Polymer Flow Module

User’s Guide
Polymer Flow Module User’s Guide
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Part number: CM025301

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the Polymer Flow Module 16

The Polymer Flow Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The Polymer Flow Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . 16
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes . . . . . . 20
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 20

Overview of the User’s Guide 24

Chapter 2: Modeling Polymer Flow

Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids 28

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

The Polymer Flow Physics Interfaces 31

Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Single-Phase Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Porous Media Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Multiphase Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Fluid-Structure Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chemical Species Transport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Chapter 3: Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Creeping Flow and Laminar Flow Interfaces 38

The Creeping Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
The Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow . . . . . 45

CONTENTS |3
 Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Boundary Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Porous Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Pressure Point Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

The Potential Flow Interface 75

The Incompressible Potential Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Incompressible
Potential Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Potential Point Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface 83

Moving Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating
Machinery Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

4 | CONTENTS
Stationary Free Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Contact Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

The Viscoelastic Flow Interface 89

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Viscoelastic
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces 94

General Single-Phase Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Weakly Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
The Mach Number Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Incompressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
The Reynolds Number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Non-Newtonian Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Mass Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Fully Developed Flow (Inlet) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Fully Developed Flow (Outlet). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Normal Stress Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Pressure Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Porous Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Mass Sources for Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow . . . . . 127
Solvers for Laminar Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models . . . . . . . . . . 132
Nitsche Constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces . . . . 135

Theory for the Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface 137

About Rotating Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Frozen Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Setting Up a Rotating Machinery Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

CONTENTS |5
 Theory for the Viscoelastic Flow Interface 142
General Viscoelastic Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow . . . . . 147
Solvers for Viscoelastic Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Pseudo Time Stepping for Viscoelastic Flow Models . . . . . . . . 147
References for the Viscoelastic Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 148

Theory for the Potential Flow Interface 149

General Incompressible Potential Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . 149

Chapter 4: Multiphase Flow Interfaces

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Laminar

Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interfaces 152
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface . . . . . . . . . 152
The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . 153
The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . 160
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . 162
The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature. . . . . . . . . 163
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar Flow,
Two-Phase, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces . . . . . . . . . 167

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set, Brinkman Equations Interface

169

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface 170

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . 170
The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . 171
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar
Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface 175

Select Laminar Flow Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Deforming Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Fluid-Fluid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

6 | CONTENTS
 Free Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Contact Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces 182
Level Set and Phase Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations . . . . . . . . . 187
Phase Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Numerical Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
References for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces . . . . . . . 189

Theory for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface 191

Governing Equations of the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . 191
Reference for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . 194

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface 195

Domain Level Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
About the Moving Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
About the Fluid Interface Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 197
Contact Angle Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
References for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface . . . . . 202

Chapter 5: Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

Interfaces

The Brinkman Equations Interface 206

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman
Equations Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

CONTENTS |7
 The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface 217
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Brinkman Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface 226

About the Brinkman Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Brinkman Equations Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
References for the Brinkman Equations Interface. . . . . . . . . . 228

Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman

Interface 229
Reference for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface . . 229

Chapter 6: Mathematics, Moving Interfaces

The Level Set Interface 232

The Level Set Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
The Level Set in Porous Media Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface . . . . 234
Level Set Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
No Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

8 | CONTENTS
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

The Phase Field in Fluids Interface 239

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field in Fluids
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Phase Field Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Interior Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

The Ternary Phase Field Interface 245

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Ternary Phase Field
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Mixture Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

Theory for the Level Set Interface 251

The Level Set Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Conservative and Nonconservative Form . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
The Level Set Equation in Porous Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Initializing the Level Set Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Variables For Geometric Properties of the Interface . . . . . . . . 255
Reference for the Level Set Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Theory for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface 256

About the Phase Field Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
The Equations for the Phase Field Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Conservative and Nonconservative Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Additional Sources of Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Initializing the Phase Field Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Variables and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Reference for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface . . . . . . . . . . 261

CONTENTS |9
 Theory for the Ternary Phase Field Interface 262
About the Phase Field Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
The Equations of the Ternary Phase Field Method . . . . . . . . . 262
Reference for the Ternary Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . . . 264

Chapter 7: Chemical Species Transport Interfaces

The Transport of Diluted Species Interface 266

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface . . . . . 270
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 274
Species Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Mass-Based Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Partition Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Thin Diffusion Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Thin Impermeable Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Surface Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Surface Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

10 | C O N T E N T S
Porous Electrode Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Reaction Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Unsaturated Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Volatilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Species Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Hygroscopic Swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Out-of-Plane Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Fluid (Fracture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Fracture Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface 308

Mass Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Equilibrium Reaction Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Convective Term Formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Solving a Diffusion Equation Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Mass Sources for Species Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Adding Transport Through Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Supporting Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Crosswind Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Convection in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Diffusion in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Mass Transport in Fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

CONTENTS | 11
 Chapter 8: Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow
Interfaces

Modeling Heat Transfer in the Polymer Flow Module 332

Specifying Material Properties for Non-Newtonian Materials . . . . . 332
Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

Boundary Features in the Heat Transfer Interfaces 334

Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Viscoelastic Flow

Interfaces 337
Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 337
The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Viscoelastic Flow
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Theory for the Nonisothermal Viscoelastic Flow 340

Nonisothermal Viscoelastic Flow Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
References for the Nonisothermal Viscoelastic Flow Interfaces . . . . 341

Chapter 9: Chemorheology and Curing Kinetics

The Curing Reaction Interface 344

The Curing Reaction Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Domain, Boundary, and Global Nodes for the Curing Reaction
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Curing Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Chemorheology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Curing Reaction Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

12 | C O N T E N T S
 Theory for the Curing Reaction Interface 352
Kinetics Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Pseudo Time Stepping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Chemorheological Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Reference for the Curing Reaction Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 356

Chapter 10: Parameter Estimation

Index 359

CONTENTS | 13
14 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the Polymer Flow Module, an optional add-on package for
COMSOL Multiphysics® designed to model and simulate the flow of Newtonian
and non-Newtonian fluids.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and information about where you can find documentation and
model examples is also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to
each chapter in this guide.

In this chapter:

• About the Polymer Flow Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

15
 About the Polymer Flow Module
In this section:

• The Polymer Flow Module

• The Polymer Flow Module Physics Interface Guide
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

The Polymer Flow Module

Non-Newtonian fluids are found in a great variety of processes in the polymer, food,
pharmaceutical, cosmetics, household, and fine chemicals industries. Examples of these
fluids are coatings, paints, yogurt, ketchup, colloidal suspensions, aqueous suspensions
of drugs, lotions, creams, shampoo, and suspensions of peptides and proteins, to
mention a few. Modeling and simulation can be used to design and optimize processes
where these fluids are involved.

The Polymer Flow Module is intended for the modeling and simulation of
non-Newtonian fluid flow with viscoelastic, thixotropic, shear thickening, or shear
thinning properties. Dependencies of fluid properties on temperature and composition
can be accounted for in order to model cure and polymerization. Manufacturing
processes often involve free surfaces, or surfaces between Newtonian and
non-Newtonian fluids: extrusion processes, coating flows, and injection molding. The
Polymer Flow Module includes the necessary Multiphase Flow functionality for
modeling these flows.

For studies of mixing processes, a Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interface has also
been included.

Fully coupled and time-dependent fluid-structure interactions can be modeled with

the Polymer Flow Module in combination with other modules in COMSOL
Multiphysics®.

The Polymer Flow Module Physics Interface Guide

The Polymer Flow Module extends the functionality of the physics interfaces of the
base package for COMSOL Multiphysics. The details of the physics interfaces and
study types for the Polymer Flow Module are listed in the table. The functionality of

16 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 the COMSOL Multiphysics base package is described in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE

DIMENSION

Chemical Species Transport

Transport of Diluted tds all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Species1
Reacting Flow

Laminar Flow, Diluted — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Species1 axisymmetric
Fluid Flow

Single-Phase Flow

Creeping Flow spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Laminar Flow spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Viscoelastic Flow vef 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow

Rotating Machinery, spf 3D, 2D frozen rotor; time

Laminar Flow dependent

ABOUT THE POLYMER FLOW MODULE | 17

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Potential Flow

Incompressible ipf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary

Potential Flow axisymmetric
Multiphase Flow

Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh

Laminar Two-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent

Flow, Moving Mesh axisymmetric
Two-Phase Flow, Level Set

Laminar Two-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Level Set axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Set, Brinkman axisymmetric initialization
Equations
Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field

Laminar Two-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Phase Field axisymmetric initialization
Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field

Laminar, Three-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Phase Field axisymmetric initialization
Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

Brinkman Equations br 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Free and Porous Media fp 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Flow, Brinkman axisymmetric

18 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Nonisothermal Flow

Laminar Flow(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Viscoelastic Flow — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Fluid-Structure Interaction

Fluid–Solid Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; stationary, one

Fixed Geometry2 axisymmetric way; time dependent; time
dependent, one way
Fluid–Solid Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent; time
Viscoelastic Flow, Fixed axisymmetric dependent with phase
Geometry2 initialization
Fluid–Solid Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent; time
Two-Phase Flow, Phase axisymmetric dependent with phase
Field, Fixed Geometry2 initialization
Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer in Fluids1 ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Heat Transfer in Solids and ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Fluids1
Curing

Curing Reaction creq 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric,
1D
Moving Interface

Level Set ls all dimensions time dependent with phase

initialization

ABOUT THE POLYMER FLOW MODULE | 19

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Level Set in Porous ls all dimensions time dependent with phase

Media initialization
Phase Field in Fluids pf all dimensions time dependent; time
dependent with phase
initialization
Ternary Phase Field terpf 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent
axisymmetric
1
This physics interface is included with the core COMSOL Multiphysics software but has
added functionality for this module.
2 This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling that automatically adds all the
physics interfaces and coupling features required.

Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for

links to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of online resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or

20 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
context-based) help, and the Application Libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions on how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the electronic
Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click
to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder, click a node

or window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

ABOUT THE POLYMER FLOW MODULE | 21

 Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• From the File menu, select Help>Documentation ( ).

THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW

Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or application. The models and
applications are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH-files that you can open
for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems
are available.

Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.

The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

From the File menu, select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help menu
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Libraries.

From the File or Windows menu, select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Libraries.

22 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL
For general product information, contact COMSOL at info@[Link].

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
support@[Link]. An automatic notification and a case number will be sent to you
by email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information,
and other resources by registering for a COMSOL Access account.

COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES

COMSOL website [Link]

Contact COMSOL [Link]/contact
COMSOL Access [Link]/access
Support Center [Link]/support
Product Download [Link]/product-download
Product Updates [Link]/product-update
COMSOL Blog [Link]/blogs
Discussion Forum [Link]/forum
Events [Link]/events
COMSOL Application Gallery [Link]/models
COMSOL Video Gallery [Link]/videos
Support Knowledge Base [Link]/support/knowledgebase

ABOUT THE POLYMER FLOW MODULE | 23

 Overview of the User’s Guide
The Polymer Flow Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling using
COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module.
Instructions on how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.

MODELING POLYMER FLOW

This chapter gives a brief introduction to Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids and
a summary of The Polymer Flow Physics Interfaces.

THE FLUID FLOW BRANCH

There are several fluid flow interfaces available. The various types of momentum
transport that you can simulate includes single-phase flow and multiphase flow of
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. Every section describes the applicable physics
interfaces in detail and concludes with the underlying interface theory.

Single-Phase Flow
Single-Phase Flow Interfaces describes the Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow, Viscoelastic
Flow, Incompressible Potential Flow and Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow
interfaces.

Multiphase Flow and Mathematics, Moving Interfaces

Multiphase Flow Interfaces describes the Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field
interfaces; the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface; and the Two-Phase Flow,
Moving Mesh interface. Some multiphase flow is described using the Phase Field and
Level Set interfaces found under Mathematics, Moving Interfaces branch. In this
module, these physics are already integrated into the relevant physics interfaces.

Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

The Porous Media and Subsurface Flow Interfaces chapter describes the Brinkman
Equations, and Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman interfaces.

24 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
THE CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT BRANCH
This branch contains physics interfaces for chemical species transport and the
predefined Reacting Flow multiphysics coupling.

Chemical Species Transport

Chemical Species Transport Interfaces describes the Transport of Diluted Species
physics interface and the Reacting Flow, Diluted Species multiphysics interface.

THE HEAT TRANSFER BRANCH

This branch contains physics interfaces for heat transfer in fluids and solids.

Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow Interfaces describes the added functionality for
the Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow interfaces in the Polymer Flow Module.

Curing
Chemorheology and Curing Kinetics describes the Curing Reaction interface and the
Curing Reaction Heating multiphysics coupling.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 25

26 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Modeling Polymer Flow

This chapter gives an overview of the physics interfaces available for modeling
polymer flows and provides guidance on choosing the appropriate physics interface
for a specific problem.

In this chapter:

• Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

• The Polymer Flow Physics Interfaces

27
 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
A fluid may be characterized according to its response under the action of a shear
stress. A Newtonian fluid has a linear relationship between shear stress and shear rate
with the line passing through the origin. The constant of proportionality is referred to
as the viscosity of the fluid and can depend on temperature, pressure, and composition.
For a non-Newtonian fluid, the curve for shear stress versus shear rate is nonlinear or
does not pass through the origin. If the curve is shifted away from the origin, the fluid
has a yield stress. If the curve bends toward the shear-rate axis, the fluid is said to be
shear thinning (pseudoplastic), but if it instead bends toward the shear-stress axis, it is
said to be shear thickening (dilatant). The relationship may also contain time
derivatives of the shear rate to model memory effects (thixotropy) and even parallel
viscous and elastic responses. We refer to the latter as viscoelastic non-Newtonian fluids
and all others as inelastic non-Newtonian fluids. For the inelastic non-Newtonian
models, it is possible to define an apparent viscosity from a generalized Newtonian
relationship between the deviatoric stress tensor and the strain-rate tensor.

Figure 2-1: Conceptual behavior of shear stress versus shear rate for Newtonian,
yield-stress, shear-thinning, and shear-thickening fluids.

28 | CHAPTER 2: MODELING POLYMER FLOW

The apparent viscosity will then be a function of the first invariant of the strain-rate
tensor. In simple shear flows, this invariant simplifies to the shear rate.

The inelastic non-Newtonian models in the Polymer Flow Module are listed below:

• Bingham–Papanastasiou (Viscoplastic)
• Casson–Papanastasiou (Viscoplastic)
• Power Law
• Carreau
• Carreau–Yasuda
• Cross
• Cross-Williamson
• Ellis
• Herschel–Bulkley–Papanastasiou
• Robertson–Stiff–Papanastasiou
• DeKee–Turcotte–Papanastasiou
• Houska thixotropy (Thixotropic)

The Bingham–Papanastasiou and Casson–Papanastasiou models are yield-stress fluids

with a linear behavior at high shear rates. The Power Law model can be used to study
both shear-thinning and shear-thickening behavior. The Carreau, Carreau–Yasuda,
and Cross models are appropriate for shear-thinning fluids when there is a significant
deviation from the Power Law model at very high and very low shear rates. Similarly,
the Cross-Williamson and Ellis models can be used to study shear-thinning behavior
when the deviations from the Power Law model are significant only at low shear rates.
Herschel–Bulkley–Papanastasiou and Robertson–Stiff–Papanastasiou are power-law
fluids with a yield-stress. The DeKee–Turcotte–Papanastasiou model is a yield-stress
fluid with an exponential shear-thinning behavior at high shear rates. For the Houska
thixotropy model, the apparent viscosity decreases with the time of shearing. Its
structure breaks down under shear and rebuilds at rest. Thixotropic fluids display a
hysteresis loop in the shear-rate shear-stress plane. The Houska model also includes a
yield stress.

The viscoelastic models in the Polymer Flow Module are:

• Oldroyd-B
• Giesekus
• FENE-P
 • FENE-CR
• LPTT
• EPTT
• Rolie–Poly

The simplest one is the Oldroyd-B model which has a constant viscosity and a constant
first normal-stress coefficient. This is conceptually visualized as a Hookean spring in
series with a dashpot in

To ensure material-frame indifference, an upper-convected time derivative is used to

describe the transport of the additional stress due to the spring and dashpot. Multiple
branches with different relaxation times and viscosities can be added in order to
include multimodal responses. In the Oldroyd-B model, the springs are infinitely
extensible, which can lead to unphysical behavior. The Giesekus model adds a
quadratic stress term, thereby capturing power-law behavior in the viscous and normal
stress components. The FENE-P and FENE-CR (Finitely Extensible Nonlinear Elastic
with Peterlin and Chilcott–Rallison closure, respectively) models include
nonlinear-spring behavior. Extension hardening and shear thinning can be studied
with the LPTT and EPTT (Linear and Exponential Phan–Thien/Tanner) models. The
Rouse Linear Entangled Polymers (Rolie–Poly) model is based on tube theory. The
model incorporates the molecular motion mechanisms of reptation in the tubes, the
stretching of polymer chains, and convective constraint release (CCR) due to the
release of entanglements.

When applying a viscoelastic model, it is important to keep in mind that the

mathematical formulation may become ill-posed at sharp corners. One remedy is to use
a fillet operation to smooth the geometry at such points. As always when working with
complex fluid-flow simulations, it is advisable to start with a simple model, and then
switch to a more complicated model if the simple model does not capture the expected
flow phenomena. In most industrial applications, inelastic non-Newtonian models
produce sufficiently accurate results at a reasonable computational cost.

References
1. R.P. Chhabra and J.F. Richardson, Non-Newtonian Flow in the Process Industries,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2004.

