parameters are computed.

UNSATURATED DUAL PERMEABILITY MEDIUM

Use the Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium feature to model the transport in an
unsaturated dual permeability medium where the Richards’ Equation (Equation 4-26)
describes the transport in each system.

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 303

 C m,M ∂p M
θ M  ρ  S e,M S p,M + -------------
- ----------- + ∇( ρu M ) = – Q ip + θ M Q m
ρg  ∂t
C m,m ∂p m (6-26)
( 1 – θ M )  ρ  S e,m S p,m + ------------
- ---------- + ∇( ρu m ) = Q ip + ( 1 – θ M )Q m
ρg  ∂t
p = θ M p M + ( 1 – θ M )p m

θM is the volume fraction of the macropores, Qip is the interporosity flow which is the
mass transfer from the macroscale to the microscale system. The indices M and m stand
for macropores and micropores, respectively.

INTERPOROSITY FLOW
Specify the Fluid Transfer Function αw which is used to calculate the interporosity flow,
which is the mass exchange between macro- and microscale system:

Q ip = α w ( p M – p m ) (6-27)

with pM being the pressure within the macroscale system and pm the pressure within
the microscale system

References for the Darcy’s Law Interface

1. J. Bear, Hydraulics of Groundwater, McGraw Hill, 1979.

2. S.E. Ingebritsen and W.E. Sanford, Groundwater in Geologic Processes, Cambridge

University Press, 1998.

3. N.H. Sleep and K. Fujita, Principles of Geophysics, Blackwell Science, 1997.

4. D.L. Turcotte and G. Schubert, Geodynamics, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

5. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

6. Ö. Akgiray and A.M. Saatç?, “A New Look at Filter Backwash Hydraulics,” Water
Science and Technology: Water Supply, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 65–72, 2001.

7. L. Klinkenberg, “The permeability of porous media to liquids and gases,” Drilling

and Production Practice, Am. Petroleum Inst., pp. 200–213, 1941.

8. Yu-Shu Wu and others, “Gas Flow in Porous Media with Klinkenberg Effects,”
Transport in Porous Media, vol. 32, pp. 117–137, 1998.

304 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

9. H. Gerke and M. van Genuchten, “A dual-porosity model for simulating the
preferential movement of water and solutes in structured porous media.” Water
Resources Research. 29. pp. 305-319. 1993.

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 305

 Theory for the Brinkman Equations
Interface
The Brinkman Equations Interface theory is described in this section:

• About the Brinkman Equations

• Brinkman Equations Theory
• References for the Brinkman Equations Interface

About the Brinkman Equations

The Brinkman equations describe fluids in porous media for which the momentum
transport within the fluid due to shear stresses is of importance. This mathematical
model extends Darcy’s law to include a term that accounts for the viscous transport in
the momentum balance, and it treats both the pressure and the flow velocity vector as
independent variables. Use the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman interface to
model combinations of porous media and free flow domains. These types of problems
are often encountered in applications such as monolithic reactors and fuel cells.

The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface

In porous domains, the flow variables and fluid properties are defined at any point
inside the medium by means of averaging of the actual variables and properties over a
certain volume surrounding the point. This control volume must be small compared
to the typical macroscopic dimensions of the problem, but it must be large enough to
contain many pores and solid matrix elements.

Porosity is defined as the fraction of the control volume that is occupied by pores.
Thus, the porosity can vary from zero for pure solid regions to unity for domains of
free flow.

The physical properties of the fluid, such as density and viscosity, are defined as
intrinsic volume averages that correspond to a unit volume of the pores. Defined this
way, they present the relevant physical parameters that can be measured experimentally,
and they are assumed to be continuous with the corresponding parameters in the
adjacent free flow.

306 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

The flow velocity is defined as a superficial volume average, and it corresponds to a
unit volume of the medium including both the pores and the matrix. It is sometimes
called the Darcy velocity, defined as the volume flow rate per unit cross section of the
medium. Such a definition makes the velocity field continuous across the boundaries
between porous regions and regions of free flow.

Brinkman Equations Theory

The dependent variables in the Brinkman equations are the Darcy velocity and the
pressure. The flow in porous media is governed by a combination of the continuity
equation and the momentum equation, which together form the Brinkman equations:

∂ ε
( ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (6-28)
∂t p

ρ-  ∂u
+ ( u ⋅ ∇ ) ----- =
u
----
εp  ∂ t εp
(6-29)
1 T 2   Q m
– ∇ p + ∇ ⋅ -----  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  –  κ – 1 μ + -------- u+F
εp  3   ε p2 

In these equations:

• μ (SI unit: kg/(m·s)) is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid

• u (SI unit: m/s) is the velocity vector
• ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the density of the fluid
• p (SI unit: Pa) is the pressure
• εp is the porosity
• κ (SI unit: m2) is the permeability of the porous medium, and
• Qm (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)) is a mass source or sink

Influence of gravity and other volume forces can be accounted for via the force term
F (SI unit: kg/(m2·s2)).

When the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected, the term
(u · ∇)(u/εp) on the left-hand side of Equation 6-29 is disabled.

The mass source, Qm, accounts for mass deposit and mass creation within the domains.
The mass exchange is assumed to occur at zero velocity.

THEORY FOR THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 307

 The Forchheimer and Ergun drag options add a viscous force proportional to the
square of the fluid velocity, F = −ρβ|u|u, on the right-hand side of Equation 6-29; see
References for the Darcy’s Law Interface for details.

In case of a flow with variable density, Equation 6-28 and Equation 6-29 must be
solved together with the equation of state that relates the density to the temperature
and pressure (for instance the ideal gas law).

For incompressible flow, the density stays constant in any fluid particle, which can be
expressed as

∂ ( ε ρ ) + u ⋅ ∇ρ = 0
∂t p

and the continuity equation (Equation 6-28) reduces to

ρ∇ ⋅ u = Q m

References for the Brinkman Equations Interface

1. D. Nield and A. Bejan, Convection in Porous Media, 3rd ed., Springer, 2006.

2. M. Le Bars and M.G. Worster, “Interfacial Conditions Between a Pure Fluid and a
Porous Medium: Implications for Binary Alloy Solidification,” J. Fluid Mech.,
vol. 550, pp. 149–173, 2006.

308 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface uses the Navier–Stokes
equations to describe the flow in open regions, and the Brinkman equations to
describe the flow in porous regions.

The same fields, u and p, are solved for in both the free flow domains and in the porous
domains. This means that the pressure in the free fluid and the pressure in the pores is
continuous over the interface between a free flow domain and a porous domain. It also
means that continuity is enforced between the fluid velocity in the free flow and the
Darcy velocity in the porous domain. This treatment is one of several possible models
for the physics at the interface. Examples of other models can be found in Ref. 1.

The continuity in u and p implies a stress discontinuity at the interface between a

free-flow domain and a porous domain. The difference corresponds to the stress
absorbed by the rigid porous matrix, which is a consequence implicit in the
formulations of the Navier–Stokes and Brinkman equations.

Reference for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
1. M.L. Bars and M.G. Worster, “Interfacial Conditions Between a Pure Fluid and a
Porous Medium: Implications for Binary Alloy Solidification,” J. Fluid Mech.,
vol. 550, pp. 149–173, 2006.

THEORY FOR THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 309
 Theory for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Darcy Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy interface uses the Navier–Stokes equations to
describe the flow in the free-flow region, implemented by the coupled Laminar Flow
interface, and Darcy’s law, implemented by the coupled Darcy’s Law interface, to
describe the flow in the porous region.

In the free-flow region, the velocity u and pressure p are solved for, whereas in the
porous region only the pressure p is solved for, and the velocity is calculated from the
pressure by Darcy’s law.

The coupling between the free and porous medium flow, implemented by the Free and
Porous Media Flow Coupling, ensures conservation of mass across the free-porous
interface, which is enforced by the condition

n ⋅ ( ρ ns u ns ) = n ⋅ ( ρ d u d ) (6-30)

Here ρns and uns are the density and velocity on the free-flow side of the interface, ρd
and ud the density and velocity on the porous side, and n is a vector normal to the
interface. In addition the coupling enforces the balance of the normal forces by:

p ns – n ⋅ Kn = p d (6-31)

where pns and pd are the pressure on the free-flow side and porous side of the
interface, respectively, and K is the viscous stress tensor (defined only on the free-flow
side).

For the coupling condition for the tangential velocity component, there are several
options. One of the most widely used conditions is the Beavers-Joseph interface
condition (Ref. 1):

tr ( κ ) ⁄ n
( I – n ⊗ n ) ( u ns – u d ) = ------------------------ ( I – n ⊗ n )Kn (6-32)
μ ns α BJ

where aBJ is the Beavers and Joseph parameter, κ is the permeability tensor of the
porous medium (defined on the porous side of the interface), μns is the fluid’s dynamic
viscosity on the free-flow side of the interface, and n is the number of space
dimensions.

310 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

When the velocity in the porous domain is much smaller than the velocity in the free
flow, one can use a modification of the Beavers–Joseph condition which is given by the
Beavers–Joseph–Saffman interface condition (Ref. 2):

tr ( κ ) ⁄ n
( I – n ⊗ n )u ns = ------------------------ ( I – n ⊗ n )Kn (6-33)
μ ns α BJ

For cases when the permeability tensor is not isotropic, the Use projected permeability
option allows to take into account only the permeability in the direction of the
tangential velocity component. This is accomplished by replacing the tr ( κ ) ⁄ n term
on the rights hand side of Equation 6-32 and Equation 6-33 by:

t ⋅ κt (6-34)

with t a unit vector tangent to the interface for 2D and 2D-axisymmetric cases, and for
3D cases by:

v ⋅ κv (6-35)

with v given by:

( I – n ⊗ n )Kn -
v = ------------------------------------------ (6-36)
( I – n ⊗ n )Kn

If one considers the limit of the Beavers–Joseph condition for large values of the
Beavers and Joseph parameter aBJ, one obtains the Continuous tangential velocity
condition:

( I – n ⊗ n ) ( u ns – u d ) = 0 (6-37)

The same limit for the Beavers–Joseph–Saffman condition results in the No slip
condition:

( I – n ⊗ n )u ns = 0 (6-38)

The Viscous slip condition allows for a more general coupling condition. This interface
condition is given by:

Ls
( I – n ⊗ n ) ( u ns – u b ) = --------- ( I – n ⊗ n )Kn (6-39)
μ ns

THEORY FOR THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, DARCY INTERFACE | 311
 Here Ls is a slip length, and ub a user-defined interfacial velocity.

Please find related information in the CFD Module User’s Guide:

• The Darcy’s Law Interface

• The Thin-Film and Porous Media Flow Interface
• The Laminar Flow Interface
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

References
1. G.S. Beavers and D.D. Joseph, “Boundary Conditions at a Naturally Permeable
Wall,” J. Fluid Mech., vol. 30, 1967.

2. P.G. Saffman, “On the Boundary Condition at the Surface of a Porous Medium,”
Stud. Appl. Maths, vol. 50, 1971.

312 | CHAPTER 6: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES

 7

Rarefied Flow Interface

This chapter describes the physics interface available to model the flow of rarefied
gases. The physics interface is found under the Fluid Flow>Rarefied Flow
branch ( ). See Modeling Microfluidic Fluid Flows to help select the physics
interface to use.

• The Slip Flow Interface

• Theory for the Slip Flow Interface

313
 T he S li p Flo w In t erface
The Slip Flow (slpf) interface ( ), found under the Rarefied Flow branch ( ) when
adding a physics interface, is used to model thermal and isothermal flows within the
slip flow regime. In the slip flow regime, the Navier-Stokes equations can be used to
model the flow of the gas, except within a thin layer of rarefied gas adjacent to the walls
(known as the Knudsen layer). The effect of the Knudsen layer on the continuum part
of the flow can be modeled by means of modified boundary conditions for the Navier
Stokes equations. Thermal effects are also important in this regime, with effects such
as thermal creep or transpiration often playing a significant role. For this reason the
Slip Flow interface includes the heat flow equations. Typically slip flow applies at
Knudsen numbers between 0.01 and 0.1.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder: Fluid, External Slip Wall, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add
other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces.
You can also right-click Slip Flow to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is slpf.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Select the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box to model flow at very low
Reynolds numbers where the inertial term in the Navier-Stokes equations can be
neglected. When this option is checked COMSOL Multiphysics solves the linear
Stokes equations for the fluid flow. The Stokes flow or creeping flow regime frequently

314 | CHAPTER 7: RAREFIED FLOW INTERFACE

applies in microfluidic devices, where the flow length scales are very small. Enter a
Reference pressure level pref. The default value is 1[atm].

If you have the Heat Transfer Module, an additional check box is available
for the modeling of heat transfer in biological tissue. See the Heat
Transfer Module User’s Guide for information.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This physics interface defines these dependent variables (fields):

• Temperature T (SI unit: K)

• Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s)
• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)

For each of the dependent variables, the name can be changed in the corresponding
field, but the name of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. Normally these settings do not need to be changed. The Default model
is Fluid.

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used.
When selected, also choose a CFL number expression — Automatic (the default) or
Manual. Automatic calculates the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy condition) from a built-in expression. For Manual enter a Local CFL number
CFLloc.

By default the Enable conversions between material and spatial frames check box is
selected.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

THE SLIP FLOW INTERFACE | 315

 • Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Slip Flow
Interface
• Theory for the Slip Flow Interface
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

Slip Flow Benchmark: Application Library path

Microfluidics_Module/Rarefied_Flow/slip_flow_benchmark

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Slip Flow
Interface
The Slip Flow Interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes
available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac
or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the component that is valid on boundaries that
represent the symmetry axis.

These nodes are available and described in this section (listed in alphabetical order):

• Continuity • Interior Slip Wall

• External Slip Wall • Periodic Condition
• Fluid • Slip Wall
• Initial Values • Symmetry

316 | CHAPTER 7: RAREFIED FLOW INTERFACE

HEAT TRANSFER IN FLUIDS SUBMENU
These nodes and one subnode are described for the Heat Transfer interface in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual (listed in alphabetical order):

• Boundary Heat Source • Point Heat Source

• Heat Flux • Heat Flux
• Heat Source • Temperature
• Solid • Thermal Insulation
• Line Heat Source • Thin Layer
• Outflow • Translational Motion
• Thickness

LAMINAR FLOW SUBMENU

These nodes are described for the Laminar Flow interface in this guide (listed in
alphabetical order):

• Boundary Stress • Point Mass Source

• Inlet • Pressure Point Constraint
• Line Mass Source • Volume Force
• Open Boundary • Wall
• Outlet

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Fluid
The Fluid node prescribes its domains to be a fluid by adding momentum and energy
transport equations.

THE SLIP FLOW INTERFACE | 317

 HEAT CONDUCTION, FLUID
The default uses the Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) From material. For User
defined, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics
of the thermal conductivity and enter another value or expression in the field or matrix.

The thermal conductivity describes the relationship between the heat flux
vector q and the temperature gradient ∇T as in q = −k∇T which is
Fourier’s law of heat conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length
and temperature.

THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID
The Fluid type defaults to Gas/Liquid.

By default the Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3), Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kg·K)), and Ratio of specific heats γ (dimensionless) take values From
material. For User defined to enter other values or expressions.

DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
The default Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) is taken From material or select User
defined.

External Slip Wall

Use the External Slip Wall node to specify a wall with slip when the adjacent wall is
external to the whole geometry. The wall temperature, wall velocity, and slip
coefficients are specified.

SLIP WALL
Enter the components for the Velocity of moving wall uw.

Enter a value or expression for the Wall temperature Tw. The default is 293.15 K.

Select the Slip coefficients: Maxwell’s model (the default) or User defined.

Maxwell’s Model
For Maxwell’s Model enter values or expressions for the Tangential momentum
accommodation coefficient av. The tangential accommodation coefficients are typically
in the range of 0.85 to 1.0 and can be found in Ref. 4.

318 | CHAPTER 7: RAREFIED FLOW INTERFACE

User defined
For User defined select a Mean free path definition — Standard (the default) or
Alternative (Sharipov). Then enter values for the following. Note that the defaults are
different based on the Mean free path definition chosen.