30 | CHAPTER 2: MODELING POLYMER FLOW

The Polymer Flow Physics Interfaces
In this section:

• Selecting the Right Physics Interface

• Single-Phase Flow
• Porous Media Flow
• Multiphase Flow
• Fluid-Structure Interaction
• Chemical Species Transport
• Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow
• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

The Polymer Flow Module has a range of physics interfaces to use for fluid flow in a
variety of circumstances. Often the selection of a particular physics interface implies
certain assumptions about the equations of flow. If it is known in advance which
assumptions are valid, then the appropriate physics interface can be added. However,
when the flow type is unclear from the outset, or if it is difficult to reach a solution
easily, starting with a simplified model and adding complexity subsequently is often a
good approach. Using this approach, the results of a simulation are tested against the
underlying assumptions and against experimental results, and the simulation can then
be refined if necessary. For complex models it is often beneficial to take this approach
even when the fluid flow is well characterized from the outset because a model with
simplifying assumptions can be easier to solve initially. The solution process can then
be fine-tuned for the more complex problem. Typically, The Laminar Flow Interface
is a good starting point for problems involving Newtonian and inelastic
non-Newtonian fluids, whereas The Viscoelastic Flow Interface must be chosen for
problems involving viscoelastic non-Newtonian fluids.

The following sections describe the options available for simulating Single-Phase Flow,
Multiphase Flow, Chemical Species Transport, and Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal
Flow.
 Single-Phase Flow
The Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface includes
the Creeping Flow, Viscoelastic Flow and Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow
interfaces.

The Creeping Flow Interface ( ) approximates the Navier–Stokes equations for very
low Reynolds numbers. This is often referred to as Stokes flow and is applicable when
viscous effects are dominant, such as in very small channels or microfluidics devices.
The Creeping Flow interface also allows for simulation of inelastic non-Newtonian
fluids.

The Laminar Flow Interface ( ) is primarily applied to flows at low to intermediate

Reynolds numbers. This physics interface solves the Navier–Stokes equations for
incompressible, weakly compressible, and compressible flows (up to Mach 0.3). The
Laminar Flow interface also allows for simulation of inelastic non-Newtonian fluids.

By selecting the Neglect Inertial Form (Stokes Flow) check box, in the
Settings window for Laminar Flow, the Laminar Flow interface is converted
into a Creeping Flow interface.

The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface ( ) combines the Laminar Flow
interface and a Rotating Domain and is applicable to fluid-flow problems where one
or more of the boundaries rotate (for example, in mixers and around propellers). The
physics interface supports incompressible, weakly compressible, and compressible
(Mach < 0.3) laminar flows of Newtonian and inelastic non-Newtonian fluids.

The Viscoelastic Flow Interface ( ) is used to simulate incompressible isothermal

flow of viscoelastic fluids. It solves the continuity equation, the momentum equation,
and a constitutive equation that defines the elastic stresses. There are several predefined
models for the elastic stresses: Oldroyd-B, FENE-P, Giesekus, LPTT, and EPTT.

32 | CHAPTER 2: MODELING POLYMER FLOW

The Settings window for the Laminar Flow interface is shown in Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2: The Settings window for Laminar Flow. Use it to model incompressible, weakly
compressible, or compressible (Ma<0.3) flow, as well as Stokes flow.

COMPRESSIBILITY
For compressible flow it is important that the density and any mass balances are well
defined throughout the domain. Choosing to model incompressible flow simplifies the
equations to be solved and decreases solution times. Most gas flows should be modeled
as compressible flows; however, liquid flows can usually be treated as incompressible.

NEGLECT INERTIAL TERM (STOKES FLOW)

For low Reynolds numbers, the inertial term in the Navier–Stokes equation may be
neglected. When applicable, this approximation improves the convergence rate.
 INCLUDE GRAVITY
Gravity can be included when required. It can be neglected in models dominated by
other effects.

Porous Media Flow

The Brinkman Equations interface ( ) is available for modeling flow in porous
medium. The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman ( ) interface is used for
modeling the single-phase flow where free flow is connected to porous media.

Multiphase Flow
The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set ( ); Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field ( ); and Two
Phase Flow, Moving Mesh ( ) interfaces are used to model two fluids separated by
a fluid-fluid interface. The moving interface is tracked in detail using the level set
method, the phase field method, or by a moving mesh, respectively. The level set and
phase field methods use a fixed mesh and solve additional equations to track the
interface location. The moving mesh method solves the Navier–Stokes equations on a
moving mesh with boundary conditions to represent the interface. In this case,
equations must be solved for the mesh deformation. Since a surface in the geometry is
used to represent the interface between the two fluids in the Moving Mesh interface,
the interface itself cannot break up into multiple disconnected surfaces. This means
that the Moving Mesh interface cannot be applied to problems such as droplet
formation in inkjet devices (in these applications the level set or phase field interfaces
are appropriate). These physics interfaces support incompressible flows, where one or
both fluids can be non-Newtonian.

The Brinkman Equations, Level Set interface ( ) is used to track the interface
between two fluids in porous medium.

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface ( ) models laminar flow of
three incompressible phases that can be Newtonian or non-Newtonian. The moving
fluid-fluid interfaces between the three phases are tracked in detail using the
phase-field method.

Fluid-Structure Interaction
The Fluid-Structure Interaction interfaces ( ) couple a Single-Phase Flow or
Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface to a Solid Mechanics interface for studies of
deformation induced by fluid forces.

34 | CHAPTER 2: MODELING POLYMER FLOW

Chemical Species Transport
The Transport of Diluted Species Interface ( ) is available for modeling the
transport of chemical species and ions. The assumption in these physics interfaces is
that one component, a solvent, is present in excess (typically more than 90 mol%). This
means that the mixture properties, such as density and viscosity, are independent of
concentration. To model concentrated species, the Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module is recommended in addition to the Polymer Flow Module.

The Laminar Flow interface ( ) under the Reacting Flow branch combines the
functionality of the Single-Phase Flow and Transport of Concentrated Species
interfaces. The physics interface is primarily applied to model flow at low to
intermediate Reynolds numbers in situations where the mass transport and flow fields
have to be coupled, for example in polymerization processes.

Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow interface ( ) is primarily applied to model
flow at low to intermediate Reynolds numbers in situations where the temperature and
flow fields have to be coupled. Typical examples include natural convection, where
thermal buoyancy forces drive the flow, temperature dependence of constitutive
parameters, and curing. This is a multiphysics interface for which the nonlocal
couplings between fluid flow and heat transfer are set up automatically. The
Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow interface in the Polymer Flow Module has
extended functionality, including additional boundary conditions and the Boussinesq
approximation.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Viscoelastic Flow interface ( ) is used to model

nonisothermal flow of viscoelastic fluids.

The Curing Reaction interface ( ) is intended for modeling the curing of polymers
during the heat treatment. The Curing Reaction Heating multiphysics coupling allows
to account for reaction heating.

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

The COMSOL Multiphysics software is not limited to the aforementioned
multiphysics couplings — there are many other phenomena that can be easily modeled
in polymer flows. In many cases, physics interfaces can be coupled simply by entering
expressions from one physics interface (such as the local temperature) into fields in
 another physics interface (for example, in the Model Inputs section of a Fluid Properties
node). Additionally, COMSOL Multiphysics includes powerful coupling operators
that enable physics interfaces to be linked by projections, extrusions, or scalar
quantities such as integrals and global averages.

Nonlocal Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

Other types of fluid flow, such as turbulent flow and dispersed multiphase flow, can be
found in the CFD Module. More extensive descriptions of heat transfer, such as in
turbulent flow or involving radiation, can be found in the Heat Transfer Module.
Furthermore, some applications involving the flow of liquids and gases in porous
media are better handled by the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module.

36 | CHAPTER 2: MODELING POLYMER FLOW

 3

Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

There are several Single-Phase Flow interfaces available with the Polymer Flow
Module. These are grouped by type and found under the Fluid Flow>Single-Phase
Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface. See Modeling Polymer Flow to
help you select which physics interface to use.

In this chapter:

• The Creeping Flow and Laminar Flow Interfaces

• The Potential Flow Interface
• The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface
• The Viscoelastic Flow Interface
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface
• Theory for the Viscoelastic Flow Interface
• Theory for the Potential Flow Interface

See The Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual for other Fluid Flow interface and feature node settings.

37
 The Creeping Flow and Laminar Flow
Interfaces
In this section:

• The Creeping Flow Interface

• The Laminar Flow Interface
• Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

• Theory of Laminar Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections such as Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, Inconsistent Stabilization, and
Advanced Settings sections, some of them accessed by clicking the Show button ( )
and choosing the applicable option. You can also search for information: press F1 to
open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

The Creeping Flow Interface

The Creeping Flow (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating fluid flows at very low
Reynolds numbers for which the inertial term in the Navier–Stokes equations can be
neglected. Creeping flow, also referred to as Stokes flow, occurs in systems with high
viscosity or small geometrical length scales (for example, in microfluidics and MEMS
devices). The fluid can be compressible or incompressible, as well as Newtonian or
non-Newtonian.

The equations solved by the Creeping Flow interface are the Stokes equations for
conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.

The Creeping Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Fluid Properties node, which adds the Stokes equations and
provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties. Except where
noted below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all other settings.

38 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected. If unchecked,
or, if the Turbulence model type is changed to RANS, the inertial terms are included in
the computations.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Creeping Flow interface uses P2+P1 elements. Contrary to general
laminar and turbulent single-phase flow simulations employing purely linear P1+P1
elements, P2+P1 elements are well suited for most creeping flow simulations but are
not in general fully conservative. Full conservation properties and high accuracy is
obtained by selecting P2+P2 or P3+P3 elements.

Note that P1+P1, P2+P2, and P3+P3 discretizations (the so-called equal order
interpolations) require streamline diffusion to be active.

The Laminar Flow Interface

The Laminar Flow (spf) interface ( ) is used to compute the velocity and pressure
fields for the flow of a single-phase fluid in the laminar flow regime. A flow remains
laminar as long as the Reynolds number is below a certain critical value. At higher
Reynolds numbers, disturbances have a tendency to grow and cause transition to
turbulence. This critical Reynolds number depends on the model, but a classical
example is pipe flow, where the critical Reynolds number is known to be approximately
2000.

The physics interface supports incompressible flow, weakly compressible flow (the
density depends on temperature but not on pressure), and compressible flow at low
Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3). It also supports flow of non-Newtonian fluids.

The equations solved by the Laminar Flow interface are the Navier–Stokes equations
for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.

The Laminar Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.
Time-dependent studies should be used in the high-Reynolds number regime as these
flows tend to become inherently unsteady.

When the Laminar Flow interface is added, the following default nodes are also added
in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary condition is No slip),
and Initial Values. Other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and
volume forces, can be added from the Physics toolbar or from the context menu
displayed when right-clicking Laminar Flow.

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 39

 SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Physics interface variables can be referred to using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is spf.

About the Physics Interface Label Names

The label for a single-phase flow interface (the node name in the Model Builder) is
dynamic and is reset according to the turbulence model and the neglect inertial term
(Stokes flow) property set at the physics interface level. The availability also depends
on the software license.

If the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected, then the Label changes
to Creeping Flow, which is the same Label that displays when that interface is added
from the Model Wizard or Add Physics window.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Compressibility
Depending of the fluid properties and the flow regime, three options are available for
the Compressibility option. In general the computational complexity increases from
Incompressible flow to Weakly compressible flow to Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) but the
underlying hypotheses are increasingly more restrictive in the opposite direction.

When the Incompressible flow option (default) is selected, the incompressible form of
the Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. In addition, the fluid density is
evaluated at the Reference pressure level defined in this section. The Reference
temperature is set to 293.15 K.

The Weakly compressible flow option models compressible flow when the pressure
dependency of the density can be neglected. When selected, the compressible form of
the Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. In addition, the fluid density is
evaluated at the Reference pressure level defined in this section.

When the Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) option is selected, the compressible form of the
Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. Ma  0.3 indicates that the inlet
and outlet conditions, as well as the stabilization, may not be suitable for transonic and

40 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

supersonic flow. For more information, see The Mach Number Limit in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Swirl Flow
The velocity component, u, in the azimuthal direction can be included for 2D
axisymmetric components by selecting the Swirl flow check box. While u can be
nonzero, there can be no gradients in the  direction. Also see General Single-Phase
Flow Theory.

Neglect Inertial Term (Stokes Flow)

For low Reynolds number flows, the inertial terms in the Navier–Stokes equations may
be neglected.

Porous Media Domains

With the addition of various modules, the Enable porous media domains check box is
available. Selecting this option, a Fluid and Matrix Properties node, a Mass Source node,
and a Forchheimer Drag subnode are added to the physics interface. These are described
for the Brinkman Equations interface in the respective module’s documentation. The
Fluid and Matrix Properties can be applied on all domains or on a subset of the domains.

Porous Treatment of No Slip Condition

Porous treatment of no slip condition is available when Enable porous media domains is
activated. It controls how the No Slip condition on Wall boundaries and Interior Wall
boundaries adjacent to Porous Medium should be treated. The options are Standard no
slip formulation (default) and Porous slip. The latter option provides a unified treatment
when the porous matrix is fully resolved as well as when it is under resolved ensuring
a smooth transition between regions with different resolutions; see No Slip under Wall.

Include Gravity
When the Include gravity check box is selected, a global Gravity feature is shown in the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Navier–Stokes
equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 41

 are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity.

Natural convection is induced by variations in magnitude of the buoyancy

force that is defined from the density. For incompressible flow, the density
is constant; hence the buoyancy force is homogeneous and natural
convection cannot be modeled. Nevertheless, using the Nonisothermal
Flow multiphysics coupling, the buoyancy force is defined using the
thermal expansion coefficient and the temperature. Hence, in this case
natural convection is accounted for, following the Boussinesq
approximation.

Reference Values
Reference values are global quantities used to evaluate the density of the fluid when
the Incompressible flow or the Weakly compressible flow option is selected.

Reference pressure level There are generally two ways to include the pressure in fluid
flow computations: either to use the absolute pressure pAppref, or the gauge
pressure p. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for the gauge pressure
whereas material properties are evaluated using the absolute pressure. The reference
pressure level is also used to define the reference density.

Reference temperature The reference temperature is used to define the reference

density.

Reference position When Include gravity is selected, the reference position can be
defined. It corresponds to the location where the total pressure (that includes the
hydrostatic pressure) is equal to the Reference pressure level.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u and its components, and the Pressure p.

If required, the names of the field, component, and dependent variable can be edited.
Editing the name of a scalar dependent variable changes both its field name and the
dependent variable name. If a new field name coincides with the name of another field
of the same type, the fields share degrees of freedom and dependent variable names. A
new field name must not coincide with the name of a field of another type or with a

42 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

component name belonging to some other field. Component names must be unique
within a model except when two fields share a common field name.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There are two consistent stabilization methods: Streamline diffusion and Crosswind
diffusion. Usually, both check boxes for these methods are selected by default and
should remain selected for optimal performance. Consistent stabilization methods do
not perturb the original transport equation. Streamline diffusion must be selected
when using equal-order interpolation for pressure and velocity.

Select the Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box to estimate the influence of
temporal variations in the velocity field, instead of using the inverse time step, in the
consistent stabilization terms. This check box is selected by default

Select the Limit small time steps effect on stabilization time scale check box to prevent
loss of stabilization at small time steps.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There is usually just one inconsistent stabilization method — Isotropic diffusion. This
method is equivalent to adding a term to the diffusion coefficient in order to dampen
the effect of oscillations by making the system somewhat less dominated by
convection. If possible, minimize the use of the inconsistent stabilization method
because by using it you no longer solve the original problem. By default, the Isotropic
diffusion check box is not selected because this type of stabilization adds artificial
diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this option can be
used to get a good initial guess for underresolved problems.

If required, select the Isotropic diffusion check box and enter a Tuning parameter id as
a scalar positive value. The default value is 0.25 (a reasonable value to start with is
roughly 0.5 divided by the element order). A higher value adds more isotropic
diffusion.

• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 43

 ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form is per default set to Automatic
from physics. This option can add pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the
Stationary equation form is used in order to speed up convergence. Pseudo time
stepping is triggered when the Laminar Flow interface is selected in some multiphysics
coupling features. Set Automatic from physics to On to apply pseudo time stepping also
for laminar flows. Set it to Off to disable pseudo time stepping completely.

When Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form is set to Automatic from
physics or On, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For the default Automatic
option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy condition) is
determined by a PID regulator.

The Use Block Navier-Stokes preconditioner check box under Linear solver is available
when the Compressibility option is set to Incompressible flow. When this check box is
selected, the default solver for time-dependent study steps will use the Block Navier–
Stokes preconditioner in iterative solvers for the velocity and pressure. Using this
preconditioner may result in shorter solution times for large time dependent problems
with high Reynolds numbers.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

• Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
• Theory of Laminar Flow
• Block Navier–Stokes in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

DISCRETIZATION
The default discretization for Laminar Flow is P1+P1 elements — that is, piecewise
linear interpolation for velocity and pressure. This is suitable for most flow problems.

Some higher-order interpolations are also available, and they can be cost-effective
options to obtain high accuracy for flows with low Reynolds numbers.

44 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The P2+P2 and P3+P3 options, the equal-order interpolation options, are the preferred
higher-order options because they have higher numerical accuracy than the
mixed-order options P2+P1 and P3+P2. The equal-order interpolation options do,
however, require streamline diffusion to be active.

Flow Past a Cylinder: Application Library path COMSOL_Multiphysics/

Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow

Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

The following nodes, listed in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

• Boundary Stress • Periodic Flow Condition

2
• Free Surface • Point Mass Source1
• Flow Continuity • Porous Interface
2
• Fluid-Fluid Interface • Pressure Point Constraint
• Fluid Properties • Stationary Free Surface
• Gravity • Symmetry
• Initial Values • Volume Force
• Inlet • Wall
• Interior Wall
• Line Mass Source1
• Open Boundary
• Outlet
1 A feature that may require an additional license

2
See documentation for The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r  0) into account and adds an Axial Symmetry
node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 45

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can also search for information:
press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

[Link]

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations solved by the
physics interface, except for volume forces, which are added by the Volume Force
feature. The node also provides an interface for defining the material properties of the
fluid.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the Fluid Properties node also adds the equations
for the components of the elastic stress tensor.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through user inputs,
variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs, for
example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a

46 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The choice of pressure variable depends on the system of equations being solved. For
example, in a unidirectional incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop over the
modeled domain is probably many orders of magnitude smaller than the atmospheric
pressure, which, when included, may reduce the stability and convergence properties
of the solver. In other cases, such as when the pressure is part of an expression for the
gas volume or the diffusion coefficients, it may be more convenient to solve for the
absolute pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p  pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a
gauge pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be
set to 0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES

Density
The density can either be specified by a material, or by a User defined expression. The
density in a material can depend on temperature and pressure, and these dependencies
are automatically replaced by pref for weakly compressible flows and pref and Tref for
incompressible flows (as specified by the Compressibility setting at the physics interface
level). If density variations with respect to pressure are to be included in the
computations, Compressibility must be set to compressible. Any dependencies in the
density on quantities other than temperature and pressure must be consistent with the
Compressibility setting at the interface level.

Constitutive Relation
For laminar flow, the Specify dynamic viscosity (default) and Inelastic non-Newtonian
options are available. Use the default option to either get the dynamic viscosity from a
material, or to add a user defined expression. The Inelastic non-Newtonian option

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 47

 includes several inelastic non-Newtonian models for the relationship between the shear
stress and shear rate.

If the Specify dynamic viscosity option is selected, an inelastic non-Newtonian model

can be selected by adding the corresponding Material Properties group as a subnode to
a material node.

Dynamic Viscosity
The Dynamic viscosity  describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have low viscosities, and substances often
described as thick (such as oil) have higher viscosities.

Inelastic Non-Newtonian
Non-Newtonian fluids are encountered in everyday life and in a wide range of the
industrial processes. Examples of non-Newtonian fluids include yogurt, paper pulp,
and polymer suspensions. Such fluids have a nonlinear relationship between the shear
stress and the share rate. The following inelastic non-Newtonian models are available:
Power law, Carreau, Carreau–Yasuda, Cross, Cross–Williamson, Sisko, Bingham–
Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–Papanastasiou, Casson–Papanastasiou, DeKee–
Turcotte–Papanastasiou, Robertson–Stiff–Papanastasiou, Ellis, and Houska
thixotropy.

The following parameters are required for the Power law:

• Fluid consistency coefficient m

• Flow behavior index n
ꞏ
• Lower shear rate limit  min
ꞏ
• Reference shear rate  ref

For the Carreau model, the following parameters are required:

• Zero shear rate viscosity 0

• Infinite shear rate viscosity inf
• Relaxation time 

• Power index n

For the Carreau-Yasuda model, the following parameters are required:

• Zero shear rate viscosity 0

48 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Infinite shear rate viscosity inf
• Relaxation time 

• Power index n

• Transition parameter a

For the Cross model, the following parameters are required:

• Zero shear rate viscosity 0

• Infinite shear rate viscosity inf
• Power index n

• Critical stress tr

For the Cross-Williamson model, the following parameters are required:

• Zero shear rate viscosity 0

• Relaxation time 

• Power index n

For the Sisko model, the following parameters are required:

• Infinite shear rate viscosity inf

• Fluid consistency coefficient m
• Flow behavior index n
ꞏ
• Reference shear rate  ref

For the Bingham–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Plastic viscosity p
• Yield stress y
• Model parameter mp

For the Herschel–Bulkley–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Fluid consistency coefficient m

• Flow behavior index n
• Yield stress y
ꞏ
• Reference shear rate  ref

• Model parameter mp

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 49

 For the Casson–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Plastic viscosity p
• Yield stress y
• Model parameter mp

For the DeKee–Turcotte–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Shear rate viscosity DK

• Relaxation time DK
• Yield stress y
• Model parameter mp

For the Robertson–Stiff–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Fluid consistency coefficient m

• Flow behavior index n
• Yield stress y
ꞏ
• Reference shear rate  ref

• Model parameter mp
For the Ellis model, the following parameters are required:

• Zero shear rate viscosity 0

• Shear stress 1/2
• Power parameter ae
• Initial guess app,0
For the Houska thixotropy model, the following parameters are required:

• Permanent fluid consistency coefficient my,0

• Thixotropic fluid consistency coefficient my,t
• Flow behavior index nf
• Permanent yield stress y,0
• Thixotropic yield stress y,t
• Breakdown index nb
• Rebuild coefficient kf
• Breakdown coefficient kb
ꞏ
• Reference shear rate  ref

50 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Model parameter mp
The default values for the parameters are listed in Table 3-1.
TABLE 3-1: DEFAULT VALUES FOR THE INELASTIC NON-NEWTONIAN MODELS.

NAME UNIT VARIABLE DEFAULT VALUE

Fluid consistency coefficient Pa·s m 0.001

Flow behavior index / Power index Dimensionless n, nf 1
-1 ꞏ
Flow shear rate limit s  min 0.01
ꞏ
Reference shear rate s-1  ref 1
Zero shear rate viscosity Pa·s 0 0.001
Infinite shear rate viscosity Pa·s inf 0
Relaxation time s , DK 0
Transition parameter Dimensionless s 2
Critical stress N/m2 tr 1
Plastic viscosity Pa·s p 0.001
Yield stress N/m2 y 0
Model parameter s mp 10
Shear rate viscosity parameter Pa·s DK 0.001
Shear stress parameter N/m2 1/2 1
Power parameter Dimensionless ae 2
Initial guess of app Pa·s app,0 0
Permanent fluid consistency coefficient Pa·s my,0 0.001
Thixotropic fluid consistency coefficient Pa·s my,t 0
Permanent yield stress N/m2 y,0 0
Thixotropic yield stress N/m2 y,t 0
Breakdown index Dimensionless nb 1
Rebuild index s-1 kf 1
Breakdown coefficient s-1 kb 1

Thermal Effects
If 0, p, m, or DK is User defined, or the Houska thixotropy model is used, the thermal
effects are activated with five options: None, Arrhenius, Williams–Landel–Ferry (WLF),
Exponential, and User defined.

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 51

 • Non-Newtonian Flow in the CFD Module User’s Guide

Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the volume force F on the right-hand side of the
momentum equation.

u T 2
 +   u   u =   – pI +   u +  u   – ---     u I + F
t 3

If several volume-force nodes are added to the same domain, then the sum of all
contributions are added to the momentum equation.

Initial Values
The initial values serve as initial conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial
guess for a nonlinear solver in a stationary simulation. Note that for a transient
compressible-flow simulation employing a material for which the density depends on
the pressure (such as air), discontinuities in the initial values trigger pressure waves
even when the Mach number is small. The pressure waves must be resolved and this
puts a restriction on the time step.

INITIAL VALUES
Initial values or expressions should be specified for the Velocity field u and the Pressure
p.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p user input.

52 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at stationary, moving, and leaking walls. For turbulent flow, the description may
involve wall functions and asymptotic expressions for certain turbulence variables.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the wall.

• No Slip • Leaking Wall

• Slip • Navier Slip
• Nonlinear Navier Slip
• Hatzikiriakos Slip
• Asymptotic Slip

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition to model solid walls. A no-slip wall is a wall
where the fluid velocity relative to the wall velocity is zero. For a stationary wall that
means that u = 0.

The option for Porous treatment of no slip condition is available when Enable porous
media domains is activated in the Physical Model section in the settings for the main
physics interface node. It specifies how Wall boundaries and Interior Wall boundaries
adjacent to porous domains are treated. When Standard no slip formulation is chosen,
a common no slip condition is applied on all solid walls. When the default Porous slip
is chosen, a blending analytic expression is instead applied on the corresponding wall
boundaries adjacent to the porous medium domain. It results in a no slip condition in
case the porous length scale is fully resolved by the mesh and a slip condition in the
opposite limit when the mesh is much coarser than the porous scale. A smooth
transition between these limits is ensured. Note that the interpretation and usage of
nonzero slip at the wall is the same as in the Navier slip boundary condition. By default,
Velocity formulation is on and the treatment is based on an approximate reconstruction
of the far field pressure gradient using the slip velocity at the wall. If the
Pressure-gradient formulation is chosen, the local pressure gradient at the wall is
employed.

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 53

 Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n  . It is implicitly assumed
that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer develops.
From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation if the main
effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.

Leaking Wall
This boundary condition may be used to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or
leaving the domain with the velocity u = ul through a perforated wall. The
components of the Fluid velocity ul on the leaking wall should be specified.

Navier Slip
This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u nwall0, and adds
a tangential stress


K nt = – --- u slip


where Knt  Kn  Kn  nwallnwallKn  Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor. is
a slip length, and uslip  u  u  nwallnwall is the velocity tangential to the wall.

The Slip length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The slip
length  is then defined as   fhhmin, where hmin is the smallest element side and fh
is a user input. Select User defined from the Slip length selection list in order to manually
prescribe (SI unit: m).

In cases where the wall movement is nonzero, check Account for the translational wall
velocity in the friction force to use u  ubnd  u ubnd  nwallnwall instead of uslip in
the friction force.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, Kn is the sum of the viscous and the elastic
contributions.

Nonlinear Navier Slip

This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u  nwall  0, and adds a
tangential stress

 ref m-1 
K nt = –  ------------- --- u slip
K nt 

where Knt  Kn  Kn  nwallnwallKn  Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor. ref
is a reference value used for scaling and dimensionalization and

54 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

uslip  u  u  nwallnwall is the velocity tangential to the wall. For further settings, see
the Navier Slip condition.

For Viscoelastic Flow interface, Kn, is the sum of the viscous and the elastic
contributions.

Hatzikiriakos Slip
When Hatzikiriakos slip is selected, a slip velocity is applied when the tangential stress
is larger than the specified yield stress, y,


 K nt

= –  k 1 sinh   k 2  K nt –  y    K  if K nt   y
u slip -------------
nt

 0 if K nt   y


where Knt  Kn  Kn  nwallnwallKn  Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor. k1
(SI unit: m/s) and k2 (SI unit: 1/Pa) are the slip-velocity and compliance coefficients.

In cases where the wall movement is nonzero, check Account for the translational wall
velocity in the friction force to set the slip velocity relative to the boundary velocity
ubnd. Note that the Velocity of sliding wall uw is always accounted for in the boundary
velocity.

The Hatzikiriakos Slip option is not available for the Viscoelastic Flow interface.

Asymptotic Slip
This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u  nwall  0, and adds a
tangential stress

1 u slip
K nt = – ------  e uslip  k1 – 1  --------------
k2 u slip

where Knt  Kn  Kn  nwallnwallKn  Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor. k1
(SI unit: m/s) and k2 (SI unit: 1/Pa) are the slip-velocity and compliance coefficients,
while uslip  u  u  nwallnwall is the velocity tangential to the wall.

In cases where the wall movement is nonzero, check Account for the translational wall
velocity in the friction force to use u  ubnd  u ubnd  nwallnwall instead of uslip in
the friction force.

The Asymptotic Slip option is not available for the Viscoelastic Flow interface.

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 55

 WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr  0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Translational velocity selection list to prescribe utr  0.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh node needs to be added from
Definitions to physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

The Sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt with the
surface sliding in a tangential direction. A velocity is prescribed at the wall and the
boundary itself does not have to actually move relative to the reference frame.

• For 3D components, values or expressions for the Velocity of sliding wall uw should
be specified. If the velocity vector entered is not in the plane of the wall, COMSOL
Multiphysics projects it onto the tangential direction. Its magnitude is adjusted to
be the same as the magnitude of the vector entered.
• For 2D components, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the
direction of the boundary. For this reason, the sliding wall boundary condition has
different definitions in different space dimensions. A single entry for the Velocity of
the tangentially moving wall Uw should be specified in 2D.
• For 2D axisymmetric components when Swirl flow is selected in the physics interface
properties, the Velocity of moving wall, -component vw can also be specified.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Constraints settings
can be set to Automatic, Pointwise constraints, Nitsche constraints, or Weak constraints.
Mixed constraints can be selected when imposing a no slip condition exactly.

56 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Depending on the constraint method selected, the following settings are available:

• Apply reaction terms on can be set to Individual dependent variables (default) or All
physics (symmetric). This setting is not available when Nitsche constraints is selected.
• Select Elemental (default) or Nodal under Constraint method. This setting is not
available for Nitsche constraints or Weak constraints.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

• The Moving Mesh Interface

Inlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net flow into the
domain. To obtain a numerically well-posed problem, it is advisable to also consider
the Outlet conditions when specifying an Inlet condition. For example, if the pressure
is specified at the outlet, the velocity may be specified at the inlet, and vice versa.
Specifying the velocity vector at both the inlet and the outlet may cause convergence
difficulties.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The available Boundary condition options for an inlet are Velocity, Fully developed flow,
Mass flow, and Pressure. After selecting a Boundary Condition from the list, a section with
the same or a similar name displays underneath. For example, if Velocity is selected, a
Velocity section, where further settings are defined, is displayed.

VELOCITY
The Normal inflow velocity is specified as u = nU0, where n is the boundary normal
pointing out of the domain and U0 is the normal inflow speed.

The Velocity field option sets the velocity vector to u = u0. The components of the inlet
velocity vector u0 should be defined for this choice.

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 57

 PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This option specifies the normal stress, which in most cases is approximately equal to
the pressure.

• For incompressible flow, the Pressure list has two options, Static and Total. For
weakly compressible and compressible flow, the static pressure should be specified
in the text field.
- If Pressure is Static, and the reference pressure pref, defined at the physics
interface level, is equal to , the value of the pressure p0, at the boundary, is the
absolute pressure. Otherwise, p0 is the relative pressure at the boundary.
- If Pressure is Total, the Average check box is available and cleared by default to
prescribe the total pressure pointwise. If it is selected, the averaged total pressure
is imposed in the weak forms instead.
When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the
interface Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure
approximation (named Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows)
check box is available and selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic
pressure is automatically added to the pressure entered in p0 user input.
• The Suppress backflow option adjusts the inlet pressure locally in order to reduce the
amount of fluid exiting the domain through the boundary. If you clear the suppress
backflow option, the inlet boundary can become an outlet depending on the
pressure field in the rest of the domain.
• Flow direction controls in which direction the fluid enters the domain.
- For Normal flow, it prescribes zero tangential velocity component.
- For User defined, an Inflow velocity direction du (dimensionless) should be
specified. The magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must
point into the domain.

MASS FLOW
The mass flow at an inlet can be specified by the Mass flow rate or a Pointwise mass flux.

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the mass flow condition is applied separately on
each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is applied over the
whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately should
be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on each disjoint
boundary.

58 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Mass Flow Rate
The Mass flow rate option sets the integrated mass flow over the boundary selection,
the Normal mass flow rate to a specific value, m. The mass flow is assumed to be parallel
to the boundary normal, and the tangential flow velocity is set to zero.

For 2D components, the Channel thickness dbc is used to define the area across which
the mass flow occurs. This setting is not applied to the whole model. Line or surface
integrals of the mass flow over the boundary evaluated during postprocessing or used
in integration coupling operators do not include this scaling automatically. Such results
should be appropriately scaled when comparing them with the specified mass flow.

Pointwise Mass Flux

The Pointwise mass flux sets the mass flow parallel to the boundary normal. The
tangential flow velocity is set to zero. The mass flux is a model input, which means that
COMSOL Multiphysics can take its value from another physics interface when
available. When User defined is selected a value or function Mf should be specified for
the Mass flux.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

The Fully developed flow option adds contributions to the inflow boundary, which force
the flow toward the solution for a fully developed channel flow. The channel can be
thought of as a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section. The inlet boundary must
hence be flat in order for the fully developed flow condition to work properly. In 2D
axisymmetric models, the inlet normal must be parallel to the symmetry axis.

Select an option to control the flow rate at the inlet:

• Average velocity, Uav.

• Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Note that Pav is the average pressure on the inflow boundary.

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the fully developed flow condition is applied
separately on each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is
applied over the whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection
separately should be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on
each disjoint boundary.

The fully developed flow condition requires any volume force to be approximately
aligned with the normal of the inlet boundary. The exception is gravity when the

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 59

 Include gravity setting is selected in the physics interface settings. Unless Use reduced
pressure is also selected, an option to Compensate for hydrostatic pressure or
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation becomes available. It is selected per
default and should only be deselected if the inlet normal is aligned with the gravity
force and you want to specify an average pressure that includes the hydrostatic
pressure.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the fully developed inflow can be used in
conjunction with the viscoelastic constitutive model. No additional inputs are required
for the elastic stress tensor components. They are instead solved for on the inlet
boundary to be consistent with the fully developed flow profile.

VISCOELASTIC STRESS
For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the inlet conditions for the elastic stress
components are required. Note, that if several branches are specified in the Fluid
Property node, the initial values entered above are applied to all branches.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

• Normal Stress Boundary Condition

Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)

Outlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net outflow from the
domain. To obtain a numerically well-posed problem, it is advisable to also consider
the Inlet conditions when specifying an Outlet condition. For example, if the velocity
is specified at the inlet, the pressure may be specified at the outlet, and vice versa.
Specifying the velocity vector at both the inlet and the outlet may cause convergence
difficulties. Selecting appropriate outlet conditions for the Navier–Stokes equations is
a nontrivial task. Generally, if there is something interesting happening at an outflow

60 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

boundary, the computational domain should be extended to include this
phenomenon.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The available Boundary condition options for an outlet are Pressure, Fully developed flow,
and Velocity.

PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This option specifies the normal stress, which in most cases is approximately equal to
the pressure. The tangential stress component is set to zero.

• For incompressible flow, the Pressure list has two options, Static and Total. For
weakly compressible and compressible flow, the static pressure should be specified
in the text field.
- If Pressure is Static, and the reference pressure pref, defined at the physics
interface level, is equal to , the value of the pressure p0, at the boundary, is the
absolute pressure. Otherwise, p0 is the relative pressure at the boundary.
- If Pressure is Total, the Average check box is available and selected by default to
prescribed the averaged total pressure in the weak forms. If it is cleared, the total
pressure is imposed pointwise.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p0 user input.

• The Normal flow option changes the no tangential stress condition to a no tangential
velocity condition. This forces the flow to exit (or enter) the domain perpendicularly
to the outlet boundary.
• The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the outlet
pressure in order to reduce the amount of fluid entering the domain through the
boundary.

VELOCITY
See the Inlet node Velocity section for the settings.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

This boundary condition is applicable when the flow exits the domain into a long pipe
or channel, at the end of which a flow profile is fully developed.

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 61

 The channel can be thought of as a virtual extrusion of the outlet cross section. The
outlet boundary must hence be flat in order for the fully developed flow condition to
work properly. In 2D axisymmetric models, the outlet normal must be parallel to the
symmetry axis.

Select an option to control the flow rate at the outlet:

• Average velocity, Uav.

• Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Observe that Pav is the average pressure on the outflow.

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the fully developed flow condition is applied
separately on each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is
applied over the whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection
separately should be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on
each disjoint boundary.

The fully developed flow condition requires any volume force to be approximately
aligned with the normal of the outlet boundary. The exception is gravity when the
Include gravity setting is selected in the physics interface settings. Unless Use reduced
pressure is also selected, an option to Compensate for hydrostatic pressure or
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation becomes available. It is selected per
default and should only be deselected if the outlet normal is aligned with the gravity
force and you want to specify an average pressure that includes the hydrostatic
pressure.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the fully developed outflow can be used in
conjunction with the viscoelastic constitutive model. No additional inputs are required
for the elastic stress tensor components. They are instead solved for on the outlet
boundary to be consistent with the fully developed flow profile.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

62 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)

Symmetry
This node provides a boundary condition for symmetry boundaries. It should only be
used when the geometry and expected solution have mirror symmetry. By using
symmetries in a model its size can be reduced by one-half or more, making this an
efficient tool for solving large problems.

The Symmetry boundary condition prescribes no penetration and vanishing shear

stresses. The boundary condition is a combination of a Dirichlet condition and a
Neumann condition:

u  n = 0,  – pI +    u +  u  T  – 2
---     u I  n = 0
  3 

u  n = 0,  – pI +   u +  u  T  n = 0

for the compressible and incompressible formulations. The Dirichlet condition takes
precedence over the Neumann condition, and the above equations are equivalent to
the following equation for both the compressible and incompressible formulations:

u  n = 0, K –  K  n n = 0
K =   u +  u  T n

BOUNDARY SELECTION
For 2D axial symmetry, a boundary condition does not need to be defined for the
symmetry axis at r  0. The software automatically provides a condition that prescribes
ur  0 and vanishing stresses in the z direction and adds an Axial Symmetry node that
implements these conditions on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 63

 Open Boundary
The Open Boundary condition describes boundaries in contact with a large volume of
fluid. Fluid can both enter and leave the domain on boundaries with this type of
condition.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The Boundary condition options for open boundaries are Normal stress and No viscous
stress.

Normal Stress
The Normal stress f0 condition implicitly imposes p  f0.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in f0 user input.

No Viscous Stress
The No Viscous Stress condition specifies vanishing viscous stress on the boundary. This
condition does not provide sufficient information to fully specify the flow at the open
boundary and must at least be combined with pressure constraints at adjacent points.

The No viscous stress condition prescribes:

   u +  u  T  – 2
---     u I n = 0
 3 

  u +  u  T n = 0

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations. This condition can be useful
in some situations because it does not impose any constraint on the pressure. A typical
example is a model with volume forces that give rise to pressure gradients that are hard
to prescribe in advance. To make the model numerically stable, this boundary
condition should be combined with a point constraint on the pressure.

VISCOELASTIC STRESS
For Viscoelastic Flow interface, Viscoelastic Stress section is available. See Viscoelastic
Stress.

64 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Boundary Stress
The Boundary Stress node adds a boundary condition that represents a general class of
conditions also known as traction boundary conditions.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The Boundary condition options for the boundary stress are General stress, Normal
stress, and Normal stress, normal flow.

General Stress
When General stress is selected, the components for the Stress F should be specified.
The total stress on the boundary is set equal to the given stress F:

 – pI +    u +  u  T  – 2
---     u I  n = F
  3 

 – pI +   u +  u  T  n = F

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations.

This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is

u n
p = 2 ---------- – n  F (3-1)
n

If unn is small, Equation 3-1 states that p  n·F.

Normal Stress
Normal Stress is described for the Open Boundary node.

Normal Stress, Normal Flow

For Normal stress, normal flow, the magnitude of the Normal stress f0 should be
specified. The tangential velocity is set to zero on the boundary:

n  – pI +    u +  u  T  – ---     u I  n = – f 0 ,
T 2
tu = 0
  3 

T
n  – pI +   u +  u  T  n = – f 0 , tu = 0

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations.

This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 65

 u n
p = 2 ---------- + f 0 (3-2)
n

If unn is small, Equation 3-2 states that p  f0.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in f0 or phydron is added to F depending of the selected option.

VISCOELASTIC STRESS
For Viscoelastic Flow interface, Viscoelastic Stress section is available. See Viscoelastic
Stress.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

If Normal Stress, Normal Flow is selected as the Boundary condition, then to Apply
reaction terms on all dependent variables, the All physics (symmetric) option should be
selected. Alternatively, the Individual dependent variables could be selected to restrict
the reaction terms as needed.

Periodic Flow Condition

The Periodic Flow Condition splits its selection into a source group and a destination
group (the Destination Selection section is optional). Fluid that leaves the domain
through one of the destination boundaries enters the domain through the
corresponding source boundary. This corresponds to a situation where the geometry
is a periodic part of a larger geometry. If the boundaries are not parallel to each other,
the velocity vector is automatically transformed.

If the boundaries are curved, the orientation of the source must be specified manually
(see Orientation of Source).

No input is required when Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) is selected for Compressibility

under the Physical Model section for the physics interface. Typically when a periodic
boundary condition is used with a compressible flow, the pressure is the same at both
boundaries and the flow is driven by a volume force.

66 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

BOUNDARY SELECTION

The software usually automatically identifies the boundaries as either source boundaries or
destination boundaries, as indicated in the selection list. This works fine for cases like opposing
parallel boundaries. In other cases, right-click Periodic Flow Condition and select Manual Destination
Selection to control the destination. By default it contains the selection that COMSOL
Multiphysics identifies.

DESTINATION SELECTION
This section is available for specifying the destination boundaries, if needed, when the
Manual Destination Selection option is selected in the context menu for the Periodic Flow
Condition node. You can only select destination boundaries from the union of all source
and destination boundaries.

FLOW CONDITION
This section is available when Incompressible flow is selected for Compressibility under
the Physical Model section for the physics interface.

The Flow Condition at the boundary is specified through a value or expression for either
ꞏ . The mass flow option ensures
the Pressure difference, psrc  pdst, or the Mass flow, m
a pressure difference is achieved across the source and destination boundaries. This
pressure difference can, for example, drive the fully developed flow in a channel.

To set up a periodic boundary condition, both boundaries must be selected in the

Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically assigns one
boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To manually set the
destination selection, a Destination Selection subnode is available from the context
menu (by right-clicking the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
All destination sides must be connected.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

ORIENTATION OF DESTINATION
This section appears if the setting for Transform to intermediate map in the Orientation
of Source section is changed from the default value, Automatic, and Advanced Physics

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 67

 Options is selected in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Destination section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MAPPING BETWEEN SOURCE AND DESTINATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Mapping Between Source and Destination section, see Mapping Between Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except

that it applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities (velocity,
pressure) across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures by applying no-slip conditions on interior curves and
surfaces instead. Slip conditions and conditions for a moving wall can also be
prescribed. It is compatible with laminar and turbulent flow.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The following Boundary condition options are available.

No Slip
The No slip condition models solid walls. No slip walls are walls where the fluid velocity
relative to the wall is zero. For an interior stationary wall this means that u = 0 on both
sides of the wall.

Slip
The Slip condition prescribes a no-penetration condition, u  n  0. It implicitly
assumes that there are no viscous effects on either side of the slip wall and hence, no
boundary layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable
approximation if the important effect is to prevent the exchange of fluid between the
regions separated by the interior wall.

Navier Slip
The Navier slip condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u  nwall  0, and adds a
tangential stress on each side of the wall

68 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 
K nt = – --- u slip


where is a slip length. For more information, see the Navier Slip option in the Wall
feature.

Nonlinear Navier Slip

This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u  nwall  0, and adds a
tangential stress on each side of the wall

 ref m-1 
K nt = –  ------------- --- u slip
 K nt  

For more information, see the Nonlinear Navier Slip option in the Wall feature.

Hatzikiriakos Slip
When Hatzikiriakos slip is selected, a slip velocity is applied on each side of the interior
wall when the tangential stress on the corresponding side is larger than the specified
yield stress, y,


 K nt

= –  k 1 sinh   k 2  K nt –  y    K  if K nt   y
-------------
u slip
nt

 0 if K nt   y


For more information, see the Hatzikiriakos Slip option in the Wall feature.

The Hatzikiriakos Slip option is not available for the Viscoelastic Flow interface.

Asymptotic Slip
This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u  nwall  0, and adds a
tangential stress on each side of the wall

1 u slip
K nt = – ------  e uslip  k1 – 1  --------------
k2 u slip

For more information, see the Asymptotic Slip option in the Wall feature.

The Asymptotic Slip option is not available for the Viscoelastic Flow interface.

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 69

 WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr  0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Translational velocity selection list to prescribe utr  0.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options. The Constraints settings can be set to Automatic, Pointwise constraints,
or Nitsche constraints. Mixed constraints can be selected when imposing a no slip
condition exactly.

Porous Interface
The Porous Interface condition is designed to properly account for a sudden jump in
porosity, p, across a boundary between different domains. It describes possible
discontinuity of stress across the interface, and also reveals modified behavior of
tangential velocity due to boundary layer on the upstream side of the interface. Choose
among the following options under the Continuity conditions:

• Velocity and stress — stress continuity is invoked;

• Velocity and porosity-corrected stress (default)— the sum of stress and a contribution
due to the inertial term being constant across the interface;
• Velocity and porosity-corrected stress with loss — the sum of the stress and a
contribution due to the inertial term is lost in the downstream direction.

70 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

All three options give continuity of the velocity across the interface in constant-density
flows, while in case of a jump in density:

1 give continuity of the mass flux (product of density and normal velocity) and
tangential velocity;
2 account for the density-jump correction in the stress condition.

When Velocity and porosity-corrected stress with loss is chosen, a Pressure loss model
needs to be specified. The options are:

• User-defined loss coefficients (default). Enter values for Expansion loss coefficient and
Contraction loss coefficient;
• Borda–Carnot. Specify Vena contracta model.

Vena contracta model allows two options:

• User defined (default) — enter value of Vena contracta coefficient;

• Weisbach — enter values of Lower limit and Exponent.

Notice that the notions ‘expansion’ and ‘contraction’ used in this section correspond
not to geometrical changes, but to the variations of the microscopic structure across
the interface in the flow direction — increasing or decreasing porosity, p, respectively.

Flow Continuity
The Flow Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it
prescribes that the flow field is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

When the condition is set for pairs adjacent to domains with different porosity p, it
imposes conditions identical to the Porous Interface feature, which is designed to
properly account for a sudden jump in porosity. See the section Porous Interface above

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 71

 for further details (note that the Flow Continuity does not account for the density-jump
corrections),

About Identity and Contact Pairs

Pressure Point Constraint

The Pressure Point Constraint condition can be used to specify the pressure level. If it
is not possible to specify the pressure level using a boundary condition, the pressure
level must be set in some other way, for example, by specifying a fixed pressure at a
point.

PRESSURE CONSTRAINT
The relative pressure value is set by specifying the Pressure p0. If the reference pressure
pref defined at the physics interface level is equal to zero, p0 represents the absolute
pressure.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p0 user input.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

The Apply reaction terms on setting is set per default to Individual dependent variables.
All physics (symmetric) cannot be used together with a segregated solver when fluid
flow is coupled with Moving Mesh, Level Set, or Phase Field in Fluids.

Point Mass Source

This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Battery Design Module,
CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

72 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Point Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
domain centered around a point.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which is available
with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, or Battery Design
Module, there are two nodes: one for the fluid flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for
the species (Species Point Source).

SOURCE STRENGTH
The source Mass flux, qꞏ p should be specified. A positive value results in mass being
ejected from the point into the computational domain. A negative value results in mass
being removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that a point source located on a symmetry
plane has twice the given strength.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Line Mass Source

This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Battery Design Module,
CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

The Line Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from a tube region with
infinitely small radius.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which is available
with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, or Battery Design
Module, there are two nodes, one for the fluid flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the
species (Species Line Source).

THE CREEPING FLOW AND LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACES | 73

 SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the axis of symmetry
3D Edges

SOURCE STRENGTH
The source Mass flux, qꞏ l , should be specified. A positive value results in mass being
ejected from the line into the computational domain and a negative value means that
mass is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This,
for example, has the effect that a line source located on a symmetry plane has twice the
given strength.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value.

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

74 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Potential Flow Interface
In this section

• The Incompressible Potential Flow Interface

The Incompressible Potential Flow Interface

The Incompressible Potential Flow (ipf) interface ( ) is used for simulating
irrotational, inviscid, and incompressible flow. The main application of the interface is
to provide initial solutions for other Single-Phase Flow interfaces.

The equation solved by the Incompressible Potential Flow interface is the Laplace
equation for a velocity potential. This can be used to derive both a velocity and static
pressure.

The Incompressible Potential Flow interface is available for stationary analyses. The
main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the Laplace equation. The Fluid
Properties feature provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties
used to derive the velocity and pressure. When this physics interface is added, the
following default nodes are also added in the Model Builder:

• Fluid Properties
• Initial Values
• Wall

Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Incompressible Potential Flow to select physics features from the
context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ipf.

THE POTENTIAL FLOW INTERFACE | 75

 PRESSURE
This node specifies Total pressure (SI unit: Pa) used to compute the pointwise static
pressure from the potential flow solution.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This physics interface solves for the Velocity Potential -dependent variable (field).

If required, the names of the field, component, and dependent variable can be edited.
Editing the name of a scalar dependent variable changes both its field name and the
dependent variable name. If a new field name coincides with the name of another field
of the same type, the fields share degrees of freedom and dependent variable names. A
new field name must not coincide with the name of a field of another type or with a
component name belonging to some other field. Component names must be unique
within a model except when two fields share a common field name.

DISCRETIZATION
Select shape function type for the velocity potential. The default setting is Quadratic.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Viscoelastic

Interface
• Theory for the Incompressible Potential Flow Interface

Flow Around an Inclined NACA 0012 Airfoil: Application Library

path CFD_Module/Verification_Examples/naca0012_airfoil

76 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Incompressible
Potential Flow Interface
The The Incompressible Potential Flow Interface has the following domain, boundary
and pair nodes:

• Initial Values • Potential Point Constraint

• Interior Wall • Symmetry
• Flow Continuity • Velocity
• Fluid Properties • Wall
• Open Boundary
• Periodic Flow Condition (see
Periodic Boundary Conditions in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual)
1
Described for the Laminar Flow interface.

Boundary conditions for axial symmetry boundaries are not required. For
the symmetry axis at r0, the software automatically provides a suitable
boundary condition and adds an Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the
axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the Laplace equation solved by the physics interface.
The node also provides an interface for defining the density of the fluid, and builds the
velocity and static pressure.

Material Properties
The density can either be specified by a material, or by a User defined expression.

THE POTENTIAL FLOW INTERFACE | 77

 Initial Values
Use the Initial Values node to define the initial values of the velocity potential variable.

INITIAL VALUES
An initial value or expression should be specified for the Velocity Potential .

Wall
The Wall node sets a slip wall condition for the fluid. This prescribes a no-penetration
condition, u·n  .

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Normal wall velocity setting controls the normal wall velocity Ubnd. The list is per
default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement Ubnd  0. If the frame moves, Ubnd becomes
equal to the frame movement projected on the wall normal. Ubnd is accounted for in
the actual nonpenetration boundary condition prescribed, so that u  n  Ubnd.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Normal wall velocity selection list to always prescribe
Ubnd  0.

Velocity
The Velocity node sets a normal inflow velocity condition for the fluid. This prescribes
a flux condition for the velocity potential,   n  Uin

Open Boundary
The Open Boundary node sets a normal flow condition for the fluid. The level of  is
set to a constant value along the boundary, so that the tangential derivative of  is zero

OPEN BOUNDARY
The potential level is set by specifying the Velocity potential bnd.

78 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node prescribes a symmetry condition for the velocity potential,
  n  0.