• Thermal slip coefficient σT. The defaults are 1.2 for Standard and 1.1 for Alternative
(Sharipov).
• Viscous slip coefficient σS. The defaults are 1.1 for Standard and 1 for Alternative
(Sharipov).
• Temperature jump coefficient ζT. The defaults are 2.2 for Standard and 1.95 for
Alternative (Sharipov).

Theoretical and experimental values of these coefficients for various gas

surface combinations are available in Ref. 5. Note that it is more
convenient to use the Alternative (Sharipov) mean free path definition
when using this data.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field, pressure, and
temperature. For the transient solver, these values define the state of the problem at
the initial time step; for the stationary solver, they serve as a starting point for the
nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial estimate the solver uses for the
Velocity field u, Pressure p, and Temperature T.

Slip Wall
Use the Slip Wall node to specify a wall with slip adjacent to a solid region in which the
heat transfer equations are solved. A wall velocity can be specified along with the slip
coefficients.

SLIP WALL
Enter the components for the Velocity of moving wall uw. Select the Slip coefficients:
Maxwell’s model (the default) or User defined. These settings are the same as for
External Slip Wall.

THE SLIP FLOW INTERFACE | 319

 Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node applies periodic boundary conditions for the fluid flow
and the heat transfer equations, as appropriate.

For more information, see Periodic Boundary Conditions in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node applies symmetry conditions for the fluid flow and heat transfer
equations, as appropriate.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Interior Slip Wall

Use the Interior Slip Wall adds a wall with slip on interior boundaries. It is similar to
the External Slip Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except that
it applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the
dependent variables across the boundary.

SLIP WALL
Enter the components for the Velocity of moving wall uw.

Enter a value or expression for the Wall temperature Tw. The default is 293.15 K.

Select the Slip coefficients: Maxwell’s model (the default) or User defined.

Maxwell’s Model
For Maxwell’s Model enter values or expressions for the Tangential momentum
accommodation coefficient av. The tangential accommodation coefficients are typically
in the range of 0.85 to 1.0 and can be found in Ref. 4.

320 | CHAPTER 7: RAREFIED FLOW INTERFACE

User defined
For User defined select a Mean free path definition — Standard (the default) or
Alternative (Sharipov). Then enter values for the following. Note that the defaults are
different based on the Mean free path definition chosen.

• Thermal slip coefficient σT. The defaults are 1.2 for Standard and 1.1 for Alternative
(Sharipov).
• Viscous slip coefficient σS. The defaults are 1.1 for Standard and 1 for Alternative
(Sharipov).
• Temperature jump coefficient ζT. The defaults are 2.2 for Standard and 1.95 for
Alternative (Sharipov).

Theoretical and experimental values of these coefficients for various gas

surface combinations are available in Ref. 5. Note that it is more
convenient to use the Alternative (Sharipov) mean free path definition
when using this data.

Continuity
The Continuity node can be added to pairs. It prescribes that the temperature field is
continuous across the pair. Continuity is only suitable for pairs where the boundaries
match.

Since it is not usual to use an assembly to represent the fluid flow domains, Continuity
is only appropriate between two domains in which Heat Transfer in Solids applies.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

THE SLIP FLOW INTERFACE | 321

 Theory for the Slip Flow Interface
The Slip Flow Interface theory is described in this section:

• Slip Flow Boundary Conditions

• References for the Slip Flow Interface

If you have the Heat Transfer Module, the Thin Layer node (and
subnodes) is also available. The feature and the background theory is
described in the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide.

Slip Flow Boundary Conditions

Maxwell was the first person to consider the boundary conditions required for the
solution of the Boltzmann equation in the case of a slightly rarefied gas (Ref. 1). The
boundary conditions he derived can be used as boundary conditions for the Navier
Stokes equations in the slip flow regime, although Maxwell considered the particular
case of a monatomic hard-sphere gas, so some generalization is required.

Maxwell’s boundary condition takes the form:

G 3 μ
u slip = ---- ( τn – ( ( n τ n )n ) ) + --- ---------- [ ∇ – n ( n ⋅ ∇ ) ] T g – 8
T
--- G ( n ⋅ ∇T g ) (7-1)
μ 4 ρT g 3

where uslip is the slip velocity, n is the boundary normal, τ is the viscous stress tensor,
μ is the viscosity of the gas, ρ is its density, and Tg is its temperature. The factor G
(which has dimensions of length) is given by:

2 – av
G = --------------- λ
av

where λ is the mean free path and av is the tangential momentum accommodation
coefficient (for a model in which the surface reflects some molecules diffusely and

322 | CHAPTER 7: RAREFIED FLOW INTERFACE

some specularly, this is equivalent to the fraction of molecules which are reflected
diffusely).

A slightly different definition of the mean free path is used here: in terms
of Maxwell’s original parameter, l, the mean free path is λ = 2l/3. In
Maxwell’s original paper, he uses a coordinate based notation, the vector
notation is available in Ref. 2.

In Equation 7-1 the left-hand term represents the phenomena of viscous slip, whilst
the right-hand term produces thermal slip or transpiration. Maxwell was aware that the
temperature of the gas was not necessarily equal to that of the wall but formulated the
boundary condition using only the gas temperatures. When the wall temperature is
included, the following equations are obtained (Ref. 2 and Ref. 3):

λ T μ
u slip = σ s --- ( τn – ( ( n τ n )n ) ) + σ T ---------- [ ∇T w – ( n ⋅ ∇T w )n ]
μ ρT g
T w = T g – ζ T λn ⋅ ∇T g

where Tw is the wall temperature, σs is the viscous slip coefficient, σT is the thermal
slip coefficient, and ζT is the temperature jump coefficient. Within a generalized
Maxwell’s model the three coefficients σs, σT, and ζT are given by:

2–a
σ s = --------------v-
av
3
σ T = --- (7-2)
4
2 – a v 2γ κ
ζT = --------------- ------------ -----------
a v γ + 1 μC p

where κ is the thermal conductivity of the gas. The mean free path can be computed
from the gas properties using the following equation (Ref. 3):

2μ
λ = -----------
ρ  c
(7-3)
8RT 1 ⁄ 2 8p 1 ⁄ 2
 c =  ------------ =  -------
 πM n  πρ

consequently:

THEORY FOR THE SLIP FLOW INTERFACE | 323

 π -μ
λ = ---------
2ρp

In some cases an alternative definition of the mean free path, λ′, is used (as, for
example, in Ref. 5):

2
λ' = ------- λ
π

It is possible to use this definition of the mean free path when entering user defined
values for the slip coefficients.

Values of the parameters given in Equation 7-2, are available in Ref. 5,

although care should be taken with the slip and temperature jump
coefficients to adjust for differences between the author’s definition of
the mean free path and that used in COMSOL Multiphysics.

Also note that the formulation assumes that the ideal gas laws apply. This
assumption is implicit in the derivation of the above equations (Ref. 3)
and at the level of approximation of the equations is reasonable.

For mixtures of gases in which concentration gradients exist an additional

term should be added to the slip on the wall. At present this feature is not
implemented in COMSOL.

References for the Slip Flow Interface

1. J.C. Maxwell, “On Stresses in Rarefied Gases Arising from Inequalities of
Temperature”, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., vol. 170, pp. 231–256, 1879.

2. D.A. Lockerby, J. M. Reese, D.R. Emerson, and R.W. Barber, “Velocity Boundary
Condition at Solid Walls in Rarefied Gas Calculations”, Phys. Rev. E, vol. 70, 017303,
2004.

3. E.H. Kennard, Kinetic Theory of Gases, McGraw Hill, New York, 1938.

4. G. Kariadakis, A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows and Nanoflows, Springer

Science and Business Media, 2005.

324 | CHAPTER 7: RAREFIED FLOW INTERFACE

5. F. Sharipov, “Data on the Velocity Slip and Temperature Jump on a Gas-Solid
Interface”, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, vol. 40, no. 2, 023101, 2011.

THEORY FOR THE SLIP FLOW INTERFACE | 325

326 | CHAPTER 7: RAREFIED FLOW INTERFACE
 8

Chemical Species Transport Interfaces

The Microfluidics Module has an enhanced version of the Transport of Diluted

Species interface that is available with the basic COMSOL Multiphysics® license.
In addition, the Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media interface is available.
Both physics interfaces are found under the Chemical Species Transport
branch ( ).

In this chapter:

• The Transport of Diluted Species Interface

• The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface
• Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface

327
 T he T r a ns po r t of D i l u t ed S p ec i es
Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species (tds) interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species
Transport branch ( ), is used to calculate the concentration field of a dilute solute in
a solvent. Transport and reactions of the species dissolved in a gas, liquid, or solid can
be handled with this interface. The driving forces for transport can be diffusion by
Fick’s law, convection when coupled to a flow field, and migration, when coupled to
an electric field.

The interface supports simulation of transport by convection and diffusion in 1D, 2D,
and 3D as well as for axisymmetric components in 1D and 2D. The dependent variable
is the molar concentration, c. Modeling multiple species transport is possible, whereby
the physics interface solves for the molar concentration, ci, of each species i.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tds.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If any part of the model geometry should not partake in the mass transfer model,
remove that part from the selection list.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS
For 2D components, the Thickness field (default value: 1 m) defines a parameter for the
thickness of the geometry perpendicular to the two-dimensional cross-section. Both
constant and varying thicknesses are supported. The value of this parameter is used,
among other things, to automatically calculate molar flow rates from the total molar
flux.

328 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
For 1D components, enter a Cross-sectional area Ac (SI unit: m2) to define a parameter
for the area of the geometry perpendicular to the 1D component. Both constant and
varying areas are supported. The value of this parameter is used, among other things,
to automatically calculate molar flow rates from the total molar flux. The default is 1
m2.

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Mass transport due to diffusion is always included. Use the check boxes available under
Additional transport mechanisms to control other transport mechanisms.

Note: Some of the additional transport mechanisms listed below are only available in
certain products. For details see [Link]

• By default, the Convection check box is selected. Clear the check box to disable
convective transport.
• Select the Migration in electric field check box to activate transport of ionic species in
an electric field. See further the theory section Adding Transport Through
Migration.

Transport of ionic species in an electric field is available in a limited set of

add-on products. See
[Link] for more details on
availability.

Mass Transport in Porous Media

The Mass transport in porous media check box activates functionality specific to species
transport in porous media:

• Porous Medium
• Unsaturated Porous Medium
• Porous Electrode Coupling

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 329

 • Volatilization
• Species Source

Note: Mass transport in porous media is only available in a limited set of

add-on products. See
[Link] for more details on
availability.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this sections, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization.

• When the Crosswind diffusion check box is selected, a weak term that reduces
spurious oscillations is added to the transport equation. The resulting equation
system is always nonlinear. There are two options for the Crosswind diffusion type:
- Do Carmo and Galeão — the default option. This type of crosswind diffusion
reduces undershoots and overshoots to a minimum but can in rare cases give
equation systems that are difficult to fully converge.
- Codina — this option is less diffusive compared to the Do Carmo and Galeão
option but can result in more undershoots and overshoots. It is also less effective
for anisotropic meshes. The Codina option activates a text field for the Lower
gradient limit glim. Its defaults to 0.1[mol/m^3]/[Link], where [Link]
is the local element size.
• For both consistent stabilization methods, select an Equation residual. Approximate
residual is the default and means that derivatives of the diffusion tensor components
are neglected. This setting is usually accurate enough and is computationally faster.
If required, select Full residual instead.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization. By default,
the Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected, because this type of stabilization adds
artificial diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this
option can be used to get a good initial guess for under resolved problems.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed. Select a Convective term —
Nonconservative form (the default) or Conservative form. The conservative formulation

330 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

should be used for compressible flow. See Convective Term Formulation for more
information.

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options.

The Compute boundary fluxes check box is activated by default so that COMSOL
Multiphysics computes predefined accurate boundary flux variables. When this option
is selected, the solver computes variables storing accurate boundary fluxes from each
boundary into the adjacent domain.

If the check box is cleared, the COMSOL Multiphysics software instead computes the
flux variables from the dependent variables using extrapolation, which is less accurate
in postprocessing results but does not create extra dependent variables on the
boundaries for the fluxes.

The flux variables affected in the interface are:

• ndflux_c (where c is the dependent variable for the concentration). This is the
normal diffusive flux and corresponds to the boundary flux when diffusion is the
only contribution to the flux term.
• ntflux_c (where c is the dependent variable for the concentration). This is the
normal total flux and corresponds to the boundary flux plus additional transport
terms, for example, the convective flux when you use the nonconservative form.

Also the Apply smoothing to boundary fluxes check box is available if the previous check
box is selected. The smoothing can provide a more well-behaved flux value close to
singularities.

For details about the boundary fluxes settings, see Computing Accurate Fluxes in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transfer problems be set to Real, which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can
occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 331

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable name is the Concentration c by default. The names must be
unique with respect to all other dependent variables in the component.

Add or remove species variables in the model and also change the names of the
dependent variables that represent the species concentrations.

Enter the Number of species. Use the Add concentration ( ) and Remove
concentration ( ) buttons as needed.

FURTHER READING

• Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface

• Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
• In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for
links to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window
or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

• Effective Diffusivity in Porous Materials: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Diffusion/effective_diffusivity
• Micromixer: Application Library path
COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/micromixer

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface

This interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species Transport branch ( ), is used
to calculate the species concentration and transport in free and porous media. The
interface is the same as the Transport of Diluted Species interface but it uses other
defaults: The Mass Transport in Porous Media property is selected, and a Porous
Medium node is added by default. The interface includes reaction rate expressions and
solute sources for modeling of species transport and reaction in porous media.

This interface is dedicated to modeling transport in porous media, including immobile

and mobile phases, where the chemical species may be subjected to diffusion,
convection, migration, dispersion, adsorption, and volatilization in porous media. It

332 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

supports cases where either the solid phase substrate is exclusively immobile, or when
a gas-filling medium is also assumed to be immobile.

It applies to one or more diluted species or solutes that move primarily within a fluid
that fills (saturated) or partially fills (unsaturated) the voids in a solid porous medium.
The pore space not filled with fluid contains an immobile gas phase. Models including
a combination of porous media types can be studied.

The main feature nodes are the Porous Medium and Unsaturated Porous Medium nodes,
which add the equations for the species concentrations and provide an interface for
defining the properties of the porous media, as well as additional properties governing
adsorption, volatilization, dispersion and diffusion, migration, and the velocity field to
model convection.

The physics interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Porous Medium, No Flux (the default boundary condition), and Initial Values.
Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions, reaction rate expressions, and species sources. You can also
right-click Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media to select physics features from
the context menu.

SETTINGS
The rest of the settings are the same as The Transport of Diluted Species Interface.

FURTHER READING

• Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous

Media
• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface

• Variably Saturated Flow and Transport — Sorbing Solute:

Application Library path
Subsurface_Flow_Module/Solute_Transport/sorbing_solute
Web link:
[Link]
ort-8212-sorbing-solute-490

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 333

 Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species Interface has the following domain, boundary, point,
and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking to
access the context menu (all users).

• To add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what operating

system you are using.
• Contextual subnodes (attributes) are available by clicking the parent
node in the Model Builder, and then selecting the subnode from the
Attributes menu.

334 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

• Adsorption • Periodic Condition
• Concentration • Point Mass Source
• Continuity on Interior Boundaries • Porous Matrix
• Dispersion • Porous Medium
• Electrode Surface Coupling • Porous Electrode Coupling
• Equilibrium Reaction • Reaction Coefficients
• Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction • Reactions
• Fluid • Solid
• Flux • Species Properties
• Flux Discontinuity • Species Source
• Fracture • Surface Reactions
• Gas • Surface Equilibrium Reaction
• Inflow • Symmetry
• Initial Values • Thin Diffusion Barrier
• Line Mass Source • Thin Impermeable Barrier
• Liquid • Transport Properties
• Mass-Based Concentrations • Unsaturated Porous Medium
• No Flux • Volatilization
• Open Boundary
• Out-of-Plane Flux
• Outflow
• Partition Condition

Some features require certain add-on modules. For details see

[Link]

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on boundaries representing the
symmetry axis.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 335

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces

Defining conditions on interfaces between different phases, typically a wall in contact
with a fluid, it is worthwhile to be careful with how variables in the conditions are
evaluated. COMSOL Multiphysics supports that variables are defined differently on
adjacent domains (or any other geometry dimension). Evaluating a variable with
differing definitions, the mean value is returned on a boundary separating the different
domains. The density, pressure, or temperature are examples of variables that may
differ in a fluid and a solid. In order to specify on which side a variable is evaluated, the
up and down operators (described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual)
can be used.