Potential Point Constraint

The Potential Point Constraint node can be used to specify the velocity potential level.
If it is not possible to specify the velocity potential level using a boundary condition,
the level must be set in some other way, for example, by specifying a fixed potential at
a point.

POTENTIAL POINT CONSTRAINT

The potential level is set by specifying the Velocity potential p.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Periodic Flow Condition

The Periodic Flow Condition splits its selection into a source group and a destination
group (the Destination Selection section is optional). Fluid that leaves the domain
through one of the destination boundaries enters the domain through the
corresponding source boundary. This corresponds to a situation where the geometry
is a periodic part of a larger geometry. If the boundaries are not parallel to each other,
the velocity vector is automatically transformed.

If the boundaries are curved, the orientation of the source must be specified manually
(see Orientation of Source).

OFFSET
The Offset at the boundary specifies a value or expression for either the Velocity
potential difference, src  dst. The offset ensures a gradient of the Velocity potential
between the source and destination, so that the velocity is not zero.

THE POTENTIAL FLOW INTERFACE | 79

 BOUNDARY SELECTION
To set up a periodic boundary condition, both boundaries must be selected in the
Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically assigns one
boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To manually set the
destination selection, a Destination Selection subnode is available from the context
menu (by right-clicking the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
All destination sides must be connected.

The software usually automatically identifies the boundaries as either

source boundaries or destination boundaries, as indicated in the selection
list. This works fine for cases like opposing parallel boundaries. In other
cases, right-click Periodic Flow Condition and select Manual Destination
Selection to control the destination. By default it contains the selection
that COMSOL Multiphysics identifies.

DESTINATION SELECTION
This section is available for specifying the destination boundaries, if needed, when the
Manual Destination Selection option is selected in the context menu for the Periodic Flow
Condition node. You can only select destination boundaries from the union of all source
and destination boundaries.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

ORIENTATION OF DESTINATION
This section appears if the setting for Transform to intermediate map in the Orientation
of Source section is changed from the default value, Automatic, and Advanced Physics
Options is selected in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Destination section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MAPPING BETWEEN SOURCE AND DESTINATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the

80 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Mapping Between Source and Destination section, see Mapping Between Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Wall node available on exterior boundaries except that it applies on
both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the velocity potential
across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to avoid
meshing thin structures by applying a no-penetration condition, u  n  Ubnd, on
interior curves and surfaces instead. Slip conditions and conditions for a moving wall
can also be prescribed.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Normal wall velocity setting controls the normal wall velocity Ubnd. The list is per
default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement Ubnd  0. If the frame moves, Ubnd becomes
equal to the frame movement projected on the wall normal. Ubnd is accounted for in
the actual no-penetration boundary condition prescribed, so that u  n  Ubnd.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Normal wall velocity selection list to always prescribe
Ubnd  0.

Flow Continuity
The Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the velocity potential variable is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.

THE POTENTIAL FLOW INTERFACE | 81

 By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Right-click the physics interface and select Pairs>Continuity.

Ribbon
Physics tab with the physics interface selected:

Pairs>Continuity

82 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Rotating Machinery, Laminar
Flo w Inte r f a ce
The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow (spf) interface, found under the Single-Phase
Flow>Rotating Machinery branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used for
modeling flow where one or more of the boundaries rotate in a periodic fashion. This
is used for mixers and propellers.

The physics interface supports compressible, weakly compressible and incompressible

flow, and the flow of non-Newtonian fluids. In addition, the physics interface supports
creeping flow, although the shallow channel approximation is redundant.

In this section:

• Moving Mesh
• The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces

Moving Mesh
The Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces rely on ALE (arbitrary Lagrangian–
Eulerian) moving mesh functionality for their rotating domain and free surface
implementation.

ROTATING DOMAINS
When a Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interface is added using the Model Wizard, a
Rotating Domain node is added automatically in the Model Builder under the
Definitions>Moving Mesh node. It contains settings for specifying the rotation of one or
several domains. By default, All domains are selected. Under the Rotating Domain, you
can exclude any nonrotating fluid domains. For both 3D and 2D components, the
Rotation type should be set to Specified rotational velocity.

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACE | 83

 Select a Rotational velocity expression — General revolutions per time (the default),
Constant revolutions per time, General angular velocity, or Constant angular velocity.

• For Constant revolutions per time, or General revolutions per time, enter a value or
expression respectively in the Revolutions per time input field and optionally an Initial
angle. The angular velocity in this case is defined as the input multiplied by 2.
• For Constant angular velocity, or General angular velocity enter a value or an
expression respectively in the Angular velocity input field and optionally an Initial
angle.

3D Components
For 3D components, select the Rotation axis base point, rax. The default is the origin.
Select the Rotation axis, urot, the z-axis is the default. If the x-axis is selected, it
corresponds to a rotational axis (1, 0, 0) with the origin as the base point, and
correspondingly for the y-axis and z-axis.

2D Components
For 2D components, enter coordinates for the Rotation axis base point, rax. The
default is the origin (0, 0).

The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface

The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow (spf) interface ( ), found under the
Single-Phase Flow>Rotating Machinery branch ( ), is used to simulate flow at low to
moderate Reynolds numbers in geometries with one or more rotating parts. The
physics interface supports incompressible, weakly compressible and compressible flows
at low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3). It also supports modeling of
non-Newtonian fluids. The physics interface is available for 3D and 2D components.

There are two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent
study type, rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality, also known as
sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor study type, the rotating parts are kept frozen in
position, and rotation is accounted for by the inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis
forces. In both types, the momentum balance is governed by the Navier–Stokes
equations, and the mass conservation is governed by the continuity equation. See
Theory for the Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder under Laminar Flow — Fluid Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. A
Moving Mesh interface with a Rotating Domain node is added automatically in the Model
Builder under the Definitions node. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes

84 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also
right-click Laminar Flow to select physics features from the context menu. See Domain,
Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

Behavior of a Power-Law Fluid in a Mixer: Application Library path

Polymer_Flow_Module/Verification_Examples/power_law_mixer

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is spf.

In addition to the settings described below, see The Creeping Flow and Laminar Flow
Interfaces for all the other settings available. See Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair
Nodes for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces for links to all the physics nodes.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Pseudo Time Stepping

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Frozen Rotor equation form is used.
(Frozen rotor is a pseudo stationary formulation.) When selected, also choose a CFL
number expression — Automatic (the default) or Manual. Automatic sets the local CFL
number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy condition) to the built-in variable
CFLCMP which in turn triggers a PID regulator for the CFL number. For Manual enter
a Local CFL number CFLloc (dimensionless).

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACE | 85

 Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating
Machinery Interfaces
All versions of the Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces use the following
domain, boundary, point, and pair physics nodes.

• Contact Angle
• Stationary Free Surface

The nodes are available under the option Rotating Machinery from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to
access the context menu (all users).

The following nodes, available in the Fluid Flow interfaces, are described for the
Laminar Flow interface:

• Boundary Stress • Outlet

• Initial Values • Periodic Flow Condition
• Interior Wall • Point Mass Source
• Flow Continuity • Pressure Point Constraint
• Fluid Properties • Symmetry
• Inlet • Volume Force
• Line Mass Source • Wall
• Open Boundary

Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

Stationary Free Surface

This postprocessing feature is used to estimate the deformation of a free surface from
the pressure distribution on the boundary when using the Frozen Rotor or Frozen Rotor
with Initialization study types. When computing the flow field, a slip condition together

86 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

with a constant pressure level pext is applied on the boundary. The free surface
deformation FS is evaluated from the linearized free surface condition in a separate
study step, Stationary Free Surface, using the pressure from the Frozen Rotor study
step:

p  x 0  – p ext + n̂  p  FS = –   S2  FS (3-3)
x = x0

Here,  is the surface tension coefficient, x = x0 represents the position of the

undisturbed surface (the feature selection), and n̂ is its unit normal. The correct study
sequence can be triggered by toggling the study window once a selection for the
Stationary Free Surface feature has been made.

The Stationary Free Surface feature is supported by laminar and turbulent flow, and is
applicable for small surface deformations (FS and its gradient should be small
compared to the dimensions of the computational domain). If the surface deformation
is large, a time-dependent study with a Deforming Domain and a Free Surface feature
should be used instead.

Iterative solvers are necessary to reduce the cost of models with large number of
degrees of freedom. The fluid flow interfaces use a Smoothed aggregation AMG solver
per default. When the Stationary Free Surface feature is active and has a nonempty
selection in a frozen rotor or stationary study step, a Geometric multigrid solver is used
instead to ensure robustness of the model.

The Choice of Solver and Solver Settings in the CFD Module User’s
Guide and Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

STATIONARY FREE SURFACE

Enter an External pressure pext corresponding to the average pressure level on the free
surface.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation.

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACE | 87

 The Surface tension coefficient (SI unit: N/m) can be specified from predefined
libraries, by selecting Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface (the default) or Library
coefficient, liquid/liquid interface, or be set to User defined.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface select an option from the list — Water/Air
(the default), Acetone/Air, Acetic acid/Air, Ethanol/Air, Ethylene glycol/Ethylene glycol
vapor, Diethyl ether/Air, Glycerol/Air, Heptane/Nitrogen, Mercury/Mercury vapor, or
Toluene/Air.
• For Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface select an option from the list — Benzene/
Water, 20°C, Corn oil/Water, 20°C, Ether/Water, 20°C, Hexane/Water, 20°C, Mercury/
Water, 20°C, or Olive oil/Water, 20°C.

Only one Stationary Free Surface feature can be applied in a Rotating Machinery, Fluid
Flow interface, and it requires the study to be stationary (Frozen Rotor).

Contact Angle
This feature specifies the contact angle between the free surface and a solid [Link]
Contact Angle feature is a subfeature to, and added under a Stationary Free Surface
feature. See the Contact Angle feature in the Multiphase Flow Interfaces chapter.

88 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Viscoelastic Flow Interface
The Viscoelastic Flow (vef) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows of
viscoelastic fluids. The physics interface is only suitable for incompressible flows.

The equations solved by the Viscoelastic Flow interface are the continuity equation for
conservation of mass, the Navier–Stokes equations, augmented by an elastic stress
tensor term, and a constitutive equation that defines the extra elastic stress
contribution.

The Viscoelastic Flow interface is available for stationary and time-dependent analyses.
The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the Navier–Stokes equations,
continuity equations, and the constitutive relations between the extra elastic stress
term and the velocity gradient. The Fluid Properties feature provides an interface for
defining the fluid material and its properties. Viscoelastic, Newtonian, and Inelastic
non-Newtonian constitutive relations are available. The boundary conditions are
essentially the same as for the Laminar Flow interface. When this physics interface is
added, the following default nodes are also added in the Model Builder:

• Fluid Properties
• Initial Values
• Wall

Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Viscoelastic Flow to
select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is vef.

THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 89

 PHYSICAL MODEL
This node specifies the properties of the Viscoelastic Flow interface, which describe the
overall type of fluid flow model.

Include Gravity
When the Include gravity check box is selected, a global Gravity feature is shown in the
interface model tree.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. For more information, see Gravity.

VISCOELASTIC CONSTITUTIVE EQUATION FORMULATION

This node specifies rheological constitutive equation formulation. Stress (the default),
conformation formulations are available.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p

If the Viscoelastic constitutive relation is selected, the Fluid Properties node also adds as
variables the components of the elastic stress tensor.

For all other settings, see The Laminar Flow Interface.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Viscoelastic

Interface
• Theory for the Viscoelastic Flow Interface

Flow of Viscoelastic Fluid Past a Cylinder: Application Library path

Polymer_Flow_Module/Verification_Examples/cylinder_flow_viscoelastic

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Viscoelastic

Interface
For the Viscoelastic Flow interface the Fluid Properties node is described in this
section.

90 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described in Domain, Boundary,
Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow:

• Boundary Stress • Open Boundary

• Flow Continuity • Outlet
• Free Surface • Periodic Flow Condition
• Fluid-Fluid Interface • Point Mass Source
• Gravity • Pressure Point Constraint
• Initial Values • Symmetry
• Inlet • Volume Force
• Interior Wall • Wall

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations solved by the
physics interface. For the viscoelastic fluids, the constitutive relations for the extra
elastic stress tensor are also added. The node also provides an interface for defining the
material properties of the fluid.

Except where included below, see Fluid Properties for all the other settings.

Constitutive Relation
Viscoelastic (default), Specify dynamic viscosity and Inelastic non-Newtonian options are
available. If Viscoelastic constitutive relation is selected, the Fluid Properties node also
adds the viscoelastic variables and equations.

For Viscoelastic constitutive relation, specify Solvent viscosity s and select a Material
model — Oldroyd-B, Giesekus, LPTT, EPTT, Rolie-Poly, FENE-CR, or FENE-P. Viscoelastic
material can be described as consisting of one or more branches. For each viscoelastic
branch, enter parameters in the table. See the setting for each viscoelastic model that
follows.

Oldroyd-B
For Oldroyd-B enter the model parameters in the table. In each Branch raw enter the
polymer viscosity em in the Viscosity column, and the relaxation time em in the
Relaxation time column.

THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 91

 Giesekus
For Giesekus, in each Branch raw enter the polymer viscosity em in the Viscosity
column, the relaxation time em in the Relaxation time column, and the mobility factor
em in the Mobility column.

FENE-P and FENE-CR

For FENE-P, in each Branch raw enter the polymer viscosity em in the Viscosity column,
the relaxation time em in the Relaxation time column, and the extensibility parameter
Lem in the Extensibility column.

LPTT
For LPTT, in each Branch raw enter the polymer viscosity em in the Viscosity column,
the relaxation time em in the Relaxation time column, and the extensibility em in the
Extensibility column.

EPTT
For LPTT, in each Branch raw enter the polymer viscosity em in the Viscosity column,
the relaxation time em in the Relaxation time column, and the extensibility em in the
Extensibility column.

Rolie-Poly
For LPTT, in each Branch raw enter the polymer viscosity em in the Viscosity column,
the relaxation time em in the Relaxation time column, Rouse relaxation time Rm in
the Rouse relaxation time column, convective constraint release coefficient m and
exponent m in the CCR coefficient and CCR exponent columns, respectively.

• Use the Add button ( ) to add a row to the table and the Delete button ( ) to
delete a row in the table.
• Use the Load from file button ( ) and the Save to file button ( ) to load and
store data for the branches in a text file with three space-separated columns.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Select shape function type for the
components of the auxiliary viscoelastic tensor. The default setting is Linear.

THERMAL EFFECTS
Viscoelastic properties have a strong dependence on the temperature. To model the
temperature dependence, the solvent and polymer viscosities and relaxation time are
modified to Ts, Tem, and Tem.

92 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Select a Thermal function — None, Arrhenius, Williams–Landel–Ferry (WLF), Exponential,
or User defined. When the default, None, is kept, the thermal function T(T) is set to
unity and the viscosities and relaxation time are not modified.

• Thermal Effects

INITIAL VALUES
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Enter initial values or expressions
for the components of the auxiliary viscoelastic tensor. The initial values can serve as
an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
Note, that if several branches are specified, the initial values entered above are applied
to all branches.

Note: The Interior Walls boundary condition and Pair conditions are not applicable
on the boundaries that are adjacent to the Fluid properties nodes with different
number of branches.

THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 93

 Theory for the Single-Phase Flow
Interfaces
The theory for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow interface is described in this
section:

• General Single-Phase Flow Theory

• Compressible Flow
• Weakly Compressible Flow
• The Mach Number Limit
• Incompressible Flow
• The Reynolds Number
• Non-Newtonian Flow
• Gravity
• The Boussinesq Approximation
• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition
• Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions
• Mass Flow
• Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)
• Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)
• Normal Stress Boundary Condition
• Porous Interface
• Mass Sources for Fluid Flow
• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
• Solvers for Laminar Flow
• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models
• Nitsche Constraints

94 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow
• References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

The theory about most boundary conditions is found in Ref. 2.

General Single-Phase Flow Theory

The Single-Phase Fluid Flow interfaces are based on the Navier–Stokes equations,
which in their most general form read


------ +    u  = 0 (3-4)
t

u
 ------ +   u   u =    – pI + K  + F (3-5)
t

T- +  u   T = –    q  + K:S – T -  p

C p  ------ ---- ------ ------ +  u   p + Q (3-6)
t   T p  t

where

•  is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• I is the identity matrix (unitless)
• K is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
• F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2)
• Q contains the heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)
• S is the strain-rate tensor:

1
S = ---  u +  u  T 
2

The operation “:” denotes a contraction between tensors defined by

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 95

 a:b =   anm bnm (3-7)
n m

This is sometimes referred to as the double dot product.

Equation 3-4 is the continuity equation and represents conservation of mass.

Equation 3-5 is a vector equation which represents conservation of momentum.
Equation 3-6 describes the conservation of energy, formulated in terms of
temperature. This is an intuitive formulation that facilitates boundary condition
specifications.

To close the equation system, Equation 3-4 through Equation 3-6, constitutive
relations are needed.

For a Newtonian fluid, which has a linear relationship between stress and strain, Stokes
(Ref. 1) deduced the following expression:

2
K = 2S – ---     u I (3-8)
3

The dynamic viscosity,  (SI unit: Pa·s), for a Newtonian fluid is allowed to depend on
the thermodynamic state but not on the velocity field. All gases and many liquids can
be considered Newtonian.

For an inelastic non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship between stress and strain rate is
nonlinear, and an apparent viscosity is introduced instead of the dynamic viscosity.
Examples of non-Newtonian fluids are honey, mud, blood, liquid metals, and most
polymer solutions.