Species Properties
Use this node to define parameters specific to each of the species. It is available when
the Migration in electric field check box is selected in the Transport Mechanisms section
of the interface.

The node will change its label depending on what inputs are available in the node. If
only Charge is available, it will be labeled “Species charges”.

CHARGE
Enter the charge number zc (dimensionless, but requires a plus or minus sign) for each
species.

ACTIVITY
This section is available when the Species Activity combo box is set to Debye-Hückel or
User defined.

If Debye-Hückel is selected, enter the ion size number, a0, for each species. If User
defined is selected, enter the activity coefficient, f, for each species.

336 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Transport Properties
The settings in this node are dependent on the check boxes selected under Transport
Mechanisms in the Settings window for the Transport of Diluted Species interface. It
includes only the sections required by the activated transport mechanisms. It has all the
equations defining transport of diluted species as well as inputs for the material
properties.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. Select the source of the Temperature.
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the temperature in the input field. This
input option is always available.

You can also select the temperature solved for by a Heat Transfer interface added to
the model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the
Temperature list.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. Select the source of the Velocity field. For User defined, enter values or
expressions for the velocity components in the input fields. This input option is always
available.

You can also select the velocity field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the
model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity
field list.

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent fluid.

Use the Source list to select to pick up diffusion coefficients defined in a material or a
Chemistry interface.

Select Material, and a Fluid material to use a diffusion coefficient in a material available
in the model. User-defined property groups including a diffusion coefficient output
property are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient list.

Select Chemistry to use a diffusion coefficient from a Chemistry interface added to

model component. Diffusion coefficients are automatically defined when Calculate
transport properties is selected on the interface level of a Chemistry interface. All

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 337

 defined diffusion coefficients are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient
list.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Fluid diffusion coefficient Dc of each
species in the corresponding input field. This can be a scalar value for isotropic
diffusion or a tensor describing anisotropic diffusion. Select the appropriate tensor
type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full that describes the diffusion transport, and
then enter the values in the corresponding element (one value for each species).

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. See details:
[Link]

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• Enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V, which is User defined; this
input option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has also been
added to the model.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved by Electrochemistry interface that has
been added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species diffusivity and the
temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, and under Mobility,
select the appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full —
and type in the value of expression of the mobility um,c.

Enter the Charge number zc (dimensionless, but requires a plus or minus sign) for each
species.

The temperature (if you are using mobilities based on the Nernst–Einstein relation) is
taken from Model Inputs section.

Note that the migration in electric fields feature is only available in some COMSOL
products. See details: [Link]

338 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

EXAMPLE MODELS

• Separation Through Dialysis: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Mixing_and_Separation/dialysis
Web link:
[Link]

• Transport in an Electrokinetic Valve: Application Library path

Microfluidics_Module/Fluid_Flow/electrokinetic_valve
Web link:
[Link]
e-603

Solid
Use this node to describe diffusion in a solid phase domain. In this feature, the
activities of the species are assumed to be ideal.

DIFFUSION
Specify the diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species in the solid.

Enter a value or expression for the Diffusion coefficient Dc of each species in the
corresponding input field. This can be a scalar value for isotropic diffusion or a tensor
describing anisotropic diffusion. Select the appropriate tensor type — Isotropic,
Diagonal, or Symmetric that describes the diffusion transport, and then enter the values
in the corresponding element (one value for each species).

ADVANCED
This section is only available with the Advanced Physics Options selected and when the
model contains a split between the material frame and the spatial frame. A split of these
frames occurs when using a Moving Mesh node or a Structural Mechanics interface like
Solid Mechanics. In such a model, the reference geometry (the material frame) differs
from the deformed geometry (the spatial frame). The diffusive transport of species is
solved for on the material frame, but the equation is adjusted for geometry
deformations so that species conservation is achieved on the spatial frame. Use the
Diffusion model to define the frame of reference for the diffusion tensor.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 339

 Select Reference geometry based (Lagrangian) to specify the diffusion tensor in the
undeformed geometry, implying that the diffusion is defined in the material frame
(indicated by coordinates X, Y, Z). This is the preferred setting for an anisotropic
diffusion in combination with solid body translation or rotation. Also in general when
the diffusion tensor components have been measured in an undeformed geometry.

Select Deformed geometry based (Eulerian) to specify the diffusion tensor in the
deformed geometry. This means that the diffusion is defined in the spatial frame
(indicated by coordinates x, y, z). Use this setting when the diffusion tensor
components have been measured in a deformed geometry.

The Advanced Physics Options is found in the Show More Options dialog box, accessed
by clicking the Show More Options button ( ).

Note that multiple species are only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics
add-on products. See details: [Link]

Initial Values
The Initial Values node specifies the initial values for the concentration of each species.
These serve as an initial guess for a stationary solver or as initial conditions for a
transient simulation.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If there are several types of domains with different initial values defined, it might be
necessary to remove some domains from the selection. These are then defined in an
additional Initial Values node.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Concentration or concentrations,
ci. This also serves as a starting guess for stationary problems.

Mass-Based Concentrations
Use the Mass-Based Concentrations node to add postprocessing variables for mass-based
concentrations (SI unit: kg/m3) and mass fractions (dimensionless) for all species.

340 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

MIXTURE PROPERTIES
The default Solvent density ρsolvent is taken From material. For User defined, enter a
value or expression manually. Define the Molar mass of each species, which is needed
to calculate the mass-based concentration.

Reactions
Use the Reactions node to account for the consumption or production of species
through chemical reactions. Define the rate expressions as required.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern the source term in the transport equations.

Several reaction nodes can be used to account for different reactions in different parts
for the modeling geometry.

REACTION RATES
Add a rate expression Ri (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) for species i. Enter a value or expression
in the field. Note that if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the
Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be
automatically generated and picked up using the drop-down list. For an example, see
the application Fine Chemical Production in a Plate Reactor as linked below.

REACTING VOLUME
This section is only available when the Mass Transport in Porous Media property is
available and selected. See [Link] for
more details on availability.

When specifying reaction rates for a species in porous media, the specified reaction rate
may have the basis of the total volume, the pore volume, or in the case of using the
volume of a particular phase (applicable when modeling an unsaturated porous
medium).

• For Total volume, the reaction expressions, in mol/(m3·s), are specified per unit
volume of the model domain (multiplied by unity).
• For Pore volume, the reaction expressions, in mol/(m3·s), are specified per unit
volume of total pore space. The reaction expressions will be multiplied by the
domain porosity, εp. (εp equals unity for nonporous domains).

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 341

 • For Liquid phase, the reaction expressions, in mol/(m3·s), are specified per unit
volume of liquid in the pore space. The expressions will be multiplied by the liquid
volume fraction θl. (θl equals the porosity (εp) on Porous Medium domains).
• For Gas phase, the reaction expressions, in mol/(m3·s), are multiplied by the gas
volume fraction θg = εp − θl. θg equals 0 for Porous Medium domains.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter on chemical species transport, starting with the section Mass
Balance Equation.

• Fine Chemical Production in a Plate Reactor: Application Library

path
Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Mass_and_Heat_T
ransfer/plate_reactor
Web link:
[Link]
te-reactor-8589

No Flux
This node is the default boundary condition on exterior boundaries. It should be used
on boundaries across which there is no mass flux, typically solid walls where no surface
reactions occur. The condition applied for each species corresponds to

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c ) = 0

where n denotes the outward pointing normal of the boundary. When the mass
transport includes migration of ionic species, the no flux condition is:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ ) = 0

CONVECTION
By default, the feature prescribes a vanishing flux due to diffusion and migration in an
electric field. This is the appropriate no flux condition when the relative convective
velocity at the boundary is zero. When the fluid velocity at the boundary is not equal
to that of the boundary, it is often convenient to prescribe the total flux including the
convection. To do this select Include in the Convection section.

When including the convection, the no flux condition prescribed is

342 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 – n ⋅ ( – D∇c + uc ) = 0

or

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ + uc ) = 0

when migration of ionic species is included.

Inflow
Use this node to specify all species concentrations at an inlet boundary.

If you want to specify the concentration of a subset of the partaking species, this can
be done by using the Concentration node instead.

For the Electroanalysis interface, this node is available when you select the Convection
check box on the physics interface Settings window.

CONCENTRATION
For the concentration of each species c0,c (SI unit: mol/m3), enter a value or
expression.

BOUNDARY CONDITION TYPE

The option Concentration constraint constrains the concentration values on the
boundary by the use of pointwise constraints.

The other option, Flux (Danckwerts) can be used when the concentration at the
boundary is not known, or when it varies in a nontrivial manner. This may, for example,
be useful when reactions with high reaction rates occur in the vicinity of the inlet. In
this case the concentration far upstream of the boundary is instead prescribed. The Flux
(Danckwerts) condition prescribes the total flux defined by the upstream concentration
and the fluid velocity at the boundary.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. You can find details about the different constraint settings in the
section Constraint Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 343

 Outflow
Apply this condition at outlets boundaries where species should be transported out of
the model domain by fluid motion or by an electric field (in the case of ions). It is
assumed that convection and migration (in an electric field) are the dominating
transport mechanisms across the boundary, and therefore that the diffusive transport
can be ignored, that is:

n ⋅ ( – D ∇c ) = 0

Note that the Convection or the Migration in electric field transport mechanisms needs
to be included for this node to be available.

Concentration
This condition node adds a boundary condition for the species concentration. For
example, a c = c0 condition specifies the concentration of species c.

CONCENTRATION
Individually specify the concentration for each species. Select the check box for the
Species to specify the concentration, and then enter a value or expression in the
corresponding field. To use another boundary condition for a specific species, click to
clear the check box for the concentration of that species.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
You can find details about the different constraint settings in the section Constraint
Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Flux
This node can be used to specify the species molar flux across a boundary. The flux can
for example occur due to chemical reactions or a phase change at the boundary. The
flux can also represent the transport to or from a surrounding environment currently
not included model.

The prescribed flux of a species c is by default defined as

344 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 – n ⋅ ( – D∇c ) = J 0

where n denotes the outward pointing normal of the boundary. When the mass
transport includes migration of ionic species, the flux is defined as:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ ) = J 0

The flux prescribed, J0, can include any arbitrary user-specified expression. It can be
constant or a function of a dependent variable or independent variable. Common
examples are a flux dependent of the concentration, temperature, pressure, or the
electric potential φ.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

CONVECTION
By default, the flux due to diffusion and migration in an electric field is prescribed. This
is the appropriate flux condition when the relative velocity at the boundary is zero.
When the fluid velocity is not equal to that of the boundary, it is often convenient to
prescribe the total flux, including the convection. To do this select Include in the
Convection section.

When including the convection, the prescribed flux is defined as:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c + uc ) = J 0

or

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ + uc ) = J 0

when migration of ionic species is included.

INWARD FLUX
Select the Species check box for the species for which to specify the flux, and enter a
value or expression for the inward flux in the corresponding field. Use a minus sign
when specifying a flux directed out of the system. To use another boundary condition
for a specific species, click to clear the check box for that species.

External convection
Set Flux type to External convection to prescribe a flux to or from an exterior domain
(not modeled) assumed to include convection. The exterior can for example include a

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 345

 forced convection to control the temperature or to increase the mass transport. In this
case the prescribed mass flux corresponds to

J0 = kc ( cb – c )

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node can be used to represent boundaries where the species
concentration is symmetric, that is, where there is no mass flux across the boundary.

This boundary condition is identical to that of the No Flux node.

Flux Discontinuity
This node represents a discontinuity in the mass flux across an interior boundary:

– n ⋅ [ ( J + uc ) u – ( J + uc ) d ] = N 0 J = – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ

where the value N0 (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)) specifies the jump in total flux at the
boundary. This can be used to model a boundary source, for example a surface
reaction, adsorption, or desorption.

FLUX DISCONTINUITY
In this section the jump in species flux (or surface source) is specified.

Select the Species check box for the species to specify and enter a value or expression
for the material flux jump in the corresponding field. To use a different boundary
condition for a specific species, click to clear the check box for the flux discontinuity
of that species.

Partition Condition
The Partition Condition node can be used to prescribe the relation between the
concentration of a solute species in two adjoining immiscible phases. It can for example
be used on interior boundaries separating two liquid phases, a gas-liquid interface, or
on a boundary separating a liquid phase and a solid or porous media.

Select Partition coefficient from the Relation list to prescribe a linear relationship
between the concentration on either side of a boundary. For a species concentration

346 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

ci, the ratio between the concentration on the upside and on the downside of the
boundary (ci,u and ci,d respectively) is then defined in terms of a partition coefficient
Ki in the manner of

c i, u
K i = --------
-
c i, d

Use the associated input field to prescribe the partition coefficient for each species.

Select User defined from the Relation list to set up a nonlinear relation between the up
and downside concentrations. For such relations f(ci)u=f(ci)d, where f(ci)u is the
expression enforced on the upside. Use the associated input fields to enter the upside
and downside expressions for each species.

The up and downside of the selected boundary is indicated with a red arrow in the
Graphics window. The arrow points from the downside into the upside. Select the
Reverse direction check box to reverse the direction of the arrow on the selected
boundary, and update the definition of the up and downside concentrations
accordingly.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using a partition condition, see this application example:

Separation Through Dialysis: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Mixing_and_Separation/dialysis

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node can be used to define periodicity for the mass transport
between two sets of boundaries. The node prescribes continuity in the concentration
and the mass flux between the “source” and the “destination” side, respectively. Note
that these names are arbitrary and does not influence the direction in which mass is
transported. It is dictated by mass transfer equations in the adjacent domains.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 347

 BOUNDARY SELECTION
The node can be activated on more than two boundaries, in which case the feature tries
to identify two separate surfaces that each consist of one or several connected
boundaries.

DESTINATION SELECTION
For more complex geometries, it might be necessary to specify the destination
selection manually. To do so, right-click the Periodic Condition node and choose Manual
Destination Selection. You can then specify the boundaries that constitute the
destination surfaces in the Destination Selection section.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. This section contains settings for
specifying the type of constraint and whether to use a pointwise or weak constraint. See
Constraint Settings for more information.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and Destination.

ORIENTATION OF DESTINATION
This section appears if the setting for Transform to intermediate map in the Orientation
of Source section is changed from the default value, Automatic, and Advanced Physics
Options is selected in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Destination section, see Orientation of Source and Destination.

MAPPING BETWEEN SOURCE AND DESTINATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Mapping Between Source and Destination section, see Mapping Between Source and
Destination.

348 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

FURTHER READING
For an example of using a periodic condition, see this application example:

The KdV Equation and Solitons: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Equation_Based/kdv_equation

Line Mass Source

The Line Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from a tube or line region
with an infinitely small radius.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the symmetry axis and the symmetry axis
3D Edges

SPECIES SOURCE
Enter the source strength, q· l,c , for each species (SI unit: mol/(m·s)). A positive value
results in species injection from the line into the computational domain, and a negative
value means that the species is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This
effect makes the physical strength of a line source located in a symmetry plane twice
the given strength.

FURTHER READING
See the section Mass Sources for Species Transport.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 349

 Point Mass Source
The Point Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
domain around a point.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

SPECIES SOURCE
Enter the source strength, q· p,c , for each species (SI unit: mol/s). A positive value
results in species injection from the point into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the species is removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that the physical strength of a point source
located in a symmetry plane is twice the given strength.

FURTHER READING
See the section Mass Sources for Species Transport.

Open Boundary
Use this node to set up mass transport across boundaries where both convective inflow
and outflow can occur. On the parts of the boundary where fluid flows into the
domain, an exterior species concentration is prescribed. On the remaining parts, where
fluid flows out of the domain, a condition equivalent to the Outflow node is instead
prescribed.

The direction of the flow across the boundary is typically calculated by a fluid flow
interface and is provided as a model input to the Transport of Diluted Species
interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

EXTERIOR CONCENTRATION
Enter a value or expression for the Exterior concentration.

350 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Thin Diffusion Barrier
Use this boundary condition to model a thin layer through which mass is transported
by diffusion only. The node is applicable on interior boundaries and can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures.

THIN DIFFUSION BARRIER

Specify the Layer thickness, ds, and input a Diffusion coefficient, Ds,c, for each of the
species included.

Thin Impermeable Barrier

This feature models a thin mass transfer barrier. It is available on interior boundaries
and introduces a discontinuity in the concentration across the boundary. On each side,
a no-flux condition is prescribed for the mass transport implying that it acts as a barrier.
The feature can be used to avoid meshing thin structures.

Solving a model involving coupled fluid flow and mass transfer, the Thin Impermeable
Barrier feature can be combined with an Interior Wall feature in order to model a thin
solid wall.

Equilibrium Reaction
Use this node to model a reaction where the kinetics is so fast that the equilibrium
condition is fulfilled at all times. The node solves for an additional degree of freedom
(the reaction rate Req) to fulfill the equilibrium condition at all times in all space
coordinates.

If the Apply equilibrium condition on inflow boundaries check box is selected, the
specified inflow concentration values in all active Inflow boundary nodes for the physics
interface are modified to comply with the equilibrium condition.

• A necessary requirement for this is feature to be available is that two or

more species are solved for by the interface.
• This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See
[Link] for more details
on availability.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 351

 EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION
The list defaults to Equilibrium constant or select User defined. For either option, the
Apply equilibrium condition on inflow boundaries check box is selected by default.

For Equilibrium constant, enter an Equilibrium constant Keq (dimensionless). Also enter
a value or expression for the Unit activity concentration Ca0 (SI unit: mol/m3).
Selecting Equilibrium constant defines an equilibrium condition based on the
stoichiometric coefficients, the species activities, and the law of mass action.

For User defined, enter an Equilibrium expression Eeq (dimensionless).

STOICHIOMETRIC COEFFICIENTS
Enter a value for the stoichiometric coefficientνc (dimensionless). The default is 0. Use
negative values for reactants and positive values for products in the modeled reaction.

Species with a stoichiometric coefficient value of 0 are not affected by the Equilibrium
Reaction node.

Surface Reactions
The Surface Reactions node can be used to account for the species boundary flux due
to chemical reactions occurring on a surface (heterogeneous reactions). For a domain
species participating in a surface reaction, the boundary flux corresponds to the
reaction rate at the surface.

SURFACE REACTION RATE

Specify the surface reaction rate J0 of each species resulting from the reactions. Note
that if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the Chemical
Reaction Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be automatically
generated and picked up using the drop-down list.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using the Surface Reactions node, see this application example:

Chemical Vapor Deposition of GaAs: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Mass_and_Heat_Tran
sfer/gaas_cvd

352 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Surface Equilibrium Reaction
Use this node to model an equilibrium reaction on a boundary (surface). The settings
for this node are similar to Equilibrium Reaction. Note that a necessary requirement
for this is feature to be available is that two or more species are solved for by the
interface.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction

This boundary node defines an irreversible reaction where the kinetics is so fast that
the only factor limiting the reaction rate is the transport of a species to the reacting
surface.

The node will set the Rate limiting species concentration to zero at the boundary, and
balance the fluxes of the species participating in the reaction and the current densities
according to the Stoichiometric Coefficients settings.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Porous Electrode Coupling

Use this node to add a molar source in a domain that is coupled to one or multiple
Porous Electrode Reaction nodes of an Electrochemistry Interface.

The molar source is calculated from the number of electrons, stoichiometric

coefficients, and volumetric current densities of the coupled porous electrode reactions
specified in the Reaction Coefficients subnodes.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 353

 In the Transport of Concentrated Species interface, the molar sources (or sinks) are
multiplied by the species molar masses to obtain the corresponding mass sources.

Additional Reaction Coefficients subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Note that if you are also modeling the momentum transport and expect a
nonnegligible total mass source or sink, which is often the case in gas diffusion
electrodes, you need to also add a corresponding Porous Electrode Coupling node in
the Fluid Flow interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Reaction Coefficients
Add this node to the Electrode Surface Coupling and Porous Electrode Coupling
features to define molar fluxes and sources based on electrode current densities in an
Electrochemistry interface.

The molar flux or source is proportional to the stoichiometric coefficients and the
current density according to Faraday’s law.

Current densities from Electrode Reaction (iloc, SI unit: A/m2) or Porous Electrode
Reaction nodes (iv, SI unit: A/m3) of any Electrochemistry interface in the model are
available for selection as the Coupled reaction, and user-defined expressions are also
supported.

Enter the Number of participating electrons nm (dimensionless) and the Stoichiometric

coefficient vc (dimensionless) as explained in the theory section linked below.

Use multiple subnodes to couple to multiple reactions.

Electrode Surface Coupling

Use this node to define a flux boundary condition based on current densities of one or
multiple Electrode Reaction nodes in an Electrochemistry interface.

The flux is proportional to the current densities and the stoichiometric coefficients
according to Faraday’s law as defined by summation over the Reaction Coefficients
subnodes.

354 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Note that if you are also modeling the momentum transport and expect a
nonnegligible total mass flux over the boundary, which is often the case for gas
diffusion electrodes, you need to also add a corresponding Electrode Surface Coupling
node in the Fluid Flow interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Porous Medium
Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a solvent
(mobile fluid phase) through interstices in a solid porous medium. In addition to
transport due to convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include
species evolution through adsorption and dispersion.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Species transport through a porous medium is affected both by properties of the fluid
phase, and as well as properties of the solid matrix. These properties are defined in the
Fluid and Porous Matrix subnodes respectively. The Porous Medium node supports
material properties using a Porous Material node, where properties are defined per
phase in a similar manner.

Add an Adsorption or a Dispersion subfeature to the Porous Medium to account for the
corresponding transport mechanism.

Fluid
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the mobile fluid solvent filling the pores
of a porous medium. It is used as a subnode to Porous Medium.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. By default, the Temperature model
input is set to Common model input, and the temperature is controlled from Default
Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a locally defined Model Input. If a Heat

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 355

 Transfer interface is included in the component, it controls the temperature Common
model input. Alternatively, the temperature field can be selected from another physics
interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a Heat
Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht) option
is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in
the input fields. This input option is always available. You can also select the velocity
field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the model component. These
physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity field list.

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent fluid.

Use the Source list to select to pick up diffusion coefficients defined in a material or a
Chemistry interface.

Select Material, and a Fluid material to use a diffusion coefficient in a material available
in the model. User-defined property groups including a diffusion coefficient output
property are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient list.

Select Chemistry to use a diffusion coefficient from a Chemistry interface added to

model component. Diffusion coefficients are automatically defined when Calculate
transport properties is selected on the interface level of a Chemistry interface. All
defined diffusion coefficients are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient
list.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Fluid diffusion coefficient DF,i of
each species in the corresponding input field.

In a porous medium the diffusivity is reduced due to the fact that the solid grains
impede Brownian motion. Select an Effective diffusivity model to account for the
reduced diffusivity. The available models are Millington and Quirk model (the default),
Bruggeman model, Tortuosity model, or No correction. For Tortuosity model, enter a
value for the tortuosity τF,i (dimensionless).

356 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. See details:
[Link]

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V. This input
option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has added to
the component.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved for by an Electrochemistry interface
added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species effective diffusivity
and the temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, select the
appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full — and type
in the value or expression of the effective mobility ume,i.

Enter the Charge number zc for each species.

Porous Matrix
This node sets the porosity when modeling transport of diluted species in a Porous
Medium or a Unsaturated Porous Medium.

The default Porosity εp of the solid matrix is taken From material. The Porous Matrix
node supports the use of a Porous Material node, where the porosity is defined in the
manner of

εp = 1 –  θs, i – θimf, i
i i

where θs,i and θimf,i are the porosities of the Solid and Immobile Fluids subnodes under
the Porous Material node.

Select From pellet bed densities to compute the porosity using the (dry bulk) Bed
density ρb and the (single phase) Pellet density ρpe. The porosity is then defined from

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 357

 ρb
ε p = 1 – -------
-
ρ pe

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the porosity.

Dispersion
Local variations in the velocity as the fluid flows around solid particles lead to
mechanical mixing, referred to as dispersion. Use this feature to account for dispersion
in a Porous Medium or a Unsaturated Porous Medium

This subfeature is available when both the Mass transfer in porous media mass transfer
check box and the Convection check box are selected in the Settings window for the
physics interface.

Select the Specify dispersion for each species individually check box to specify the
dispersion tensor DD (SI unit: m2/s) for each species separately. When not selected the
same dispersion tensor DD is used for all species.

Select an option from the Dispersion tensor list — Dispersivity or User defined.

Select Dispersivity to specify the dispersion in terms of dispersivities (SI unit: m). Select
an option from the Dispersivity model list: Isotropic (the default) or Transverse isotropic
based on the properties of the porous media. For isotropic porous media, specify the
longitudinal and transverse dispersivities. For transverse isotropic porous media,
specify the longitudinal, horizontal transverse, and vertical transverse dispersivities.

For User defined, specify the dispersion components in terms of constants or

expressions. Select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to enable the appropriate
tensor components.

Unsaturated Porous Medium

Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a solvent
(mobile fluid phase) through interstices in a solid porous medium. In addition to
transport due to convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include
species evolution through adsorption and dispersion.

Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a liquid
(mobile fluid phase) in a partially filled solid porous medium. The interstices of the
porous medium contains the liquid carrier phase and gas pockets. Apart from

358 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include species evolution
through adsorption, dispersion, and volatilization.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

The properties of each phase present are defined using the Liquid, the Gas, and the
Porous Matrix subnodes respectively. The Unsaturated Porous Medium node supports
material properties using a Porous Material node, where properties are defined per
phase in a similar manner.

Add an Adsorption or a Dispersion subfeature to the Unsaturated Porous Medium to

account for the corresponding transport mechanism.

Liquid
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the mobile liquid solvent present in the
pores of the Unsaturated Porous Medium.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. By default, the Temperature model
input is set to Common model input, and the temperature is controlled from Default
Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a locally defined Model Input. If a Heat
Transfer interface is included in the component, it controls the temperature Common
model input. Alternatively, the temperature field can be selected from another physics
interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a Heat
Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht) option
is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

SATURATION
Select Saturation or Liquid volume fraction from the list.

For Saturation, enter a value for s (dimensionless) between 0 and 1. The liquid volume
fraction is then computed from the saturation and porosity as θl = εps.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 359

 For Liquid volume fraction, enter a value for θl (dimensionless) between 0 and the value
of the porosity.

Select a Liquid fraction time change: Liquid fraction constant in time (the default), Time
change in liquid fraction, or Time change in pressure head.

• For Time change in fluid fraction, enter dθ/dt (SI unit: 1/s).
• For Time change in pressure head, enter dHp/dt (SI unit: m/s) and a Specific
moisture capacity Cm (SI unit: 1/m). If a Darcy’s Law interface is included in the
component, the time change in pressure head solved for can be selected.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in
the input fields. This input option is always available. You can also select the velocity
field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the model component. These
physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity field list.

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent liquid.

Use the Source list to select to pick up diffusion coefficients defined in a material or a
Chemistry interface.

Select Material, and a Liquid material to use a diffusion coefficient in a material available
in the model. User-defined property groups including a diffusion coefficient output
property are available for selection in the Liquid diffusion coefficient list.

Select Chemistry to use a diffusion coefficient from a Chemistry interface added to

model component. Diffusion coefficients are automatically defined when Calculate
transport properties is selected on the interface level of a Chemistry interface. All
defined diffusion coefficients are available for selection in the Liquid diffusion coefficient
list.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Liquid diffusion coefficient DL,i of
each species in the corresponding input field.

In a porous medium the diffusivity is reduced due to the fact that the solid grains
impede Brownian motion. Select an Effective diffusivity model, liquid to account for the
reduced diffusivity in the liquid. The available models are Millington and Quirk model

360 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

(the default), Bruggeman model, Tortuosity model, or No correction. For Tortuosity
model, enter a value for the tortuosity τL,i (dimensionless).

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. For details see:
[Link]

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V. This input
option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has added to
the component.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved for by an Electrochemistry interface
added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species effective diffusivity
and the temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, select the
appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full — and type
in the value or expression of the effective mobility ume,i.

Enter the Charge number zc for each species.

Gas
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the gas phase present in the pores of the
Unsaturated Porous Medium.

DIFFUSION
The settings for the diffusion of each species in the gas phase are identical to those in
the Liquid subnode.

VOLATILIZATION
Enter a value for the volatilization isotherm kG,c (dimensionless) for each species.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 361

 Adsorption
Use this node to model adsorption of the (fluid phase) solute species onto the surface
of the porous matrix. It is available as a subnode to the Porous Medium and the
Unsaturated Porous Medium nodes.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The density of the porous media is needed when modeling adsorption to the surface
of the porous matrix. Choose to input either the Dry bulk density ρ, or the Solid phase
density ρs. The former is the density of the porous matrix including empty pores, while
the latter corresponds to the density of the pure solid phase. The density can be defined
from the domain material by selecting From material, or from a user defined expression.
When a Porous Material is used on the selection, the density will be requested from a
Solid subfeature. Several Solid features can be used to model a homogeneous mixture
of several solid components.

ADSORPTION
Select an Adsorption isotherm — Langmuir, Freundlich, Toth, BET, or User defined to
specify how to compute cP, the amount of species sorbed to the solid phase (moles per
unit dry weight of the solid):

• For Langmuir:

KL c ∂c K L c Pmax
c P = c Pmax -------------------- , K P = -------P- = ---------------------------
1 + KL c ∂c ( 1 + KL c )
2

Enter a Langmuir constant kL,c (SI unit: m3/mol) and an Adsorption maximum
cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg).

• For Freundlich:

362 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 c N ∂c cP
c P = K F  -------- , K P = -------P- = N -----
c ref ∂c c

Enter a Freundlich constant kF,c (SI unit: mol/kg), a Freundlich exponent NF,c
(dimensionless), and a Reference concentration cref,c (SI unit: mol/m3).
• For Toth:
bT c
c P = c Pmax ----------------------------------------------
N 1 ⁄ NT
( 1 + ( bT c ) T )

and

–  1 + ------
1-
∂c  N T
N
KP = -------P- = c Pmax b T ( 1 + ( b T c ) T )
∂c

Enter a Toth constant bT,c (SI unit: m3/mol), a Toth exponent NT,c (dimensionless),
and an Adsorption maximum cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg).
• For BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller):
KB c0 c
c P = -------------------------------------------------------------
-
( c S – c )  1 + ( K B – 1 ) -----
c
 c S

and

2 2
∂c K B c 0 c S ( ( K B – 1 )c + c S )
K P = -------P- = -----------------------------------------------------------------
-
∂c 2
( c – c S ) ( c S + ( K B – 1 )c )
2

Enter a BET constant KB,c (dimensionless), a Monolayer adsorption capacity c0,c

(SI unit: mol/kg), and an Saturation concentration cS,c (SI unit: mol/m3).
• For User defined enter an Adsorption isotherm cP,c (SI unit: mol/kg):

cP = f ( c )

For more information, see Adsorption in the theory section.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted
Species in Porous Media.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 363

 Volatilization
This feature is available when the Mass transfer in porous media check box is selected in
the Settings window for the physics interface.