With the Polymer Flow Module, you can model flows of non-Newtonian fluids using
the predefined constitutive models. The following models which describe the
stress-strain relationship for non-Newtonian fluids are available: Power law, Carreau,
Carreau–Yasuda, Cross, Cross–Williamson, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–
Bulkley–Papanastasiou, Casson–Papanastasiou, DeKee–Turcotte–Papanastasiou,
Robertson–Stiff–Papanastasiou, Ellis, and Houska thixotropy.

96 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

In theory, the same equations describe both laminar and turbulent flows. In practice,
however, the mesh resolution required to simulate turbulence with the Laminar Flow
interface makes such an approach impractical.

There are several books where derivations of the Navier–Stokes equations

and detailed explanations of concepts such as Newtonian fluids can be
found. See, for example, the classical text by Batchelor (Ref. 3) and the
more recent work by Panton (Ref. 4).

Many applications describe isothermal flows for which Equation 3-6 is decoupled from
Equation 3-4 and Equation 3-5.

2D AXISYMMETRIC FORMULATIONS
A 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 3-4 and Equation 3-5 requires  to be
zero. That is, there must be no gradients in the azimuthal direction. A common
additional assumption is, however, that u  0. In such cases, the -equation can be
removed from Equation 3-5. The resulting system of equations is both easier to
converge and computationally less expensive compared to retaining the -equation.
The default 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 3-4 and Equation 3-5 therefore
assumes that

   = 0
u = 0

Compressible Flow
The equations of motion for a single-phase fluid are the continuity equation:


------ +    u  = 0 (3-9)
t

and the momentum equation:

u
 ------ + u  u = – p +      u +  u  T  – ---     u I + F
2
(3-10)
t 3

These equations are applicable for incompressible as well as for compressible flow with
density and viscosity variations.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 97

 Weakly Compressible Flow
The same equations as for Compressible Flow are applied for weakly compressible flow.
The only difference is that the density is evaluated at the reference pressure. The
density may be a function of other quantities, in particular it may be temperature
dependent.

The weakly compressible flow equations are valid for incompressible as well as
compressible flow with density variations independent of the pressure.

Provided that the densities dependency pressure is specified through model inputs, the
density is automatically evaluated at the reference pressure level.

The Mach Number Limit

An important dimensionless number in fluid dynamics is the Mach number, Ma,
defined by

u-
Ma = -----
a

where a is the speed of sound. A flow is formally incompressible when Ma  0. This is

theoretically achieved by letting the speed of sound tend to infinity. The Navier–Stokes
equations then have the mathematical property that pressure disturbances are
instantaneously propagated throughout the entire domain. This results in a parabolic
equation system.

The momentum equation, Equation 3-10, is parabolic for unsteady flow and elliptic
for steady flow, whereas the continuity equation, Equation 3-9, is hyperbolic for both
steady and unsteady flow. The combined system of equations is thus hybrid
parabolic-hyperbolic for unsteady flow and hybrid elliptic-hyperbolic for steady flow.
An exception occurs when the viscous term in Equation 3-10 becomes vanishingly
small, such as at an outflow boundary, in which case the momentum equation becomes
locally hyperbolic. The number of boundary conditions to apply on the boundary then
depends on the number of characteristics propagating into the computational domain.
For the purely hyperbolic system, the number of characteristics propagating from the
boundary into the domain changes as the Mach number passes through unity. Hence,
the number of boundary conditions required to obtain a numerically well-posed
system must also change. The compressible formulation of the laminar and turbulent
interfaces uses the same boundary conditions as the incompressible formulation, which
implies that the compressible interfaces are not suitable for flows with a Mach number

98 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

larger than or equal to one. Yet, the practical Mach number limit is lower than one.
The main reason is that the numerical scheme (stabilization and boundary conditions)
of the Laminar Flow interface does not recognize the direction and speed of pressure
waves. The fully compressible Navier–Stokes equations do, for example, start to display
very sharp gradients already at moderate Mach numbers. But the stabilization for the
single-phase flow interface does not necessarily capture these gradients. It is impossible
to give an exact limit where the low Mach number regime ends and the moderate
Mach number regime begins, but a rule of thumb is that the Mach number effects start
to appear at Ma  0.3. For this reason, the compressible formulation is referred to as
Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) in COMSOL Multiphysics.

Incompressible Flow
When the temperature variations in the flow are small, a single-phase fluid can often
be assumed incompressible; that is,  is constant or nearly constant. This is the case for
all liquids under normal conditions and also for gases at low velocities. For constant ,
Equation 3-9 reduces to

  u = 0 (3-11)

and Equation 3-10 becomes

u T
 +   u   u =    – pI +   u +  u    + F (3-12)
t

Provided that the densities dependency on temperature and pressure is specified

through model inputs, the density is evaluated at the reference pressure level and at the
reference temperature. However, if the density is a function of other quantities such as
a concentration field, or if the density is specified by a user defined expression, the user
has to make sure that the density is defined as constant when the incompressible flow
formulation is used.

The Reynolds Number

A fundamental characteristic in analyses of fluid flow is the Reynolds number:

Re = UL
------------


where U denotes a velocity scale, and L denotes a representative length. The Reynolds
number represents the ratio between inertial and viscous forces. At low Reynolds

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 99

 numbers, viscous forces dominate and tend to damp out all disturbances, which leads
to laminar flow. At high Reynolds numbers, the damping in the system is very low,
giving small disturbances the possibility to grow by nonlinear interactions. If the
Reynolds number is high enough, the flow field eventually ends up in a chaotic state
called turbulence.

Note that the Reynolds number can have different meanings depending on the length
scale and velocity scale. To be able to compare two Reynolds numbers, they must be
based on equivalent length and velocity scales.

The Fluid Flow interfaces automatically calculate the local cell Reynolds number
Rec  uh2 using the element length h for L and the magnitude of the velocity
vector u for the velocity scale U. This Reynolds number is not related to the character
of the flow field, but to the stability of the numerical discretization. The risk for
numerical oscillations in the solution increases as Rec grows. The cell Reynolds
number is a predefined quantity available for visualization and evaluation (typically it
is available as: [Link]).

Non-Newtonian Flow
For an inelastic non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship between stress and strain rate is
nonlinear, and we may express the constitutive relation in terms of an apparent
viscosity. For the incompressible flow, it is:
ꞏ
K = 2 app    S

ꞏ
where  is the shear rate,

ꞏ
 = 2S:S

and the contraction operator “:” is defined by

a:b =   anm bnm

n m

The Laminar Flow interfaces provide various predefined inelastic non-Newtonian

constitutive models including Power law, Carreau, Carreau–Yasuda, Cross, Cross–
Williamson, Sisko, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–Papanastasiou,
Casson–Papanastasiou, DeKee–Turcotte–Papanastasiou, Robertson–Stiff–
Papanastasiou, Ellis, and Houska thixotropy.

100 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

POWER LAW
The Power law model is an example of a generalized Newtonian model. It prescribes

 ꞏ  n 1
 app = m  -------
ꞏ  (3-13)
  ref
ꞏ
where m, n are scalars that can be set to arbitrary values and  ref denotes a reference
1
shear rate for which the default value is 1 s . For n  1, the power law describes a shear
thickening (dilatant) fluid. For n  1, it describes a shear thinning (pseudoplastic)
fluid. A value of n equal to one gives the expression for a Newtonian fluid.

Equation 3-13 predicts an infinite viscosity at zero shear rate for n  1. This is however
never the case physically. Instead, most fluids have a constant viscosity for shear rates
smaller than 102 s1 (Ref. 17). Since infinite viscosity also makes models using
Equation 3-13 difficult to solve, COMSOL Multiphysics implements the Power law
model as

 max  ꞏ  ꞏ min 
n–1
 app = m  ------------------------------
ꞏ - (3-14)
  ref 
ꞏ
where  min is a lower limit for the evaluation of the shear rate magnitude. The default
ꞏ
value for  min is 102 s1, but can be given an arbitrary value or expression using the
corresponding text field.

CARREAU MODEL
The Carreau model defines the viscosity in terms of the following four-parameter
expression

n–1
ꞏ ------------
 app =   +   0 –     1 +    2  2 (3-15)

where  is a parameter with the unit of time, 0 is the zero shear rate viscosity,  is
the infinite shear-rate viscosity, and n is a dimensionless parameter. This expression is
able to describe the viscosity for most stationary polymer flows.

CARREAU–YASUDA
The Carreau–Yasuda model is a generalized version of the Carreau model with the
transition parameter a which allows for modifying the stiffness of the transition from
constant 0 to thinning. So, it has five parameters in the expression:

n–1
ꞏ ------------
 app =   +   0 –     1 +    a  a (3-16)

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 101

 CROSS
The Cross model is a special case of the Carreau–Yasuda model with a = 1  n and
 = 0tr where tr is the critical stress. So, it has the following form:
ꞏ 1–n –1
  0 
 app =   +   0 –    1 +  --------- (3-17)
  tr 

CROSS–WILLIAMSON
The Cross–Williamson model is a special case of the Carreau–Yasuda model with
  ,0 and a = 1. So, its equation has three parameters:
ꞏ
 app =  0  1 +   n – 1 (3-18)

SISKO
The Sisko model includes the infinite shear plateau and the power law region:

 ꞏ  n 1
 app =   + m  -------
ꞏ  (3-19)
  ref

BINGHAM–PAPANASTASIOU
Viscoplastic fluid behavior is characterized by existence of the yield stress y — a limit
which must be exceeded before significant deformation can occur. To model the
stress-deformation behavior of viscoplastic materials, different constitutive equations
have been propose. The Bingham plastic model is written as

y
 app =  p + ----
ꞏ- , K   y


where p is the plastic viscosity.

To allow computation in both yielded and unyielded region, the Papanastasiou

continuous regularization for the viscosity function is used:

y ꞏ
 app =  p + ----
ꞏ-  1 – exp  – m p    (3-20)


where mp is a scale that controls the exponential growth of stress.

HERSCHEL–BULKLEY–PAPANASTASIOU
The Herschel–Bulkley –Papanastasiou model combines the effects of the Power law
the Papanastasiou continuous regularization:

102 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

  ꞏ  n–1
y ꞏ
 app = m  -------
ꞏ  ꞏ-  1 – exp  – m p   
+ ---- (3-21)
  ref 
ꞏ
where m, n are scalars that can be set to arbitrary values, and  ref is the reference shear
rate. In case n equals one, the Bingham–Papanastasiou model is recovered. This
equation is valid in both yielded and unyielded regions. The exponent mp controls the
smoothness of the viscosity function.

CASSON–PAPANASTASIOU
The Casson–Papanastasiou model combines Casson equation with the Papanastasiou
regularization:
2
 y ꞏ 
 app =   p + ----
ꞏ-  1 – exp  – m p    (3-22)
  

The equation is valid in both yielded and unyielded regions.

DEKEE–TURCOTTE–PAPANASTASIOU
The DeKee–Turcotte–Papanastasiou model combines the DeKee–Turcotte equation
with the Papanastasiou regularization

ꞏ  y- ꞏ
 app =  DK exp  –  DK   + ----
ꞏ  1 – exp  – m p    (3-23)


where DK and DK denote the shear rate viscosity and relaxation time respectively. In
case DK equals zero, it recovers the Bingham–Papanastasiou model.

ROBERTSON–STIFF–PAPANASTASIOU
The Robertson–Stiff–Papanastasiou model combines the Robertson–Stiff equation
with the Papanastasiou regularization

1 1 n
  ꞏ  n – 1 --n- ---
  y ꞏ n
 app =   m  -------  
ꞏ-  1 – exp  – m p    
 +  ---- 
   ꞏ 
(3-24)
 ref   

In case n equals one, it also recovers the Bingham–Papanastasiou model.

ELLIS
In the Ellis model, app is computed recursively using the following equation

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 103

 ꞏ ae – 1 –1
   app
 app =  0 1 +  --------------- (3-25)
  1/2 

where 1/2 is the shear stress at which app = 02. The exponent ae is the shear
thinning index, which is a measure of the degree of nonlinearity.

HOUSKA THIXOTROPY
The Houska thixotropy model takes a similar form as the Herschel–Bulkley–
Papanastasiou model, but with a linear dependence of the consistency m and the yield
stress y on the structure field :

 y =  y 0 +  y t  m = m y 0 + m y t 

where my,0 and y,0 denote the consistency and yield stress of the fully broken down
material, respectively, my,0 + my,t and y,0 + y,t indicate the consistency and yield
stress of the fully recovered material, respectively.

So, its equation takes the following form:

 y 0 +  y t  ꞏ   ꞏ   nf – 1
 app = ----------------------------
ꞏ -  1 – exp  – m p    +   m y 0 + m   -------
y t  ꞏ  
(3-26)
    ref 

Here, the structure field  obeys the following equation:

d  ꞏ  nb 1
------ = k f  1 –   – k b  -------
ꞏ 
dt   ref

where kf and kb denote the rebuild and breakdown coefficients, respectively.

Thermal Effects
It is also possible to add the thermal effects to the non-Newtonian constitutive models.
The following options: None, Arrhenius, Williams–Landel–Ferry (WLF), Exponential, and
User defined are expressed in terms of a thermal function T. The thermal function T
is coupled with the non-Newtonian constitutive models by multiplying by 0, p, m,
DK, my,0, and my,0 if they are User defined.

ARRHENIUS

 T = exp ----  ---- – ------

Q 1 1
(3-27)
R T T0

where Q denotes the activation energy, R is the universal gas constant, T and T0 are
the temperature and reference temperature, respectively.

104 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

WILLIAMS–LANDEL–FERRY
– C 1WLF  T – T WLF 
log   T  = -------------------------------------------------
- (3-28)
C 2WLF + T – T WLF

where C1WLF and C2WLF are model constants, and TWLF is the reference
temperature.

EXPONENTIAL
 T = exp  – b  T – T 0   (3-29)

where b denotes a temperature sensitivity, and T0 is the reference temperature.

Gravity

DEFINITION
The gravity force is defined from the acceleration of gravity vector, g, and the density,
. Under usual conditions and in Cartesian coordinates with the z-axis in the vertical
direction,

 0 
 
g =  0 .
 
 – g const 

When gravity is considered, a volume force equal to g is included in the momentum

equation. For example, for laminar weakly compressible flow, it reads:

u
 ------ + u  u =    – pI +   u +  u  T  – ---     u I + F + g
2
(3-30)
t  3 

Introducing a constant reference density ref, and assuming that g is homogeneous,

this equation is equivalently written:

u
 ------ + u  u=
t
(3-31)
   – pI +   u +  u  T  – ---     u I +  ref g   r – r ref  + F +   –  ref g
2
3

where r is the position vector and rref is an arbitrary reference position vector.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 105

 From this equation, it is convenient to define the reduced pressure which accounts for
the hydrostatic pressure, p̃ = p –  ref g   r – r ref 

u
 ------ + u  u =    – p̃I +   u +  u  T  – ---     u I +
2
t 3 (3-32)
F +   –  ref g

In Equation 3-32, the gravity force is written   refg.

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
For incompressible flow the fluid density is assumed to be constant. Hence it is natural
to define the reference density, ref, such that  = ref =  ref,pref  which makes it
possible to simplify Equation 3-32:

u
 ref ------ +  ref u  u =    – p̃I +   u +  u  T   + F
t

In some cases, even when the flow is modeled as incompressible, buoyancy should be
accounted for. Using the approximation of the gravity force based on the thermal
expansion coefficient (which is relevant in this case: since the density changes are small,
the first order approximation is reasonably accurate), it is possible to rewrite the
momentum equation with constant density and a buoyancy force:

u
 ref ------ +  ref u  u =    – p̃I +  ref  u +  u  T   + F
t
–  ref  p  T ref   T – T ref g

WEAKLY COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

For weakly compressible flow the assumption is that the density depends only on the
temperature. In particular, the pressure dependency of the density is neglected, and the
density is evaluated at the reference pressure:  = , pref. With the relative pressure
as dependent variable, Equation 3-30 is used

u
 ------ + u  u =    – pI +   u +  u  T  – ---     u I + F + g
2
t 3

With the reduced pressure as dependent variable, Equation 3-32 is used:

u
 ------ + u  u =    – p̃I +   u +  u  T  – ---     u I + F +   –  ref g
2
t 3

106 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
For compressible flow the density may depend on any other variable, in particular on
the temperature and the pressure. Similar equations are used as for the Weakly
Compressible Flow case except that the density is not evaluated at the reference
pressure.

NONISOTHERMAL FLOW COUPLING

For consistency, when the Nonisothermal Flow coupling is active, the assumptions made
for the single phase flow interface are also made in the heat transfer interface:

• Incompressible flow: the Boussinesq approximation implies that the thermal

conductivity and heat capacity are also constant.
• Weakly Compressible flow: the density is evaluated at pref in the heat interface too.
• Compressible flow: no change.

PRESSURE FORMULATION
When the relative pressure is used (default option) the interface dependent variable
represents the relative pressure and the absolute pressure is defined as pA  pref  p.
When the pressure is used to define a boundary condition (for example, when p0
defines the pressure condition at an outlet), it represents the relative pressure. Hence
defining the outlet pressure as phydro,approx  refg  r  rref compensates for the
gravity force for an ambient reference pressure of 0 Pa when the density is constant,
there is no external force, and provided pref, g, and r0 are defined consistently.

When the reduced pressure is used, the interface dependent variable (named p by
default) represents the reduced pressure. The absolute pressure is then defined as
pA  pref  refg  r  rref  p. In this case when the pressure is used to define a
boundary condition (for example, to define a pressure condition at an outlet), its value
corresponds to the reduced pressure. Hence, the prescribed pressure compensates for
an approximate hydrostatic pressure, phydro,approx  refg  r  rref, which is exact
only when the density is constant and there is no external force.