Use this feature to model mass transfer at the boundary due to volatilization. The
species dissolved in the liquid are assumed to be vaporized at the boundary, and
transported into the surrounding bulk region due to convection and diffusion. The
mass transfer at the boundary is defined as

– n ⋅ J c = – h c ( k G,c c – c Gatm,c )

where hc is the mass transfer coefficient, kG,c the volatilization coefficient, and cGatm,c
the concentration in the surrounding atmosphere.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

VOLATILIZATION
Enter a Mass transfer coefficient hc defining the transfer into the surrounding media.
This can be given by boundary layer theory. When assuming that no convective flow
is present in the surrounding, the mass transfer coefficient can be defined from the gas
diffusion coefficient DGc and the thickness of the diffusion layer ds in the manner of

D Gc
h c = ----------
ds

Also give the atmospheric concentration for each species, cGatm,c. The Volatilization
coefficient kG,c for each species are taken from the adjacent Unsaturated Porous
Medium domain.

Species Source
In order to account for consumption or production of species in porous domains, the
Species Source node adds source terms expressions Si to the right-hand side of the
species transport equations.

364 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern the source term in the transport equations.

If there are several types of domains, with subsequent and different reactions occurring
within them, it might be necessary to remove some domains from the selection. These
are then defined in an additional Species Source node.

SPECIES SOURCE
Add a source term Si (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) for each of the species solved for. Enter a
value or expression in the field of the corresponding species.

Hygroscopic Swelling
The Hygroscopic Swelling multiphysics coupling node ( ) is used for moisture
concentration coupling between the Solid Mechanics interface and either the
Transport of Diluted Species or Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media
interfaces.

Hygroscopic swelling is an effect of internal strain caused by changes in moisture

content. This volumetric strain can be written as

ε hs = β h M m ( c mo – c mo,ref )

where βh is the coefficient of hygroscopic swelling, Mm is the molar mass, cmo is the
moisture concentration, and cmo,ref is the strain-free reference concentration.

This feature requires a license of either the MEMS Module or the Structural Mechanics
Module. The multiphysics feature will appear automatically if both the Transport of
Diluted Species and the Solid Mechanics interfaces are added to the same component.
For the most current information about licensing, please see See
[Link]

FURTHER READING
More information about how to use hygroscopic swelling can be found in Hygroscopic
Swelling Coupling section in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide.

More information about multiphysics coupling nodes can be found in the section The
Multiphysics Branch.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 365

 Out-of-Plane Flux
The out-of-plane flux node is used to prescribe a flux in an out-of-plane domain, and
it can be used to reduce a model geometry to 2D, or even 1D, when the concentration
variation is small in one or more directions. This could be the case for example when
the object to model is thin or slender. Figure 8-1 shows examples of possible situations
in which this type of geometry reduction can be applied.

Jz

Jup

Jdown

Figure 8-1: Geometry reduction from 3D to 1D (top) and from 3D to 2D (bottom).

For a 1D component this node adds a single out-of-plane molar flux J0,z,i for species
i. For a 2D component two fluxes can be prescribed for each species; J0,u,i for the
upside of the domain, and J0,d,i for the downside of the domain.

The fluxes are added as a source contribution to the right-hand side of the transport
equation. For example, in 2D components with diffusion, convection, and
out-of-plane flux present, the mass transfer of species i is defined by the mass
conservation equation

∂c i
------- + ∇ ⋅ J i + u ⋅ ∇c i = R i + S opf, i , (8-1)
∂t

where Sopf,i is the out-of-plane source for species i

J 0, i J 0, u, i + J 0, d, i
- = --------------------------------------
S opf, i = --------- .
dz dz

For external convection on the upside and the downside of the domain, the
out-of-plane flux is

366 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 J 0, i = k c, u, i ( c b, u, i – c i ) + k c, d, i ( c b, d, i – c i )

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain. The prescribed flux, J0, can
include any arbitrary user-specified expressions. It can be a constant or a function of a
dependent variable or independent variables.

UPSIDE INWARD FLUX

For 1D components, enter the cross-sectional perimeter Pc to get the out-of-plane flux

J 0, i = P c J 0, z, i .

The default value of Pc is the circumference. Either keep the default value, for a circular
cross-section shape, or edit the value to get a user-defined shape of the out-of-plane
cross-section.

The available flux type options are General inward flux and External convection. Select
the Species check box for the species for which to specify the flux, and enter a value or
expression for the inward flux in the corresponding field. Use a minus sign when
specifying a flux directed out of the system. To use another boundary condition for a
specific species, click to clear the check box for that species.

Set Flux type to External convection to prescribe a flux to or from an exterior domain
(not modeled) assumed to include convection. The exterior can for example include a
forced convection to control the temperature or to increase the mass transport. In this
case the prescribed mass flux corresponds to

J0 = kc ( cb – c )

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain.

DOWNSIDE INWARD FLUX

The available options are General inward flux and External convection. The settings are
the same as for the Upside Inward Flux section.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 367

 FURTHER READING
For an example of using the Out-of-Plane Flux node, see this application example:

Mass Transfer from a Thin Domain: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Tutorials/thin_domain

Fracture
Use this node to model mass transport along thin fractures in porous media. The node
assumes that the transport in the tangential direction along the fracture is dominant as
a result of lower flow resistance.

The Fracture feature has two default subfeatures — the Fluid (Fracture) subfeature
where convection and diffusion are specified and the Fracture Material subfeature
where the porosity εp is defined.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

FRACTURE PROPERTIES
Specify a value for the Fracture thickness dfr.

For the Fracture boundary condition, there are a number of Attributes available which
can be accessed either via the Physics Ribbon toolbar (for Windows) or by
right-clicking on the Fracture node. These attributes are identical to the Boundary,
Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures
Interface described, for example, in the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module
User’s Guide.

Fluid (Fracture)
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the mobile fluid solvent filling the pores
of a fracture.

It uses the same input options as the Fluid subfeature under the Porous Medium
feature. There are further details about the settings.

368 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. By default, the Temperature model
input is set to Common model input, and the temperature is controlled from Default
Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a locally defined Model Input. If a Heat
Transfer interface is included in the component, it controls the temperature Common
model input. Alternatively, the temperature field can be selected from another physics
interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a Heat
Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht) option
is available for T.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. Select an option from the Velocity field list to specify the convective velocity
along the fracture. For a consistent model, use a Fracture feature in a Darcy’s Law
interface to compute the fluid flow velocity in the fracture.

For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in the table
shown

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent fluid.

The Diffusion settings are similar to those for the diffusion coefficients in
the Fluid node under Porous Medium.

Fracture Material
Specify the Porosity, εp (dimensionless) of the porous matrix. This is by default taken
From material. Select From pellet bed densities to compute the porosity from the (dry
bulk) Bed density ρb and the (single phase) Pellet density ρpe through the relation

ρb
ε p = 1 – -------
-
ρ pe

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the porosity.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 369

 Theory for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species Interface provides a predefined modeling
environment for studying the evolution of chemical species transported by diffusion
and convection as well as migration due to an electric field. The physics interface
assumes that all species present are dilute; that is, that their concentration is low
compared to a solvent fluid or solid. As a rule of thumb, a mixture containing several
species can be considered dilute when the concentration of the solvent is more than
90 mol%. Due to the dilution, mixture properties such as density and viscosity can be
assumed to correspond to those of the solvent.

When studying mixtures that are not dilute, the mixture and transport properties
depend on the composition, and a different physics interface is recommended. See The
Transport of Concentrated Species Interface in the Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module User’s Guide for more information.

Fick’s law governs the diffusion of the solutes, dilute mixtures, or solutions, while the
phenomenon of ionic migration is sometimes referred to as electrokinetic flow. The
Transport of Diluted Species interface supports the simulations of chemical species
transport by convection, migration, and diffusion in 1D, 2D, and 3D as well as for
axisymmetric components in 1D and 2D.

In this section:

• Adding Transport Through • Mass Balance Equation

Migration • Mass Sources for Species Transport
• Convective Term Formulation • Solving a Diffusion Equation Only
• Crosswind Diffusion • Supporting Electrolytes
• Danckwerts Inflow Boundary • References
Condition
• Equilibrium Reaction Theory

Note: Some features explained in this section require certain add-on modules. For
details see [Link]

370 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The section also includes the theory for The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media Interface:

• Adsorption • Mass Balance Equation for

• Convection in Porous Media Transport of Diluted Species in
Porous Media
• Diffusion in Porous Media
• Mass Transport in Fractures
• Dispersion
• Reactions

Mass Balance Equation

The default node attributed to the Transport of Diluted Species interface models
chemical species transport through diffusion and convection and solves the mass
conservation equation for one or more chemical species i:

∂c i
------- + ∇ ⋅ J i + u ⋅ ∇c i = R i (8-2)
∂t

Equation 8-2 in its form above includes the transport mechanisms diffusion and
convection. If Migration in Electric Field is activated (only available in some add-on
products), the migration mechanism will be added to the equation as well. See more
details in the section Adding Transport Through Migration.

• ci is the concentration of the species (SI unit: mol/m3)

• Di denotes the diffusion coefficient (SI unit: m2/s)
• Ri is a reaction rate expression for the species (SI unit: mol/(m3·s))
• u is the mass averaged velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• Ji is the mass flux diffusive flux vector (SI unit: mol/(m2·s))

The mass flux relative to the mass averaged velocity, Ji (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)), is
associated with the mass balance equation above and used in boundary conditions and
flux computations. The Transport of Diluted Species interface always includes mass
transport due to molecular diffusion. In this case the mass flux Ji defines the diffusive
flux vector

J i = – D ∇c i (8-3)

An input field for the diffusion coefficient is available.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 371

 When Migration in Electric Fields is activated, the migration term is also added to
the diffusive flux vector as shown in the section Adding Transport Through Migration.

The third term on the left side of Equation 8-2 describes the convective transport due
to a velocity field u. This field can be expressed analytically or obtained from coupling
the physics interface to one that solves for fluid flow, such as Laminar Flow. Note that
all fluid flow interfaces solve for the mass averaged velocity.

On the right-hand side of the mass balance equation (Equation 8-2), Ri represents a
source or sink term, typically due to a chemical reaction or desorption on a porous
matrix. To specify Ri, another node must be added to the Transport of Diluted Species
interface — the Reaction node for example, which includes an input field for specifying
a reaction expression using the variable names of all participating species.

Equilibrium Reaction Theory

The feature Equilibrium Reaction is described in this section. A chemical equilibrium
reaction system is defined by the stoichiometry of the reaction and the relation
between the chemical activities of the chemical species participating in the reaction (the
equilibrium condition).

The kinetics of the reaction is so fast that the equilibrium condition is fulfilled at all
times in all space coordinates.

The equilibrium condition is commonly based on the stoichiometric coefficients,

νi (dimensionless), of the reaction; the species activities of the reacting species
ai (dimensionless); and an equilibrium constant, Keq (1) according to:

ν
∏ ai i
i ∈ products
K eq = ----------------------------------
–ν
∏ ai i
i ∈ reactants

where the species activities are defined as

ci
a i = γ c, i -------
c a0

where ca0 (SI unit: mol/m3) is the standard molarity, and γc,i (dimensionless) an
activity coefficient.

372 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Defining the stoichiometric coefficients positive for products and negative for
reactants, the above equilibrium condition can also be written:

νi
K eq = ∏ ai
i

The Equilibrium Reaction node solves for a reaction rate so that the equilibrium
condition is always fulfilled in the domain. It is available for the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module; Battery Design Module; Corrosion Module; Electrochemistry
Module; Electrodeposition Module; and Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer Module.

γc,i is set to unity when the Equilibrium constant is selected in the Settings
window. For nonunity activity coefficients, a user defined equilibrium
condition can be used.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND INFLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Contradictory constraints arise if the boundary conditions for concentrations or
activities are set so that the domain equilibrium condition is not fulfilled. Special
treatment is therefore needed at Inflow boundaries, where the concentrations are set
for all species in the mass transport interfaces.

One way of avoiding competing constraints on an inflow boundary is to add an

additional reaction coordinate degree of freedom, solved for to create a set of modified
inflow concentrations that fulfill the domain equilibrium condition. The reaction
coordinate gives rise to a concentration shift, which is the offset to the inflow
concentrations provided by the user. The shift for each species obeys the stoichiometry
of the reaction and the equilibrium expression. The modified inflow concentrations are
then used in the boundary conditions for the domain mass transport equations. The
resulting modified inflow concentrations can be seen as the stationary solution for a
batch reactor with the user inflow concentrations as initial concentrations. In addition,
the domain reaction rate degree of freedom of the equilibrium reaction is constrained
to zero on all Inflow boundaries.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND CONCENTRATION BOUNDARY

CONDITIONS
No special treatment is made with regards to input concentration values of the
Concentration boundary node. Using this feature, you can explicitly set one or a set of
concentrations, and the equilibrium condition acts on the rest of the concentrations.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 373

 However, there is no solution to the problem if more concentrations than the number
of species minus the number of equilibrium reactions are set using this feature.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

Spurious oscillations may occur in a time-dependent problem if the initial conditions
do not fulfill the equilibrium condition. Since equilibrium reactions are assumed to be
infinitely fast, the solution is to initialize the problem using an additional study step,
solving for a stationary problem with all nonequilibrium reaction rates set to zero.
Manual scaling of the reaction rate dependent variables is needed in this study step.

Convective Term Formulation

The default node attributed to The Transport of Diluted Species Interface assumes
chemical species transport through diffusion and convection (depending on the
modules licensed, a check box to activate migration is available) and implements the
mass balance equation in Equation 8-2.

There are two ways to present a mass balance where chemical species transport occurs
through diffusion and convection. These are the nonconservative and conservative
formulations of the convective term:

∂c
nonconservative: ----- + u ⋅ ∇c = ∇ ⋅ J i + R (8-4)
∂t

∂c
conservative: ----- + ∇ ⋅ ( cu ) = ∇ ⋅ J i + R (8-5)
∂t

and each is treated slightly differently by the solver algorithms. In these equations
Ji (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)) is the diffusive flux vector, R (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) is a
production or consumption rate expression, and u (SI unit: m/s) is the solvent velocity
field. The diffusion process can be anisotropic, in which case D is a tensor.

If the conservative formulation is expanded using the chain rule, then one of the terms
from the convection part, c∇·u, would equal zero for an incompressible fluid and
would result in the nonconservative formulation above. This is in fact the default
formulation in this physics interface. To switch between the two formulations, click the
Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

374 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Solving a Diffusion Equation Only
Remove the convection term from Equation 8-4 and Equation 8-5 by clearing the
Convection check box in the Transport Mechanisms section for The Transport of
Diluted Species Interface. The equation then becomes

∂----c- = ∇ ⋅ J + R
i
∂t

Mass Sources for Species Transport

Note: The features below are only available in a limited set of add-on products. For a
detailed overview of which features are available in each product, visit
[Link]

There are two types of mass sources in the Transport of Diluted Species interface: point
sources and line sources.

POINT SOURCE
A point source is theoretically formed by assuming a mass injection/ejection, Q· c (SI
unit: mol/(m3·s)), in a small volume δV and then letting the size of the volume tend
to zero while keeping the total mass flux constant. Given a point source strength, q· p,c
(SI unit: mol/s), this can be expressed as

·
lim
δV → 0  Qc = q· p,c (8-6)
δV

An alternative way to form a point source is to assume that mass is injected/extracted

through the surface of a small object. Letting the object surface area tend to zero while
keeping the mass flux constant results in the same point source. For this alternative
approach, effects resulting from the physical object’s volume need to be neglected.

The weak contribution

q· p,c test ( c )

is added at a point in the geometry. As can be seen from Equation 8-6, Q· c must tend
to plus or minus infinity as δV tends to zero. This means that in theory the
concentration also tends to plus or minus infinity.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 375

 Observe that “point” refers to the physical representation of the source. A point source
can therefore only be added to points in 3D components and to points on the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry components. Other geometrical points in 2D
components represent physical lines.

The finite element representation of Equation 8-6 corresponds to a finite

concentration at a point with the effect of the point source spread out over a region
around the point. The size of the region depends on the mesh and on the strength of
the source. A finer mesh gives a smaller affected region but also a more extreme
concentration value. It is important not to mesh too finely around a point source since
this can result in unphysical concentration values. It can also have a negative effect on
the condition number for the equation system.

LINE SOURCE
A line source can theoretically be formed by assuming a source of strength Q· l,c (SI
unit: mol/(m3·s)), located within a tube with cross section δS and then letting δS tend
to zero while keeping the total mass flux per unit length constant. Given a line source
strength, q· l,c (SI unit: mol/(m·s)), this can be expressed as

lim
δS → 0  Q· l,c = q· l,c (8-7)
δS

As in the point source case, an alternative approach is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. This results in the same mass
source, but requires that effects resulting from the physical object’s volume are
neglected.

The weak contribution

q· l,c test ( c )

is added on lines in 3D or at points in 2D (which represent cut-through views of lines).

Line sources can also be added on the axisymmetry line in 2D axisymmetry
components. It cannot, however, be added on geometrical lines in 2D since those
represent physical planes.

As with a point source, it is important not to mesh too finely around the line source.

For feature node information, see Line Mass Source and Point Mass
Source.

376 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Adding Transport Through Migration

Note: Migration is only available in a limited set of add-on products. For a detailed
overview of which features are available in each product, visit
[Link]

In addition to transport due to convection and diffusion, the Transport of Diluted

Species interface supports ionic species transport by migration. This is done by
selecting the Migration in Electric Field check box under the Transport Mechanisms
section for the physics interface. The mass balance then becomes:

∂c i
+ ∇ ⋅ ( – D i ∇c i – z i u m, i F c i ∇V + c i u ) = R i (8-8)
∂t

where

• ci (SI unit: mol/ m3) denotes the concentration of species i

• Di (SI unit: m2/s) is the diffusion coefficient of species i
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the fluid velocity
• F (SI unit: A·s/mol) refers to Faraday’s constant
• V (SI unit: V) denotes the electric potential
• zi (dimensionless) is the charge number of the ionic species, and
• um,i (SI unit: mol·s/kg) is its ionic mobility

In this case the diffusive flux vector is

J i = – D i ∇c i – z i u m, i Fc i ∇V

The velocity, u, can be a computed fluid velocity field from a Fluid Flow interface or
a specified function of the spatial variables x, y, and z. The potential can be provided
by an expression or by coupling the system of equations to a current balance, such as
the Electrostatics interface. Sometimes it is assumed to be a supporting electrolyte
present, which simplifies the transport equations. In that case, the modeled charged
species concentration is very low compared to other ions dissolved in the solution.
Thus, the species concentration does not influence the solution’s conductivity and the
net charge within the fluid.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 377

 The Nernst–Einstein relation can in many cases be used for relating the species
mobility to the species diffusivity according to

D
u m, i = --------i
RT

where R (SI unit: J/(mol·K)) is the molar gas constant and T (SI unit: K) is the
temperature.

Note: In the Nernst–Planck Equations interface, the ionic species contribute to the
charge transfer in the solution. It includes an electroneutrality condition and also
computes the electric potential field in the electrolyte. For more information, see
Theory for the Nernst–Planck Equations Interface. This interface is included in the
Chemical Reaction Engineering Module.

Supporting Electrolytes
In electrolyte solutions, a salt can be added to provide a high electrolyte conductivity
and decrease the ohmic losses in a cell. These solutions are often called supporting
electrolytes, buffer solutions, or carrier electrolytes. The added species, a negative and
a positive ion pair, predominates over all other species. Therefore, the supporting
electrolyte species can be assumed to dominate the current transport in the solution.
In addition, the predominant supporting ions are usually selected so that they do not
react at the electrode surfaces since the high conductivity should be kept through the
process, that is, they should not be electroactive species. This also means that the
concentration gradients of the predominant species in a supporting electrolyte are
usually negligible.

Modeling and solving for a supporting electrolyte in the Electrostatics or Secondary

Current Distribution interfaces will give a potential distribution that drives the
migration in the Transport of Diluted Species Interface.

The current density vector is proportional to the sum of all species fluxes as expressed
by Faraday’s law:

i = F  zi Ni
i

378 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The electroneutrality condition ensures that there is always a zero net charge at any
position in a dilute solution. Intuitively, this means that it is impossible to create a
current by manually pumping positive ions in one direction and negative ions in the
other. Therefore, the convective term is canceled out to yield the following expression
for the electrolyte current density, where j denotes the supporting species:

 –zj um, j F cj ∇φ
2
i = F (8-9)
j

Equation 8-9 is simply Ohm’s law for ionic current transport and can be simplified to

i = – κ ∇φ (8-10)

where κ is the conductivity of the supporting electrolyte. A current balance gives the
current and potential density in the cell

∇⋅i = 0

which, in combination with Equation 8-10, yields:

∇ ⋅ ( – κ ∇φ ) = 0 (8-11)

Equation 8-11 can be easily solved using the Electrostatics or Secondary Current
Distribution interface and, when coupled to the Transport in Diluted Species interface,
the potential distribution shows up in the migration term.

Crosswind Diffusion
Transport of diluted species applications can often result in models with a very high
cell Péclet number — that is, systems where convection or migration dominates over
diffusion. Streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion are of paramount importance
to obtain physically reasonable results. The Transport of Diluted Species interface
provides two crosswind diffusion options using different formulations. Observe that
crosswind diffusion makes the equation system nonlinear even if the transport
equation is linear.

DO CARMO AND GALEÃO

This is the formulation described in Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual. The method reduces over- and undershoots to a
minimum, even for anisotropic meshes.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 379

 In some cases, the resulting nonlinear equation system can be difficult to converge.
This can happen when the cell Péclet number is very high and the model contains
many thin layers, such as contact discontinuities. You then have three options:

• Refine the mesh, especially in regions with thin layers.

• Use a nonlinear solver with a constant damping factor less than one.
• Switch to the Codina crosswind formulation.

CODINA
The Codina formulation is described in Ref. 1. It adds diffusion strictly in the direction
orthogonal to the streamline direction. Compared to the do Carmo and Galeão
formulation, the Codina formulation adds less diffusion but is not as efficient at
reducing over- and undershoots. It also does not work as well for anisotropic meshes.
The advantage is that the resulting nonlinear system is easier to converge and that
underresolved gradients are less smeared out.

Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition

Constraining the composition to fixed values at an inlet to a reactor may sometimes
result in issues with unreasonably high reaction rates or singularities at the inlet
boundary. These problems may many times be mitigated by using a flux boundary
condition instead, based on the upstream concentrations and the fluid velocity at the
boundary. In chemical engineering, this type of flux boundary condition is also known
as a Danckwerts condition.

Use the Danckwerts condition to specify inlet conditions for domains where high
reaction rates are anticipated in the vicinity to the inlet (Ref. 2).

Given an upstream concentration ci,0, the Danckwerts inflow boundary condition

prescribed the total flux as

n ⋅ ( J i + uc i ) = n ⋅ ( uc i, 0 ) (8-12)

380 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media

VARIABLY SATURATED POROUS MEDIA

The following equations for the molar concentrations, ci, describe the transport of
solutes in a variably saturated porous medium for the most general case, when the pore
space is primarily filled with liquid but also contain pockets or immobile gas:

∂ θ
( c ) + ∂ ( ρc P, i ) + ∂ (θ g c G, i) + u ⋅ ∇c i =
∂t l i ∂t ∂t (8-13)
∇ ⋅ [ ( D D, i + D e, i ) ∇c i ] + R i + S i

On the left-hand side of Equation 8-13, the first three terms correspond to the
accumulation of species within the liquid, solid, and gas phases, while the last term
describes the convection due to the velocity field u (SI unit: m/s).

In Equation 8-13 ci denotes the concentration of species i in the liquid (SI unit:
mol/m3), cP, i the amount adsorbed to solid particles (moles per unit dry weight of
the solid), and cG, i the concentration of species i in the gas phase.

The equation balances the mass transport throughout the porous medium using the
porosity εp, the liquid volume fraction θl; the dry bulk density, ρ = (1 − εs)ρs, and the
solid phase density ρs.

For saturated porous media, the liquid volume fraction θl is equal to the porosity εp,
but for unsaturated porous media, they are related by the saturation s as θl = εps. The
resulting gas volume fraction in the case of an unsaturated porous medium is

θ g = ε p – θ l = ( 1 – s )ε p

On the right-hand side of Equation 8-13, the first term introduces the spreading of
species due to mechanical mixing resulting from the porous media (dispersion), as well
as from diffusion and volatilization to the gas phase. The dispersion tensor is denoted
DD (SI unit: m2/s) and the effective diffusion by De (SI unit: m2/s).

The last two terms on the right-hand side of Equation 8-13 describe production or
consumption of the species; Ri is a reaction rate expression which can account for
reactions in the liquid, solid, or gas phase, and Si is an arbitrary source term, for
example due to a fluid flow source or sink.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 381

 Adsorption
The time evolution of the adsorption, the solute transport to or from the solid phase,
is defined by assuming that the amount of solute adsorbed to the solid, cP,i, is a
function of the concentration in the fluid ci. This implies that the solute concentration
in the liquid and solid phase are in instant equilibrium. The adsorption term can be
expanded to give

∂c ∂ε
∂ ( ρc ) = ρ ∂c P, i ∂c i – c ρ ∂ε p = ρK P,i i – c P, i ρ s p (8-14)
∂t P, i ∂ ci ∂ t P, i s ∂ t ∂t ∂t

where KP,i = ∂cP,i/∂ci is the adsorption isotherm.

Volatilization
Volatilization is the process where a solute species in the liquid is transported to the
gas phase due to vaporization. Assuming that the amount of solute in the gas phase,
cG,i, is a linear function of the liquid phase concentration, the volatilization term is
defined as

∂c G, i ∂c i ∂θ g ∂c i ∂θ g
∂θ = θ + k c = θ g k G, i + k G, i c i (8-15)
c G , ∂t ∂t
∂ t g G, i
g ∂ ci ∂ t i i ∂t

where kG,i = ∂cG,i/∂ci is the linear volatilization.

SATURATED POROUS MEDIA

In the case of transport in a saturated porous medium, θl = εp, and the governing
equations are

∂ ε
( c ) + ∂ ( ρc P, i ) + u ⋅ ∇c i = ∇ ⋅ [ ( D D, i + D e, i ) ∇c i ] + R i + S i (8-16)
∂t p i ∂t

Convection in Porous Media

Convection (also called advection) describes the movement of a species, such as a
pollutant, with the bulk fluid velocity. The velocity field u corresponds to a superficial
volume average over a unit volume of the porous medium, including both pores and
matrix. This velocity is sometimes called Darcy velocity, and defined as volume flow

382 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

rates per unit cross section of the medium. This definition makes the velocity field
continuous across the boundaries between porous regions and regions with free flow.

The velocity field to be used in the Model Inputs section on the physics
interface can, for example, be prescribed using the velocity field from a
Darcy’s Law or a Brinkman Equations interface.

The average linear fluid velocities ua, provides an estimate of the fluid velocity within
the pores:

u-
u a = ---- Saturated
εp
u-
u a = --- Unsaturated
θl

where εp is the porosity and θl = sεp the liquid volume fraction, and s the saturation,
a dimensionless number between 0 and 1.

Figure 8-2: A block of a porous medium consisting of solids and the pore space between the
solid grains. The average linear velocity describes how fast the fluid moves within the pores.
The Darcy velocity attributes this flow over the entire fluid-solid face.

CONVECTIVE TERM FORMULATION

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media interface includes two formulations
of the convective term. The conservative formulation of the species equations in
Equation 8-13 is written as:

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 383

 ∂ θ
( c ) + ∂ ( ρc P, i ) + ∂ (θ g c G, i) + ∇ ⋅ uc i =
∂t l i ∂t ∂t (8-17)
∇ ⋅ [ ( D D , i + D e , i ) ∇c i ] + R i + S i

If the conservative formulation is expanded using the chain rule, then one of the terms
from the convection part, ci∇·u, would equal zero for an incompressible fluid and
would result in the nonconservative formulation described in Equation 8-13.

When using the nonconservative formulation, which is the default, the fluid is assumed
incompressible and divergence free: ∇ ⋅ u = 0. The nonconservative formulation
improves the stability of systems coupled to a momentum equation (fluid flow
equation).

To switch between the two formulations, click the Show button ( ) and
select Advanced Physics Options. In the section Advanced Settings select
either Nonconservative form (the default) or Conservative form. The
conservative formulation should be used for compressible flow.

Diffusion in Porous Media

The effective diffusion in porous media, De, depends on the structure of the porous
material and the phases involved. Dependent on whether the transport of diluted
species occurs in free flow or in saturated or unsaturated porous media, the effective
diffusivity is defined as:

De = DF Free Flow
εp
D e = ----- D L Saturated Porous Media
τL
θl
D e = ----- D L Unsaturated Porous Media
τL
θl θg
D e = ----- D L + ------ k G D G Unsaturated with Volatilization
τL τG

Here DF, DL, and DG are the single-phase diffusion coefficients for the species diluted
in a fluid, a pure liquid, and a gas phase, respectively (SI unit: m2/s), and τF, τL, and
τG are the corresponding tortuosity factors (dimensionless).

The tortuosity factor accounts for the reduced diffusivity due to the fact that the solid
grains impede Brownian motion. The interface provides predefined expressions to

384 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

compute the tortuosity factors in partially saturated porous media according to the
Millington and Quirk model (Ref. 3):

–7 ⁄ 3 2 –7 ⁄ 3 2
τL = θl εp , τG = θg εp

and Bruggeman model

–5 ⁄ 2 2 –5 ⁄ 2 2
τL = θl εp , τG = θg εp

For saturated porous media θl = εp. The fluid tortuosity for the Millington and Quirk
model is

–1 ⁄ 3
τL = εp

and for the Bruggeman model the tortuosity is defined as

–1 ⁄ 2
τL = εp

User defined expressions for the tortuosity factor can also be applied.

Dispersion
The contribution of dispersion to the mixing of species typically overshadows the
contribution from molecular diffusion, except when the fluid velocity is very low.

The spreading of mass, as a fluid travel through a porous medium is caused by several
contributing effects. Local variations in fluid velocity lead to mechanical mixing
referred to as dispersion occurs because the fluid in the pore space flows around solid
particles, so the velocity field varies within pore channels. The spreading in the
direction parallel to the flow, or longitudinal dispersivity, typically exceeds the
transverse dispersivity from up to an order of magnitude. Being driven by the
concentration gradient alone, molecular diffusion rate is low relative to the mechanical
dispersion, except at very low fluid velocities.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 385

 Figure 8-3: Spreading of fluid around solid particles in a porous medium.

The dispersion is controlled through the dispersion tensor DD. The tensor
components can either be given by user-defined values or expressions or derived from
the directional dispersivities.

Using the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities in 2D, the dispersivity tensor
components are (Ref. 5):

2 2
ui uj
D Dii = α L ------ + α T ------
u u

ui uj
D Dij = D Dji = ( α L – α T ) -----------
u

In these equations, DDii (SI unit: m2/s) are the principal components of the
dispersivity tensor, and DDji and DDji are the cross terms. The parameters αL and αT
(SI unit: m) specify the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities; and ui (SI unit: m/s)
stands for the velocity field components.

In order to facilitate modeling of stratified porous media in 3D, the tensor formulation
by Burnett and Frind (Ref. 4) can be used. Consider a transverse isotropic media,
where the strata are piled up in the z direction, the dispersivity tensor components are:

386 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 2 2 2
u v w
D Lxx = α 1 ------ + α 2 ------ + α 3 -------
u u u
2 2 2
v u w
D Lyy = α 1 ------ + α 2 ------ + α 3 -------
u u u
2 2 2
w u v
D Lzz = α 1 ------- + α 3 ------ + α 3 ------
u u u (8-18)
uv
D Lxy = D Lyx = ( α 1 – α 2 ) -------
u
uw
D Lxz = D Lzx = ( α 1 – α 3 ) --------
u
vw
D Lyz = D Lzy = ( α 1 – α 3 ) --------
u

In Equation 8-18 the fluid velocities u, v, and w correspond to the components of the
velocity field u in the x, y, and z directions, respectively, and α1 (SI unit: m) is the
longitudinal dispersivity. If z is the vertical axis, α2 and α3 are the dispersivities in the
transverse horizontal and transverse vertical directions, respectively (SI unit: m).
Setting α2 = α3 gives the expressions for isotropic media shown in Bear (Ref. 5 and
Ref. 6).