PRESSURE BOUNDARY CONDITION

For an immobile fluid the momentum equation simplifies to   pI  F g or

   – p̃I  = F +   –  ref g depending on the pressure formulation.

For incompressible flow, assuming there are no external forces, this leads respectively
to p   refg  r  rref  p0 or p̃ = p 0 .

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 107

 For weakly compressible flow and compressible flow, since the density varies, there is
no corresponding explicit expression. We have

r r
p = r ref
g  dr + p 0 and p̃ = r ref
  –  ref g  dr + p 0 .

In practice, these integrals can be problematic to evaluate. Hence, whenever possible,

it is recommended to locate the pressure boundary in a region where the approximate
definition of the hydrostatic pressure is applicable, or to define a boundary that is
perpendicular to the gravity vector.

If it is not possible and if the pressure conditions cannot be determined, you can use a
no viscous stress condition (available in the Open Boundary feature).

Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

See Wall for the node settings.

SLIP
The Slip condition assumes that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence,
no boundary layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this is a reasonable
approximation if the important effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the
domain. Mathematically, the constraint can be formulated as:

u  n = 0,  – pI +   u +  u  T  n = 0

The no-penetration term takes precedence over the Neumann part of the condition
and the above expression is therefore equivalent to

u  n = 0, K n –  K n  n n = 0
K n =   u +  u  T n

expressing that there is no flow across the boundary and no viscous stress in the
tangential direction.

For a moving wall with translational velocity utr, u in the above equations is replaced
by the relative velocity urel  u  utr.

POROUS SLIP
The Porous slip option, which can be chosen in the Porous treatment of no slip condition
list when Enable porous media domains is activated, results in a special treatment of Wall

108 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

boundaries and Interior Wall boundaries adjacent to porous domains (Porous Medium
feature). Namely, similar to the Navier slip boundary condition, no penetration and
tangential stress conditions are applied at the wall:

 u slip
u  n = 0 K n –  K n  n n = – ----- ---------- ,
 p y ps
 T
u slip = u –  u  n n , K n = -----  u +  u  n
p

Here, Kn is the viscous wall traction, n is the wall normal, uslip is the tangential velocity
at the wall while real no slip is assumed to be applied at a distance dw (half-height of
the first cell adjacent to the wall) outside the wall, and is the porous slip length. An
analytical derivation of the velocity profile in the boundary layer where the pressure
gradient is balanced by the sum of the Darcy term, the Forchheimer drag, and the
viscous term (neglecting convective terms) leads to the following expression for yps:

 1 + X e – p  1 + X e – p 2 d l pore

y ps = l̃  --------------------------  -------------------------- e p – 1 ,
p p w
 p = ------ , l̃ = ------------------------
–p  1 + X p  l̃ 1 + 2c 
 1 – Xp e 

1 + 2c  – 1 + 4--- c  1 + 4c D – 1  ND  2
3
X p = --------------------------------------------------- , c  = -------------------------------- , c D = ----------- ------ p - g
2  
1 + 2c  + 1 + 4--- c 
3

where l pore =    p is the porous length scale,  ND = c F   is the non-Darcian

coefficient (cF is the Forchheimer coefficient), g is the gravity vector, and p, l, Xp, c,
cD, are intermediate variables. This formula is used when the Pressure-gradient
formulation is chosen and it uses the pressure gradient at the wall. By default, the
Velocity formulation is activated and the corresponding formula is:

 wd l pore
y ps = l̃  e p – 1  ,  p = ------ , l̃ = ------------------------
l̃ 1 + 2c 
 ND  u slip l pore 2 13
c  =  ---------------------------- ----------   2
  dw 

Although this formulation is an approximation, since it uses the slip velocity at the wall
to reconstruct the pressure gradient, it is rather accurate. Moreover, the influence of
the convective terms is partially accounted for in this formulation.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 109

 SLIDING WALL
The sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt; that is,
the surface is sliding in its tangential direction. The wall does not have to actually move
in the coordinate system.

• In 2D, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the direction of the

boundary, but the situation becomes more complicated in 3D. For this reason, this
boundary condition has slightly different definitions in the different space
dimensions.
• For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, the velocity is given as a scalar Uw and
the condition prescribes
u  n = 0, u  t = Uw

where t  (ny , nx) for 2D and t  (nznr) for axial symmetry.

• For 3D components, the velocity is set equal to a given vector uw projected onto
the boundary plane:
u w –  n  u w n
u = ---------------------------------------- u w
u w –  n  u w n

The normalization makes u have the same magnitude as uw even if uw is not exactly
parallel to the wall.

Navier Slip
This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u  nwall  0, and adds a
tangential stress


K nt = – --- u slip


where Knt  Kn  Kn  nwallnwallKn  Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor. is
a slip length, and uslip  u  u  nwallnwall is the velocity tangential to the wall. The
boundary condition does not set the tangential velocity component to zero; however,
the extrapolated tangential velocity component is 0 at a distance  outside the wall.

The Slip Length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The slip
length  is then defined as   fhhmin, where hmin is the smallest element side
(corresponds to the element size in the wall normal direction for boundary layer
elements) and fh is a user input.

In cases where the wall movement is nonzero, Account for the translational wall velocity
in the friction force may be selected to use u  ubnd  u ubnd  nwallnwall instead

110 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

of uslip in the friction force. Then, the extrapolated tangential velocity component is
ubnd at a distance  outside of the wall. Note that the Velocity of sliding wall uw is
always accounted for in the friction force.

The Navier Slip boundary condition is suitable for walls adjacent to a fluid-fluid
interface or a free surface when solving for laminar flow. Applying this boundary
condition, the contact line (fluid-fluid-solid interface) is free to move along the wall.
Note that in problems with contact lines, the tangential velocity of the wall typically
represents the movement of the contact line but the physical wall is not moving. In
such cases, Account for the translational wall velocity in the friction force should not be
checked.

Nonlinear Navier Slip

This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u  nwall  0, and adds a
tangential stress

 ref m-1 
K nt = –  -------------- --- u slip
 K nt  

where Knt  Kn  Kn  nwallnwallKn  Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor. ref
is a reference value used for scaling and dimensionalization and
uslip  u  u  nwallnwall is the velocity tangential to the wall. The Nonlinear Navier
Slip boundary condition is suitable for walls adjacent to a fluid-fluid interface or a free
surface when solving for laminar flow. For further information, see the Navier Slip
condition.

Hatzikiriakos Slip
When Hatzikiriakos slip is selected, a slip velocity is applied when the tangential stress
is larger than the specified yield stress, y,


 K nt

= –  k 1 sinh   k 2  K nt –  y    K  if K nt   y
-------------
u slip
nt

 0 if K nt   y


where Knt  Kn  Kn  nwallnwallKn  Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor. k1
(SI unit: m/s) and k2 (SI unit: 1/Pa) are the slip-velocity and compliance coefficients.
Due to the exponential behavior in the slip velocity, the parameters y, k1, and k2 need
to be chosen carefully to avoid divergence of the numerical iterations. It is often

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 111

 advisable to start with the linear Navier slip model to get an estimate of the magnitude
of the tangential stress.

In cases where the wall movement is nonzero, Account for the translational wall velocity
in the friction force may be selected to set the slip velocity relative to the boundary
velocity ubnd. Note that the Velocity of sliding wall uw is always accounted for in the
boundary velocity.

The Hatzikiriakos slip condition is suitable for walls adjacent to a fluid-fluid interface
or a free surface when solving for laminar flow. Applying this boundary condition, the
contact line (fluid-fluid-solid interface) is free to move along the wall. Note that in
problems with contact lines, the tangential velocity of the wall typically represents the
movement of the contact line but the physical wall is not moving. In such cases,
Account for the translational wall velocity in the friction force should not be selected.

Asymptotic Slip
This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u  nwall  0, and adds a
tangential stress

1 u slip
K nt = – ------  e u slip  k1 – 1  --------------
k2 u slip

where Knt  Kn  Kn  nwallnwallKn  Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor. k1
(SI unit: m/s) and k2 (SI unit: 1/Pa) are the slip-velocity and compliance coefficients,
while uslip  u  u  nwallnwall is the velocity tangential to the wall.

In cases where the wall movement is nonzero, Account for the translational wall velocity
in the friction force may be selected to use u  ubnd  u ubnd  nwallnwall instead
of uslip in the friction force.

The Asymptotic Slip boundary condition is suitable for walls adjacent to a fluid-fluid
interface or a free surface when solving for laminar flow. Applying this boundary
condition, the contact line (fluid-fluid-solid interface) is free to move along the wall.
Note that in problems with contact lines, the tangential velocity of the wall typically
represents the movement of the contact line but the physical wall is not moving. In
such cases, Account for the translational wall velocity in the friction force should not be
selected.

112 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
The wall feature uses three different techniques to constraint the velocity field:

• Pointwise constraints is the standard technique to enforce strong constraints in the

finite element method. The desired value of the velocity is prescribed at each node
point in the mesh. Since the constraint is enforced locally at each node, only local
values are affected by the constraint and the constraints are independent of each
other. The solvers can therefore eliminate both the constrained degrees of freedom
and the constraint force terms, effectively reducing the number of degrees of
freedom being solved for.
The main advantage of pointwise constraints is that they enforce the constraint
exactly pointwise. This means that they do not introduce any leakage of the velocity
across the wall, unless specified. The main disadvantage of pointwise constraints is
that they introduce locking effects when trying to impose a no-penetration
condition for the velocity, u · n  0, on curved walls or walls with sharp corners.
• Weak constraints is an alternative method to prescribe the velocity. It consists on
enforcing the boundary condition for the velocity via Lagrange multipliers. Their
main advantage is that the Lagrange multiplier can provide an accurate
representation of the reaction flux at the wall. Their main disadvantage is that they
introduce extra unknowns, and are usually difficult to combine with other constraint
methods on adjacent boundaries. Moreover, they may require extra constraints for
the Lagrange multipliers. For more information, see Weak Constraints in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
• Nitsche constraints use a numerical flux to prescribe the velocity at the wall. They
impose the constraint in an integral sense rather than pointwise, and do not suffer
from the locking effects introduced by pointwise constraints when trying to
prescribe a no penetration condition for the velocity. They are also better behaved
when prescribing nonlinear constraints. Their main disadvantage is that the
constraint is only imposed approximately, and may produce small leaks. For more
information, see Nitsche Constraints.

The following combination of Constraint techniques can be selected in the Constraint

Setting sections of Wall boundary conditions:

• Automatic (default) use different constraint methods depending on whether only the
normal component of the velocity is prescribed, such as in the no penetration
condition, u · n  0, imposed, for example, in Slip walls or No Slip walls using Wall

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 113

 Functions or Automatic Wall Treatment, or both tangential and normal
components are prescribed, as is the case of No Slip walls in laminar flow.
Nitsche constraints are used to impose the no penetration condition for Slip walls.
When a No Slip condition is prescribed, pointwise constraints are used except for
moving walls where Nitsche constraints are used.
• Pointwise constraints.
• Nitsche constraints.
• Weak constraints. They are not available on Interior Walls.
• Mixed constraints. This option is only available when both the tangential and normal
components of the velocity need to be prescribed. The velocity on the wall normal
direction is imposed via pointwise constraints. The constraint for the tangential
directions is relaxed, and Nitsche constraints are used instead. This provides
improved accuracy and performance when working with coarse boundary layer
meshes. For more information, see Ref. 18.

Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

The Navier–Stokes equations can show large variations in mathematical behavior,
ranging from almost completely elliptic to almost completely hyperbolic. This has
implications when it comes to prescribing admissible boundary conditions. There is
also a discrepancy between mathematically valid boundary conditions and practically
useful boundary conditions. See Inlet and Outlet for the node settings.

INLET CONDITIONS
An inlet requires specification of the velocity components. The most robust way to do
this is to prescribe a velocity field using a Velocity condition.

A common alternative to prescribing the complete velocity field is to prescribe a

pressure and all but one velocity component. The pressure cannot be specified
pointwise because this is mathematically over-constraining. Instead the pressure can be
specified via a stress condition:

u n
– p + 2 --------- = F n (3-33)
n

where unn is the normal derivative of the normal velocity component.

Equation 3-33 is prescribed by the Pressure condition in the Inlet and Outlet features
and the Normal stress condition in the Open Boundary and Boundary Stress features.
Equation 3-33 is mathematically more stringent compared to specifying the pressure

114 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

pointwise and at the same time cannot guarantee that p obtains the desired value. In
practice, p is close to Fn, except for low Reynolds number flows where viscous effects
are the only effects that balance the pressure. In addition to Equation 3-33, all but one
velocity component must be specified. For low Reynolds numbers, this can be specified
by a vanishing tangential stress condition:

u t
 -------- = 0
n

which is what the Normal stress condition does. Vanishing tangential stress becomes a
less well-posed inlet condition as the Reynolds number increases. The Pressure
condition in the Inlet feature therefore requires a flow direction to be prescribed,
which provides a well-posed condition independent of Reynolds number.

OUTLET CONDITIONS
The most common approach is to prescribe a pressure via a normal stress condition on
the outlet. This is often accompanied by a vanishing tangential stress condition:

u t
 -------- = 0
n

where utn is the normal derivative of the tangential velocity field. It is also possible
to prescribe ut to be zero. The latter option should be used with care since it can have
a significant effect on the upstream solution.

The elliptic character of the Navier–Stokes equations mathematically permits

specifying a complete velocity field at an outlet. This can, however, be difficult to apply
in practice. The reason being that it is hard to prescribe the outlet velocity so that it is
consistent with the interior solution at each point. The adjustment to the specified
velocity then occurs across an outlet boundary layer. The thickness of this boundary
layer depends on the Reynolds number; the higher the Reynolds number, the thinner
the boundary layer.

Mass Flow
The Mass flow boundary condition constrains the mass flowing into the domain across
an inlet boundary. The mass flow can be specified in a number of ways.

POINTWISE MASS FLUX

The pointwise mass flux sets the velocity at the boundary to:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 115

 mf
u = – ------- n


where mf is the normal mass flux and is the density.

MASS FLOW RATE

The mass flow rate boundary condition sets the total mass flow through the boundary
according to:

–  dbc   u  n  dS = m


where dbc (only present in the 2D Cartesian axis system) is the boundary thickness
normal to the fluid-flow domain and m is the total mass flow rate.

In addition to the constraint on the total flow across the boundary, the tangential
velocity components are set to zero on the boundary

un = 0 (3-34)

STANDARD FLOW RATE

The standard flow rate boundary condition specifies the mass flow as a standard
volumetric flow rate. The mass flow through the boundary is set by the equation:


–  dbc ------st-  u  n  dS = Qsv


where dbc (only present in the 2D component Cartesian axis system) is the boundary
thickness normal to the fluid-flow domain, st is the standard density, and Qsv is the
standard flow rate. The standard density is defined by one of the following equations:

M
 st = -------n-
Vn

p st M n
 st = ---------------
-
RT st

where Mn is the mean molar mass of the fluid, Vn is the standard molar volume, pst is
the standard pressure, R is the universal molar gas constant, and Tst is the standard
temperature.

116 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Equation 3-34 or Equation 3-35 is also enforced for compressible and incompressible
flow, respectively, ensuring that the normal component of the viscous stress and the
tangential component of the velocity are zero at the boundary.

Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)

The Fully developed flow boundary condition can be understood from the following
figure:

pinl 

The flow to the domain  is assumed to enter through a straight channel of length L.
The channel is a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section and a pressure constant
pressure Pinl is applied on the inlet of the virtual channel.

The Fully Developed Flow boundary condition prescribes that the tangential flow
component on the boundary is zero:

u –  u  n n = 0

The momentum equation for a fully developed flow in the virtual extrusion of the inlet
cross section can then be projected onto the inlet boundary with the following weak
equation as the result:

 p + P inl 
   L  –  t u +  t u   + ----------------------- I :   t û  – P inl  n  û 
T
2


The exact value of L is somewhat arbitrary as long as it is not too high or too low. L is
therefore set to ten times the inlet edge length in 2D and to ten times the square root
of the inlet area in 2D axisymmetry and in 3D.

The fact that the velocity profile is not prescribed, but rather the solution of a projected
weak contribution, means that the actual velocity profile that is obtained on the inlet
can deviate from the analytical fully developed flow profile (in cases such an analytical
solution exists) if required by the solution inside the computational domain, . This is
most notably if the flow is strongly curved just downstream of the inlet. This can, for
example, be the case if an object is positioned just downstream of the inlet or if the
adjacent boundaries are not orthogonal to the inlet. The analytical solution can in

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 117

 these cases be recovered by including a little bit of the inlet channel in the
computational domain.

The inlet pressure, Pinl, must be solved for and the its equation is a discrete algebraic
equation (DAE) for Pinl. When, for example, the average velocity is specified, the DAE
reads

  u  n + U av P̂ inl

where  denotes the average over the inlet. Since the equation for Pinl is a DAE (the
equation for Pinl does not contain Pinl), it must be solved coupled to Navier–Stokes
and it must be treated by a Vanka presmoother and postsmoother if iterative solvers are
used.

The boundary conditions for the virtual inlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the inlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries). So in the
figure above, if the lower boundary of  is a no-slip wall and the top boundary is a
symmetry boundary, the lower boundary of the virtually extruded channel becomes a
no-slip wall and the upper boundary becomes a symmetry boundary.