Adsorption
As species travel through a porous medium they typically attach to (adsorb), and
detach (desorb) from the solid phase, which slows chemical transport through the
porous medium. Adsorption and desorption respectively reduces or increases species
concentrations in the fluid. The adsorption properties vary between chemicals, so a
plume containing multiple species can separate into components (Ref. 7). The
Adsorption feature includes four predefined and one user defined relationships to
predict the solid concentrations, cPi from the concentration in the liquid phase, ci:

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 387

 KL c
c P = c Pmax -------------------- Langmuir
1 + KL c
c N
c P = K F  -------- Freundlich
 c ref
bT c (8-19)
c P = c Pmax ---------------------------------------------- Toth
N 1 ⁄ NT
( 1 + ( bT c ) T )
KB c0 c
c P = -------------------------------------------------------------
- BET
( c S – c )  1 + ( K B – 1 ) -----
c
cS

The above equations contains the following parameters:

• Freundlich (Ref. 8)
- Freundlich constant KF (SI unit:·mol/kg), Freundlich exponent NF
(dimensionless), and reference concentration cref (SI unit: mol/m3).
• Langmuir (Ref. 9)
- Langmuir constant KL (SI unit: m3/mol), and adsorption maximum cPmax
(SI unit: mol/kg).
• Toth (Ref. 10)
- Toth constant bT (SI unit: m3/mol), Toth exponent NT (dimensionless), and
adsorption maximum cPmax (SI unit: mol/kg).
• BET (Brunauer–Emmett–Teller, Ref. 11)

- BET constant KB (dimensionless), the monolayer adsorption capacity c0

(SI unit: mol/kg) and the saturation concentration, cS (SI unit: mol/m3).
These predefined expressions are adsorption isotherms that describe the amount of
species sorbed to the solid. Applying the isotherms, as defined in the Adsorption
section above, assumes that adsorption is at equilibrium locally. This implies that the
species phase transfer, between the fluid and the solid phase (within the porous
medium), is much faster than the transport within the fluid phase.

Using a Species Source feature, arbitrary expressions can be entered to define, for
example, nonequilibrium and temperature-dependent adsorption laws, in the manner
of Fetter (Ref. 12), or Bear and Verruijt (Ref. 13).

The retardation factor, RF, describes how adsorption slows the solute velocity, uc,
relative to the average linear velocity of the fluid, ua, as in

388 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 ρ b ∂c P u
RF = 1 + ----- -------- = ----a-
θ ∂c uc

If the contaminant moves at the average linear velocity of the fluid for RF = 1. For
RF > 1, the contaminant velocity is lower than the fluid velocity owing to residence
time on solids.

Reactions
Chemical reactions of all types influence species transport in porous media. Examples
include biodegradation, radioactive decay, transformation to tracked products,
temperature- and pressure-dependent functions, exothermic reactions, and
endothermic reactions. The reactions represent change in species concentration per
unit volume porous medium per time. Reaction terms are used on the right-hand side
of the governing equation to represent these processes. For reactions in a fluid phase,
multiply the expression by the fluid volume fraction θ. Similarly, solid phase reaction
expressions include the bulk density, ρb, and gas phase reactions include the gas
volume fraction, av.

The following expressions define some common types of reactions:

ln 2
R Li = – θ --------- c i Radioactive decay — liquid
λ Li
ln 2 ∂c Pi
R Pi = – ρ b ---------  ---------- c i Radioactive decay — solid
λ Pi  ∂c i 
∂c Gi
R Gi = – --------- a v  ----------- c i Radioactive decay — gas
ln 2
λ Gi ∂c
R Lk = θζ Li c i Creation from parent c Li — liquid
∂c Pi
R Pk = ρ b ζ Pi  ---------- c i Creation from sorbed parent c Pi — solid
 ∂c i 
∂c Gi
R Gk = – ζa v  ----------- c i Reaction — gas
∂c

where λ is the chemical half life, ζ is a reaction rate, and the subscripts L, P, and G
denote liquid, solid, and gas phases, respectively. In the equations, the reactions either
depend on liquid concentration ci or solid phase concentrations cPi obtained using the
sorption derivative with ci or gas phase concentration cGi depending on the gas volume
fraction, the volatilization, and the liquid concentration.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 389

 Reaction rates can vary with results from other equations in your model, such as
temperature. For example, enter the Arrhenius rate law given in Ref. 14:

Ea ( T – TR )
ζ T = ζ R exp ------------------------------ (8-20)
R u TT R

In Equation 8-20, T denotes the current absolute temperature, TR denotes the

reference absolute temperature, Ea is the activation energy, and Ru is the universal gas
constant.

Mass Transport in Fractures

When thin fractures occur in porous media, fluid flow tends to move faster along the
fracture than in the surrounding media. The transport of chemical species therefore
also occur also faster in the direction of the fractures.

The fluid flow in a fracture can be modeled using Darcy’s law formulated in a thin
sheet of porous medium (a fracture):

κ
u = --- ∇ t p
μ

Here u is the tangential Darcy velocity, κ is the fracture permeability, μ the fluid’s
dynamic viscosity, and ∇tp is the tangential gradient of the fluid pressure.

The equation to solve for mass transport of species ci in a thin fracture, embedded in
a porous media, is derived from Equation 8-13. The resulting equation is:

∂ρ b c P, i ∂ε p c i
d fr  ------------------ + ------------- + ∇ t ⋅ ( D e, i ∇ t c i ) + u ⋅ ∇ t c i = d fr R i + d fr S i + n 0 (8-21)
∂t ∂t

Here dfr is the fracture thickness, cP, i the amount of species adsorbed to (or desorbed
from) the porous matrix (moles per unit dry weight of the solid), εp is the fracture
porosity, and De is the effective diffusivity. The first two terms on the right hand side
represent source terms from reactions, and n0 corresponds to out-of plane flux from
the adjacent porous domain.

In order to arrive at the tangential differential equation, the gradient is split into the
contributions normal and tangential to the fracture:

∇c i = ∇ n c i + ∇ t c i

390 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The normal gradient is defined in the direction normal to the boundary representing
the fracture and the tangential gradient is defined along the boundary. Assuming that
the variations in the normal (thin) direction of the fracture are negligible compared to
those in the tangential direction, the gradient is simplified as:

∇c i = ∇ t c i

Using The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures Interface, the transport along
fracture boundaries alone is solved for. In this case the transport in the surrounding
porous media neglected and the out-of plane flux n0 vanishes.

See Fracture for more information about the boundary feature solving
Equation 8-21. See for more information about the physics interface
solving the equation on boundaries only.

References
1. R. Codina, “A discontinuity-capturing crosswind-dissipation for the finite element
solution of the convection-diffusion equation”, Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 110, pp. 325–342, 1993.

2. P.V. Danckwerts, “Continuous flow systems: Distribution of residence times”,

Chem. Eng. Sci., vol. 2, no. 1, 1953.

3. R.J. Millington and J.M. Quirk, “Permeability of Porous Solids”, Trans. Faraday
Soc., vol. 57, pp. 1200–1207, 1961.

4. R.D. Burnett and E.O. Frind, “An Alternating Direction Galerkin Technique for
Simulation of Groundwater Contaminant Transport in Three Dimensions: 2.
Dimensionality Effects”, Water Resour. Res., vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 695–705, 1987.

5. J. Bear, Hydraulics of Groundwater, McGraw Hill, 1979.

6. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

7. D.M. Mackay, D.L. Freyberg, P.V. Roberts, and J.A. Cherry, “A Natural Gradient
Experiment on Solute Transport in a Sand Aquifer: 1. Approach and Overview of
Plume Movement”, Water Resour. Res., vol. 22, no. 13, pp. 2017–2030, 1986.

8. H.M.F. Freundlich, “Über die Adsorption in Lösungen” (in German), Z. Phys.

Chem., vol 57, pp. 385–470, 1906

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 391

 9. I. Langmuir, “The Constitution and Fundamental Properties of Solids and Liquids,
Part I Solids”, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 38, pp. 2221–2295, 1916.

10. J. Toth, “State equation of the solid gas interface layer”, Acta Chem. Acad. Hung.
vol. 69, pp. 311–317, 1971.

11. S. Brunauer, P.H. Emmett, E. Teller, “Adsorption of gases in multimolecular

layers”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 60 (2), pp. 309–319, 1938.

12. C.W. Fetter, Contaminant Hydrogeology, Prentice Hall, 1999.

13. J. Bear and A. Verruijt, Modeling Groundwater Flow and Pollution, D. Reidel
Publishing, 1994.

14. I. Langmuir, “Chemical Reactions at Low Temperatures”, J. Amer. Chem. Soc.,

vol. 37, 1915.

15. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 2, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1991.

16. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 1, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1991.

17. D.E Rosner, Transport Processes in Chemically Reacting Flow Systems, ISBN-13:
978-1483130262, Butterworth–Heinemann, 1986.

18. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007.

392 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 9

Glossary

This Glossary of Terms contains finite element modeling terms specific to the
Microfluidics Module and its applications. For mathematical terms as well as
geometry and CAD terms specific to the COMSOL Multiphysics® software and its
documentation, see the glossary in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
To find references in the documentation set where you can find more information
about a given term, see the index.

393
 Glossary of Terms
absorption (gas) Uptake of a gas into the bulk of a liquid. Gas absorption takes place,
for example, in the liquid of a scrubber tower where an up-streaming gas is washed by
a down-going flow of a scrubber solution.

adsorption (molecule) Attachment of a molecule or atom to a solid surface.

Adsorption involves a chemical bond between the adsorbed species and the surface.

ALE See arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian method.

arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) method A technique to formulate equations in a

mixed kinematical description. An ALE referential coordinate system is typically a mix
between the material (Lagrangian) and spatial (Eulerian) coordinate systems.

biosensor A general term for sensor devices that either detect biological substances or
use antibodies, enzymes, or other biological molecules in their operation. Biosensors
are a subcategory of chemical sensors.

Bond number A dimensionless number given by the ratio of surface tension forces to
body forces (usually gravity) for a two-phase flow. It is also known as the Eötvös
number, Eo. At high Bond numbers surface tension has a minimal effect on the flow;
at low Bond numbers, surface tension dominates. The Bond number, Bo, is given by:

2
Bo = ρgL
--------------
σ

where ρ is the density, g is the body force acceleration, L is the characteristic length,
and σ is the surface tension coefficient. The density can refer to a density difference
when considering buoyancy.

Brinkman equations A set of equations extending Darcy’s law in order to include the
transport of momentum through shear in porous media flow.

capillary number A dimensionless number given by the ratio of viscous forces to

surface tension for a two phase flow. At low capillary numbers flow in porous media is
dominated by surface tension. The capillary number, Ca, is given by:

394 | CHAPTER 9: GLOSSARY

 Ca = μv
------
σ

where μ is the viscosity, v is the characteristic velocity of the problem, and σ is the
surface tension coefficient.

continuum flow Fluid flow which is well described by approximating the liquid as a
continuum with the Navier-Stokes equations.

convection Transport of molecules or heat due to the movement of the surrounding

medium.

creeping flow Models the Navier-Stokes equations without the contribution of the
inertia term. This is often referred to as Stokes flow and is appropriate for use when
viscous flow is dominant, such as in very small channels or microfluidic applications.

crosswind diffusion A numerical technique for stabilization of the numeric solution to

a convection-dominated PDE by artificially adding diffusion perpendicular to the
direction of the streamlines.

Darcy’s Law Equation that gives the velocity vector as proportional to the pressure
gradient. Often used to describe flow in porous media.

Debye layer See electric double layer.

dielectrophoresis (DEP) Migration of polarizable particles in an electrolyte in a

nonuniform applied electric field.

diffusion Transport of material resulting from the random motion of molecules in the
presence of a concentration gradient.

Dukhin number A dimensionless number given by the ratio of the surface conductivity
contribution to the fluid bulk electrical conductivity contribution in electrokinetic
phenomena. The Dukhin number, Du, is given by:

σ
K-
Du = -------
B
K

where Kσ is the surface conductivity and KB is the bulk conductivity. For low Dukhin
numbers, surface conductivities can be neglected when modeling electrokinetic flows.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS | 395

 electric double layer (EDL) Sometimes referred to as the Debye layer. At the contact
of a solid and a polar fluid (such as water), the solid acquires an electric charge. This
charge attracts ions within the fluid, and a narrow fluid layer of opposite charge, the
Stern layer, forms on the boundary. In addition, adjacent to the Stern layer, a wider
layer with the same charge as in the Stern layer forms in the fluid. Together, the Stern
layer and the wider layer (called the diffuse or Gouy-Chapman layer) form the electric
double layer. Due to the close distance between the charges, the Stern layer is fixed on
the surface, but the more distant diffuse layer can move.

electrohydrodynamics A general term describing phenomena that involve the

interaction between solid surfaces, ionic solutions, and applied electric and magnetic
fields. It is frequently used in microfluidic devices to manipulate fluids and move
particles for sample handling and chemical separation.

electrokinetics Study of the motion of charged particles under an applied electric field
in moving substances such as water.

electrokinetic flow Transport of fluid or charged particles within a fluid by means of

electric fields. See also electroosmosis, electrophoresis, electrothermal flow, and
dielectrophoresis.

electrolyte A solution that can carry an electric current through the motion of ions.

electroosmosis Fluid flow in a narrow channel produced by the movement of the

electric double layer (EDL) along the channel boundary under the influence of an
applied electric field. Also, fluid flow through a membrane under the influence of an
applied electric field. See also electric double layer.

electroosmotic flow See electroosmosis.

electrophoresis Migration of charged electrolyte ions or particles in an applied electric

field.

electrothermal effects These effects occur in a conductive fluid where the

temperature is modified by Joule heating from an AC electric field. This creates
variations in conductivity and permittivity and thus Coulomb and dielectric body
forces.

396 | CHAPTER 9: GLOSSARY

electrothermal flow Fluid flow resulting from an applied nonuniform AC electric field
on a fluid. The Joule heating changes the fluid’s electrical properties locally, and that
effect, together with the power gradient of the AC electric field, results in fluid motion.

electrowetting The electrowetting effect describes the change in solid-electrolyte

contact angle that occurs when a potential difference is applied between the solid and
the electrolyte.

electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD) A form of electrowetting in which a thin

insulating layer separates the conducting solid surface from the electrolyte.

Eötvös number See Bond number.

Eulerian frame A frame of reference with its coordinate axes fixed in space.

Fick’s laws The first law relates the concentration gradients to the diffusive flux of low
concentration solute diluted in a solvent. The second law introduces the first law into
a differential material balance for the solute.

fluid-structure interaction (FSI) When a flow affects the deformation of a solid object
and vice versa.

free molecular flow The flow of gas molecules through a geometry which is much
smaller than the mean free path (Knudsen number, Kn>10). In the free molecular flow
regime the gas molecules collide with the walls of the geometry much more frequently
than they collide with themselves.

fully developed laminar flow Laminar flow along a channel or pipe that has velocity
components only in the main direction of the flow. The velocity profile perpendicular
to the flow does not change downstream in the flow.

Gouy–Chapman layer See electric double layer (EDL).

Hagen–Poiseuille equation See Poiseuille’s law.

Helmholtz–Smoluchowski equation Gives the velocity of a parallel electroosmotic flow

for an applied electric field.

intrinsic volume averages The physical properties of the fluid, such as density,
viscosity, and pressure.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS | 397

 Knudsen number A dimensionless number that provides a measure of how rarefied a
gas flow is, in other words, the mean free path of the gas molecules compared to the
length scale of the flow. The following equation defines the Knudsen number Kn
where λ is the mean free path of the molecules and L is a length scale characteristic to
the flow.

λ
Kn = ----
L

Knudsen layer A layer of rarefied fluid flow that occurs within a few mean free paths
of the walls in a gas flow. The continuum Navier-Stokes equations break down in this
layer.

Lagrangian frame A frame of reference with its coordinate axes fixed in a reference
configuration of a deforming material. As the material deforms, the Lagrangian frame
deforms with it.

Laplace number The Laplace number, La, (also known as the Surataman number, Su)
relates the inertial and surface tension forces to the viscous forces. It is used to describe
the breakup of liquid jets and sheets: at high Laplace and low Reynolds numbers the
Rayleigh Instability occurs, at low Laplace and high Reynolds numbers atomization
occurs. The Laplace number is given by:

La = ρσL
-----------
2
μ

where ρ is the fluid density, σ is the surface tension coefficient, L is the characteristic
length scale of the problem, and μ is the viscosity. The Laplace number is directly
related to the Ohnesorge number, Oh, through the equation La=1/Oh2.

Mach number Ratio of the convective speed, v, to the speed of sound in the medium,
a. The Mach number, Ma, is defined by the equation:

Ma = --v-
a

magnetohydrodynamics Fluid-flow phenomena involving magnetic fields.

magnetophoresis Migration of magnetic or paramagnetic particles suspended in a

fluid as a result of an applied magnetic field. The field must be nonuniform in the case
of paramagnetic particles.

398 | CHAPTER 9: GLOSSARY

Marangoni effect Fluid flow parallel to an interface induced by surface tension
gradients.

Marangoni number Ratio of thermal surface tension forces to viscous forces. The
Marangoni number, Mg, is given by:

dσ LΔT
Mg = -------- ------------
dT μα

where σ is the surface tension coefficient, T is the absolute temperature (ΔT is the
characteristic temperature difference), L is the characteristic length, and α is the
thermal diffusivity (α=κ/(ρcp)), where cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure, κ is
the thermal conductivity, and ρ is the density of the fluid.

microfluidics Study of the behavior of fluids at the microscale. Also refers to MEMS
fluidic devices.

migration The transport of charged species in an electrolyte due to the electric force
imposed by the electric field.

mobility The relation between the drift velocity of a molecule within a fluid and the
applied electric field.

Newtonian flow Flow characterized by a constant viscosity or a viscosity that is

independent of the shear rate in the fluid.

Nernst–Planck equation Flow equation that describes the flux of an ion through
diffusion, convection, and migration in an electric field. The equation is valid for
diluted electrolytes.

Ohnesorge number A dimensionless number relating the inertial and surface tension
forces to the viscous forces. Used to describe the breakup of liquid jets and sheets: at
low Ohnesorge and Reynolds numbers the Rayleigh instability occurs; at high
Ohnesorge and Reynolds numbers, atomization occurs. The Ohnesorge number, Oh,
is given by:

μ
Oh = ---------------
ρσL

GLOSSARY OF TERMS | 399

 where ρ is the fluid density, σ is the surface tension coefficient, L is the characteristic
length scale of the problem, and μ is the viscosity. The Ohnesorge number is directly
related to the Laplace number, La, through the equation Oh=1/La1/2.

Peclet number A dimensionless number describing the ratio of convection to

diffusion in a fluid flow. The Peclet number, Pe, can be used to describe concentration
diffusion or heat diffusion. It is given by:

Pe = vL
-------
D

where v is the convective velocity, L is the flow length scale, and D is the diffusion
constant.

Poiseuille’s law Equation that relates the mass rate of flow in a tube as proportional to
the pressure difference per unit length and to the fourth power of the tube radius. The
law is valid for fully developed laminar flow.

Reynolds number A dimensionless number classifying how laminar or turbulent a flow

is. The Reynolds number Re is a measure of the relative magnitude of the flow’s
viscous and inertial forces. It is defined by the following equation where ρ is the fluid
density, μ is the dynamic viscosity, ν is its kinematic viscosity, v is a velocity
characteristic to the flow, and L is a length scale characteristic to the flow.

Re = ρvL
----------- = vL
-------
μ ν

slip flow Fluid flow that occurs when the Knudsen number, Kn, is in the range
0.01<Kn<0.1. As a result of rarefaction effects in the Knudsen layer the no slip
boundary condition fails. The flow outside the Knudsen layer can be represented by
the continuum Navier-Stokes equations provided that an appropriate slip boundary
condition is used for the fluid flow and the correct temperature jump boundary
condition is applied at the interface.

streamline diffusion A numerical technique for stabilization of the numeric solution to

a convection-dominated PDE by artificially adding diffusion in the direction of the
streamlines.

Stern layer A layer of immobile ions and associated solvent molecules present at the
solid-liquid interface in an electric double layer (EDL).

400 | CHAPTER 9: GLOSSARY

Stokes flow See creeping flow.

superficial volume averages The flow velocities, which correspond to a unit volume of
the medium including both pores and matrix. They are sometimes called Darcy
velocities, defined as volume flow rates per unit cross section of the medium.

surface tension Surface tension is a property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to
resist an external force. Equivalently it can be through of as the energy per unit area of
the liquid surface. It is caused by asymmetries in the cohesive forces between molecules
at the surface of the liquid.

Surataman number See Laplace number.

transitional flow Fluid flow that occurs when the Knudsen number, Kn, is in the range
0.1<Kn<10. In this regime the flow is so rarefied that continuum equations break
down completely. However collisions between the molecules are still important, so free
molecular flow is not applicable.

Weber number A dimensionless number describing the ratio of inertial forces to

surface tension forces. The Weber number is given by:

2
We = ρv L
-------------
σ

where ρ is the density of the fluid, v is the characteristic velocity of the flow, L is the
characteristic length scale, and σ is the surface tension coefficient.

zeta potential The potential of at the interface between the electric double layer and
a solid surface in an electrolyte.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS | 401

402 | CHAPTER 9: GLOSSARY
I n d e x
A absolute pressure 74, 152, 162, 169, 283 theory 306
AC electric fields 55
C Cahn–Hilliard equation 226, 232
AC electroosmosis 51
capillary number 36
AC/DC Module 54
CFL number
adsorption 362
settings 70, 277
Application Libraries window 25
chemical potential variable 230
application library examples
Chemical Reaction Engineering Module
convection and diffusion 339
17, 47
creeping flow 65
chemical transport and reactions, mode-
Darcy’s law 238
ling 47
electroosmosis 52
Clausius-Mosotti factor
electrowetting lens 56
dielectrophoresis 53
laminar flow 71
magnetophoresis 54
laminar, two-phase flow, moving mesh
common settings 23
173
complex permittivity 53
level set conservation 223
concentration (node)
migration in electric field 339
transport of diluted species 344
multiphase material 163
contact angle (node) 177
slip flow 316
continuity (node) 208, 214, 321
storage model 271
incompressible potential flow 104
transport of diluted species 332
continuum flow 59
atmosphere/gauge (node) 266
contributing velocity (node)
average linear velocity 302
Darcy’s law 256
B Bond and Eötvös numbers 36 convection 382
boundary nodes convective terms, diluted species 374
Brinkman equations 277 coupling interfaces 49
Darcy’s law interface 238 coupling, fluid flow and electric fields 49
free and porous media flow 287 creeping flow 173, 314
level set 100, 204 creeping flow (spf) interface 64
phase field 210 crosswind diffusion, in fluid flow 34
slip flow 316
D Darcy velocity 262, 382
ternary phase field 216
Darcy’s law interface 236
transport of diluted species 334
Darcy’s law interface theory 299
boundary stress (node) 88
Debye layer, electroosmosis and 50
Brinkman equations 306
Debye length 51
Brinkman equations interface 274

INDEX| 403
 Debye-Hückel approximation 50 external fluid interface (node) 175
dielectrophoresis (DEP) 53 external slip wall (node) 318
dimensionless numbers 33–35
F Faraday’s law 378
Dirichlet boundary condition 34
flow continuity (node) 94
documentation 24
flow rate in SCCMs 83
domain nodes
flow regimes, for rarefied flows 59
Brinkman equations 277
fluid (node) 317
Darcy’s law 238
fluid flow
free and porous media flow 287
Brinkman equations theory 306
level set 100, 204
electrothermally driven 55
phase field 210
two-phase flow moving mesh theory
slip flow 316
192
ternary phase field 216
fluid properties (node)
transport of diluted species 334
free and porous media flow 288
Dukhin number 36
incompressible potential flow 100
E edge nodes single-phase, laminar flow 73
Darcy’s law interface 238 fluid-fluid interface (node) 174
slip flow 316 flux (node)
electric double layer (EDL), electroos- transport of diluted species 344
mosis and 50 flux discontinuity (node) 346
electrode-electrolyte interface coupling Darcy’s law 264
(node) transport of diluted species 346
free and porous media flow 259 fracture flow (node) 269
transport of diluted species 354 free and porous media flow interface 285
electrohydrodynamics, definition 49 theory 309
electrokinetic flows 49 Freundlich exponent 388
electrokinetics 49 fully developed flow 83
electroosmosis 50
G general stress (boundary stress condi-
electroosmotic velocity, wall boundary
tion) 89
condition 78
geometry frames 193
electrophoresis 49, 52
Ginzburg–Landau equation 227
electrothermally driven flow 55
gravity 97
electrowetting on dielectric (EWOD) 56
H heat transfer 57
elevation 258
Heat Transfer Module 57
emailing COMSOL 26
Helmholtz-Smoluchowski equation 51
Equilibrium Reaction
Henry’s function 52
theory for 372
hydraulic head (node) 266
equilibrium reaction (node) 351

404 | I N D E X
 Hygroscopic Swelling 365 Langmuir constant 388
Laplace number 37
I inflow (node) 343
leaking wall, wall boundary condition 79,
initial values (node)
294
Brinkman equations 282
level set functions, initializing 224, 229
Darcy’s law 257
level set interface 202–203
free and porous media flow 292
theory 179, 221
level set 101, 206, 212
level set model (node) 205
phase field 218
line mass source (node)
single-phase, laminar flow 76
fluid flow 96
slip flow 319
species transport 349
spf interfaces 76
line source
transport of diluted species 340
species transport 376
initializing functions 224, 229
local
inlet (node) 80, 262
CFL number 70, 277
single-phase flow 80
ternary phase field 218–219 M Mach number 36
interface normal variable 225, 230 magnetohydrodynamics 49
interior slip wall (node) 320 magnetophoresis 49, 54
interior wall (node) Marangoni number 37
incompressible potential flow 104 mass based concentrations (node) 340
spf interfaces 92 mass conservation, level set equations
interior wetted wall (node) 214 184
internet resources 24 mass flux (node) 260
intrinsic volume averages 306 mass source (node)
isotropic diffusion 34 Brinkman equations 281
Darcy’s law 255
J Joule heating 55
material frames 193
K knowledge base, COMSOL 26
mathematics, moving interfaces
Knudsen layer 60
level set 202–203
Knudsen number 16, 36, 59
phase field 209, 215
L lab-on-a-chip devices 16 theory 221, 226, 232
laminar flow interface 65 MEMS Module 293
laminar three-phase flow, phase field in- MEMS, definition 16
terface 167 mesh frames 193
laminar two-phase flow microfluidic wall conditions (node) 292
moving mesh interface 172 microfluidics
laminar two-phase flow, level set (tpf) in- definition 16
terface 150, 160 dimensionless numbers, and 33–35

INDEX| 405
 modeling techniques 30 outflow (node)
stabilization techniques 34 transport of diluted species 344
mixture properties (node) 216 outlet (node) 84, 264
modeling single-phase flow 84
electrohydrodynamics 49 spf interfaces 84
microfluidics 30 ternary phase field 218
transport of chemical species and ions
P pair nodes
47
Brinkman equations 277
moving interfaces 226, 232
Darcy’s law interface 238
MPH-files 25
free and porous media flow 287
multiphase flow
level set 100, 204
moving mesh theory 192
phase field 210
multiphase flow theory 179, 221, 226, 232
slip flow 316
N Navier–Stokes equations 179 ternary phase field 216
Nernst–Einstein relation 338, 357, 361, transport of diluted species 334
378 partially saturated porous media (node)
no flow (node) 263 358
Darcy’s law 263 Peclet number 33
level set 207 periodic condition (node) 320
no flux (node) 342 transport of diluted species 347
no slip, interior wall boundary condition periodic flow condition (node) 90
92 incompressible potential flow 102
no slip, wall boundary condition 77, 293 permeability models 244, 252, 273
no viscous stress (open boundary) 88 pervious layer (node) 267
nodes, common settings 23 phase field interface 209
nonconservative formulations 184, 374 theory 179, 226, 232
normal stress, normal flow (boundary phase field model (node) 211
stress condition) 89 physics interfaces, common settings 23
numerical instability, dimensionless num- point mass source (node)
bers and 33 fluid flow 95
species transport 350
O Ohm’s law 379
point nodes
Ohnesorge number 37
Brinkman equations 277
open boundary (node)
Darcy’s law interface 238
incompressible potential flow 101
free and porous media flow 287
level set 207
slip flow 316
single-phase flow 87
transport of diluted species 334
spf interfaces 87
point source
transport of diluted species 350

406 | I N D E X
 species transport 375 laminar flow 65
Polymer Flow Module 40 sliding wall 80
porous electrode coupling (node) 353 slip
free and porous media flow 259 Maxwell’s boundary condition 60
porous media and subsurface flow slip flow 60
Brinkman equations interface 274 slip flow interface 314
Darcy’s law interface 236 theory 322
free and porous media flow interface slip velocity, wall boundary condition 78
285 slip wall (node) 319
theory, Brinkman equations 306 slip, interior wall boundary condition 92
theory, free and porous media flow slip, wall boundary condition 78, 294
309 spatial frames 193
porous media transport properties stabilization techniques, dimensionless
(node) 355, 358 numbers and 34
Porous Medium (node) standard cubic centimeters per minute
Brinkman equations 278, 289 83
potential point constraint (node) standard flow rate 83
incompressible potential flow 102 standard settings 23
pressure (node) 259, 262, 264 Stern layer 51
pressure head (node) 266 Stokes equations 64
pressure point constraint (node) 94 Stokes flow 64, 173
pseudo time stepping stratified porous media 386
settings 70, 277 streamline diffusion, in fluid flow 34
superficial volume average, porous me-
R rarefied gas flow 59
dia 307
Reacting Volume 341
superficial volume averages, porous me-
reaction coefficients (node) 354
dia 382
reactions (node)
Supporting Electrolytes 378
transport of diluted species 341
Surataman number 37
retardation factor 388
surface equilibrium reaction (node) 353
Reynolds number, dimensionless num-
surface tension force variable 230
bers and 33
symmetry (node) 87, 320
S SCCM, flow rate in 83
Darcy’s law 263
selecting
incompressible potential flow 102
multiphase flow interfaces 41
spf interfaces 87
porous media flow interfaces 43
transport of diluted species 346
single-phase flow interfaces 39
T technical support, COMSOL 26
SEMI standard E12-0303 82
ternary phase field interface 215
single-phase flow interface

INDEX| 407
 theory volume force (node) 76
Brinkman equations 306 Brinkman equations 282
free and porous media flow 309 free and porous media flow 291
level set 221 spf interfaces 76
phase field 226, 232
W wall (node)
slip flow 322
free and porous media flow 293
tpf interfaces 179
incompressible potential flow 101
transport of diluted species in porous
single-phase flow 77
media interface 371
Weber number 37
transport of diluted species interface
websites, COMSOL 26
370
wetted wall (boundary condition) 155
two-phase flow moving mesh 192
wetted wall (node) 213, 219
thermal creep, wall boundary condition
Y Young’s equation 55
78
thickness
fracture 368
out-of-plane 258
thin barrier (node)
level set 208
thin diffusion barrier (node) 351
Thin Impermeable Barrier 351
TMAC, microfluidic wall conditions 293
tortuosity factors 384
traction boundary conditions 88
transport of diluted species in porous
media interface 332
theory 371
transport of diluted species interface 328
theory 370
two-phase flow
moving mesh, theory 192

V variables
level set interface 225
phase field interface 230
velocity (node)
incompressible potential flow 101
viscous slip, wall boundary condition 78
volume averages 306

408 | I N D E X