Algebraic turbulence models need to additional equations or constraints. For all other
turbulence models, their weak equations in the virtual inlet channel are projected onto
the inlet of the computational domain. The projections are regularized to prevent the
production to fall to zero, so the solutions of the projects can show slight deviation
from the correct solutions close to no-slip walls.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the equations for the elastic stress tensor
components in the virtual inlet channel are projected onto the inlet of the
computational domain.

Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)

The Fully developed flow boundary condition can be understood from the following
figure:

 pexit

118 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The flow to the domain  is assumed to enter through a straight channel of length L.
The channel is a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section and a pressure constant
pressure Pexit is applied on the inlet of the virtual channel.

The Fully Developed Flow boundary condition prescribes that the tangential flow
component on the boundary is zero:

u –  u  n n = 0

The momentum equation for a fully developed flow in the virtual extrusion of the inlet
cross section can then be projected onto the inlet boundary with the following weak
equation as the result:

 p + P exit 
   L  –  t u +  t u   + -------------------------- I :   t û  – P exit  n  û 
T
2


The exact value of L is somewhat arbitrary as long as it is not too high or too low. L is
therefore set to ten times the inlet edge length in 2D and to ten times the square root
of the inlet area in 2D axisymmetry and in 3D.

The fact that the velocity profile is not prescribed, but rather the solution of a projected
weak contribution, means that the actual velocity profile that is obtained on the outlet
can deviate from the analytical fully developed flow profile (in cases such an analytical
solution exists) if required by the solution inside the computational domain, . The
inlet pressure, Pexit, must be solved for and the its equation is a discrete algebraic
equation (DAE) for Pexit. When, for example, the average velocity is specified, the
DAE reads

  u  n + U av P̂ exit

where  denotes the average over the inlet. Since the equation for Pext is a DAE, it
must be solved coupled to Navier–Stokes and it must be treated by a Vanka
presmoother and postsmoother if iterative solvers are used.

The boundary conditions for the virtual outlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the outlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries).

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 119

 Normal Stress Boundary Condition
The total stress on the boundary is set equal to a stress vector of magnitude f0, oriented
in the negative normal direction:

 – pI +    u +  u  T  – 2
---     u I  n = – f 0 n
  3 

 – pI +   u +  u  T  n = – f 0 n

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

This implies that the total stress in the tangential direction is zero. This boundary
condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure which for 2D flows is

u n
p = 2 ---------- + f 0 (3-35)
n

If unn is small, Equation 3-35 states that p  f0.

The Normal Stress condition is the mathematically correct version of the Pressure
Conditions condition (Ref. 4), but it is numerically less stable.

Pressure Boundary Condition

For single-phase flow, a mathematically correct natural boundary condition for outlets
is

 – pI +   u +  u  T  – 2
---     u I n = – p 0 n (3-36)
 3 

 – pI +   u +  u  T  n = – p 0 n (3-37)

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

This is a normal stress condition together with a no-tangential-stress condition. When

  ,Equation 3-36 or Equation 3-37 can be supplemented with a tangential velocity
condition

u  t  (3-38)

120 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

If so, the no-tangential-stress condition is overridden. An issue with Equation 3-36 or
Equation 3-37 is that it does not strongly enforce unidirectional flow on the boundary.
If the prescribed pressure on an outlet is too high, parts of the outlet can actually have
inflow. This is not as much of an issue for the Navier–Stokes equations as it is an issue
for scalar transport equations solved along with the Navier–Stokes equations. Hence,
when applying the Pressure boundary condition at an outlet or inlet you can further
constrain the flow. With the Suppress backflow option

 – pI +   u +  u  T  – 2
---     u I n = – p̂ 0 n
 3 
, (3-39)
 – pI +   u +  u  T  n = – p̂ 0 n
p̂ 0  p 0

the normal stress is adjusted to keep

un0 (3-40)

Equation 3-39 effectively means that the prescribed pressure is p0 if u  n  , but

smaller at locations where u  n  . This means that Equation 3-39 does not
completely prevent backflow, but the backflow is substantially reduced. Backflow is
suppressed also when external forces are acting on the fluid, provided the magnitude
of these forces are of the same order as the dynamic pressure at the outlet.

A pressure condition can also be applied at an inlet. In this case, either the normal stress
is prescribed

n  – pI +   u +  u  T  – ---     u I n = – p̂ 0
T 2
3
T
(3-41)
n  – pI +   u +  u  T  n = – p̂ 0
p̂ 0  p 0

together with the tangential condition in Equation 3-38, or, a general flow direction
is prescribed.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 121

 T  – pI +   u +  u  T  – 2
ru ---     u I n = – p̂ 0  r  n 
 3  u
T  – pI +   u +  u  T  n = – p̂  r  n 
ru 0 u
(3-42)
p̂ 0  p 0
du
u –  u  r u r u = 0 r u = ----------
-
du

The “>” option is used with suppress backflow to have u  n   or u  ru  .

For incompressible single-phase flow, it is also allowed to specify the total pressure,
ptot, instead of the static pressure, pstat, on inlet and outlet boundaries. It is more
useful, for example, in pump applications. The pressure is then prescribed at the
boundaries using Bernoulli’s principle,

1 2
p = p stat = p tot – ---  u (3-43)
2

The equation is imposed with two options: Average and Pointwise.

In the first option, pstat is prescribed by:

T T
n  – pI +   u +  u  T  n = n  – p stat I +   u +  u  T  n (3-44)

where ptot and u2 are averaged over the boundaries using the aveop operator:

1 2
p stat = aveop  p tot  – ---   aveop  u 
2

For the second option, Equation 3-43 is prescribed pointwise.

See Inlet, Outlet, Open Boundary, and No Viscous Stress for the individual node
settings. Note that some modules have additional theory sections describing options
available with that module.

Porous Interface
This condition properly accounts for a sudden jump in porosity p across boundary
between different domains, giving the corresponding jump in stress across the
interface. The emergence of a boundary layer on the upstream side of the interface is

122 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

also revealed, which provides modifications to the behavior of the tangential velocity
near the interface. The feature helps to avoid the need to add a very thin transition
region, in which p,upstream changes to p,downstream continuously, while solving the
Brinkman equation in such situations. Below, ‘’ and ‘’ (used as subscripts and
superscripts) refer to the upstream and downstream side of the interface, respectively.

Whatever the option for Continuity conditions is chosen, the velocity conditions are


 
u  n = 0 ut   u –  u  n n  =0
 


That is, the mass flux and tangential velocity across the interface are constant, and n is
assumed to be a normal pointing from ‘’ to ‘’. Velocity and stress option just imposes
usual stress continuity adding a correction for a possible jump in density:


pn – Kn +   u  n   -----
1  2u = 0
 p 
av


The option Velocity and porosity-corrected stress (default) adds a contribution due to
the inertial term, which is non-trivial (gives non-zero effect) when p jumps across the
interface:


pn – Kn +   u  n   -----
1  2 u +   u  n   --------
1 -
 u av = 0
p   2 2p 
av


=  ----- + -----   2 , u av =  u  + u    2 and so on.

1 1 1
Notice that -----
 p av  p   p 
Then, the Velocity and porosity-corrected stress with loss option has a ‘pressure loss’
term:


pn – Kn +   u  n   -----
1  2 u +   u  n   --------
1 
- u av +p
(loss)
n = 0
 p   2 2p 
av


This loss occurs in the downstream direction. Its mechanism is similar to the
mechanism of common engineering ‘total pressure loss’. Indeed, ‘expansion’ and
‘contraction’ across the interface experienced by the flow on the microscopic level (due
to increasing or decreasing porosity, p, respectively), are roughly equivalent to
expansion and contraction of flow in a pipe with geometrical variations. Accordingly,

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 123

 it is assumed that only the normal velocity component is responsible for the loss. In
the case of normal flow and negligible viscous term the pipe-analogy is quite exact.

Subsequently, Pressure loss model should be specified. Choosing User-defined loss

coefficients requires values of Expansion loss coefficient and Contraction loss coefficient
(Kexp  1 and Kcontr  0.5 are default values). The resulting losses on the ‘expansion’
and ‘contraction’ boundaries are:

(loss,expansion)     u  n  2 
p -  
= K exp   -----------------------
  2 2p  

(loss,contraction)    u  n  2
p = K contr  -----------------------
-
 2 2p  

Borda–Carnot option results in the following losses:

 av  u  n  u  n 2
= -------  ----------------- – -----------------  
(loss,expansion)
p
2 p   p 
1    u  n  -  1
2 2
  ------- – 1
(loss,contraction)
p = ---  -----------------------
2 p
2
  vc
c

and requires to choose Vena contracta model. The User defined option asks for value of
Vena contracta coefficient (cvc  0.5 by default). Weisbach option computes the
coefficient based on the ratio of porosities across the interface:

  p,  n vc
c vc = c vc,ll +  1 – c vc,ll   ----------
  p, 

and requires inputs for Lower limit and Exponent (cvc,ll  0.63 and nvc  3 are default
values).

Although the velocity conditions formally look the same for all Continuity conditions
options, the latter two (containing the inertial correction due to the porosity jump)
lead to an extra non-trivial effect. Namely, the tangential velocity exponentially evolves
over a boundary layer formed on the upstream side of the interface boundary. This
boundary layer has a characteristic length equal to

 p, 
l  = --------------------
-
u  n

124 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The ratio of the tangential velocities right after the interface (‘downstream’) and
outside the boundary layer (‘upstream infinity’) is

u t,  2 p    p 
- = --------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------ -
u t,upstream infinity  p    p  +  p    p 

In terms of the interstitial velocity, u(i) = u/p, this results in:

(i)
u t,  2
- = ---------------------------------------------------------  1
-----------------------------------------------
(i)
u t,upstream infinity  p    p  +  p    p 

Obviously, tangential component of the interstitial kinetic energy is lost across the
interface. For low viscosity and high normal-flow component, when lu is much lower
than lgeom (the characteristic geometry length) there are apparent variations in ut and
u(i)t in a thin boundary layer on the upstream side of the interface. However, for the
cases with high viscosity or nearly interface-parallel flow, lu is much larger than lgeom,
and any variations in ut and u(i)t are virtually invisible.

Notice that the feature does not take into account possible underresolved porous scale,
as is described in Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow

There are two types of mass sources in a Single-Phase Flow interface: point sources and
line sources.

These features require at least one of the following licenses: Battery

Design Module, CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module,
Corrosion Module, Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition
Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe
Flow Module, Polymer Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

POINT SOURCE
ꞏ
A point source is theoretically formed by taking a mass injection/ejection, Q (SI unit:
3
kg/(m ·s)), in a small volume V and then letting the size of the volume tend to zero
while keeping the total mass flux constant. Given a point source strength, qꞏ p (SI unit:
kg/s), this can be expressed as

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 125

 ꞏ
lim
V  0  Q = qꞏ p (3-45)
V

An alternative way to form a point source/sink is to assume that mass is injected/

extracted through the surface of a small object. Letting the object surface area tend to
zero while keeping the mass flux constant, results in the same point source. For this
alternative approach, effects resulting from the physical object volume, such as drag
and fluid displacement, need to be neglected.

The weak contribution

qꞏ p test  p 
ꞏ
is added to a point in the geometry. As can be seen from Equation 3-45, Q must tend
to plus or minus infinity as V tends to zero. This means that in theory the pressure
also tends to plus or minus infinity.

Observe that “point” refers to the physical representation of the source. A point source
can therefore only be added to points in 3D components and to points on the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry components. Other geometrical points in 2D
components represent physical lines.

The finite element representation of Equation 3-45 corresponds to a finite pressure in

a point with the effect of the point source spread out over a region around the point.
The size of the region depends on the mesh and on the strength of the source. A finer
mesh gives a smaller affected region, but also a more extreme pressure value. It is
important not to mesh too finely around a point source since the resulting pressure can
result in unphysical values for the density, for example. It can also have a negative effect
on the condition number for the equation system.

LINE SOURCE
ꞏ
A line source can theoretically be formed by assuming a source of strength Q (SI unit:
3
kg/(m ·s)), located within a tube with cross-sectional area S and then letting S tend
to zero, while keeping the total mass flux per unit length constant. Given a line source
strength, qꞏ l (SI unit: kg/(m·s)), this can be expressed as

ꞏ
lim
S  0  Q = qꞏ l (3-46)
S

As in the point source case, an alternative approach is to assume that mass is injected/
extracted through the surface of a small object. This results in the same mass source,

126 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

but requires that effects on the fluid resulting from the physical object volume are
neglected.

The weak contribution

qꞏ l test  p 

is added to lines in 3D or to points in 2D (which represent cut-through views of lines).

Line sources can also be added to the axisymmetry line in 2D axisymmetry
components. It cannot, however, be added to geometrical lines in 2D because they
represent physical planes.

As with a point source, it is important not to mesh too finely around the line source.

For feature node information, see Line Mass Source and Point Mass
Source.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which
is available with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module, or Battery Design Module, these shared physics nodes are
renamed as follows:

• The Line Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the species (Species Line Source).
• The Point Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for the species (Species Point Source).

Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

The momentum equation (Equation 3-10 or Equation 3-12) is a (nonlinear)
convection-diffusion equation. Such equations can easily become unstable if
discretized using the Galerkin finite element method. Stabilized finite element
methods are usually necessary in order to obtain physical solutions. The stabilization
settings are found in the main Fluid Flow interface features. To display this section,
click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization in the Show More
Options dialog box.

There are three types of stabilization methods available for Navier–Stokes —

streamline diffusion, crosswind diffusion, and isotropic diffusion. Streamline

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 127

 diffusion and crosswind diffusion are consistent stabilization methods, whereas
isotropic diffusion is an inconsistent stabilization method.

For optimal functionality, the exact weak formulations of and constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods depend on the order of the
shape functions (basis functions) for the elements. The values of constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods follow Ref. 5 and Ref. 6.

STREAMLINE DIFFUSION
For strongly coupled systems of equations, the streamline diffusion method must be
applied to the system as a whole rather than to each equation separately. These ideas
were first explored by Hughes and Mallet (Ref. 8) and were later extended to Galerkin
least-squares (GLS) applied to the Navier–Stokes equations (Ref. 9). This is the
streamline diffusion formulation that COMSOL Multiphysics supports.

Streamline diffusion is active by default because it is necessary when convection is

dominating the flow.

The governing equations for incompressible flow are subject to the Babuška–Brezzi
condition, which states that the shape functions (basis functions) for pressure must be
of lower order than the shape functions for velocity. If the incompressible Navier–
Stokes equations are stabilized by streamline diffusion, it is possible to use equal-order
interpolation. Hence, streamline diffusion is necessary when using first-order elements
for both velocity and pressure. This applies also if the model is solved using geometric
multigrid (either as a solver or as a preconditioner) and at least one multigrid hierarchy
level uses linear Lagrange elements.

CROSSWIND DIFFUSION
Crosswind diffusion can also be formulated for systems of equations, and when applied
to the Navier–Stokes equations it becomes a shock-capturing operator. COMSOL
Multiphysics supports the formulation in Ref. 9 with a shock-capturing viscosity of the
Hughes–Mallet type Ref. 8.

Incompressible flows do not contain shock waves, but crosswind diffusion is still useful
for introducing extra diffusion in sharp boundary layers and shear layers that otherwise
would require a very fine mesh to resolve.

Crosswind diffusion is active by default as it makes it easier to obtain a solution even if

the problem is fully resolved by the mesh. Crosswind diffusion also enables the iterative
solvers to use inexpensive presmoothers. If crosswind diffusion is deactivated, more
expensive preconditioners must be used instead.

128 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

STABILIZATION TIME SCALES
The time-scale tensor for time-dependent problems should in theory depend on a
time-scale that many references just set to the time-step taken by the time-solver, t
(see, for example, Ref. 9 and Ref. 10). This simple approach does not, however,
necessarily reflect on the actual time-scales in the physics. A typical example is reacting
flows where the time step is often guided by fast reactions, while the flow develops
relatively slowly. The COMSOL Multiphysics software can therefore replace t2 in the
time-scale tensor with measures of type  1   t̃  2  – 1 , which are calculated from
projections of weak expressions in a fashion similar to those in Ref. 11. These measures
of the time scale are used when Use dynamic subgrid time scale is activated.

The Limit small time steps effect on stabilization time scale option can be used to ramp
down the time-step contribution in the stabilization when the time step becomes much
smaller than the convective and diffusive time scales. This option prevents loss of
pressure stabilization at such small time steps.

ISOTROPIC DIFFUSION
Isotropic diffusion adds diffusion to the Navier–Stokes equations. Isotropic diffusion
significantly reduces the accuracy of the solution but does a very good job at reducing
oscillations. The stability of the continuity equation is not improved.

Numerical Stabilization and Iterative

Solvers for Laminar Flow

The Navier–Stokes equations constitute a nonlinear equation system. A nonlinear
solver must hence be applied to solve the problem. The nonlinear solver iterates to
reach the final solution. In each iteration, a linearized version of the nonlinear system
is solved using a linear solver. In the time-dependent case, a time marching method
must also be applied. The default suggestions for each of these solver elements are
discussed below.

NONLINEAR SOLVER
The nonlinear solver method depends on if the model solves a stationary or a
time-dependent problem.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 129

 Stationary Solver
In the stationary case, a fully coupled, damped Newton method is applied. The initial
damping factor is low since a full Newton step can be harmful unless the initial values
are close to the final solution. The nonlinear solver algorithm automatically regulates
the damping factor in order to reach a converged solution.

For advanced models, the automatically damped Newton method might not be robust
enough. A pseudo time-stepping algorithm can then be invoked. See Pseudo Time
Stepping for Laminar Flow Models.

Time-Dependent Solver
In the time-dependent case, the initial guess for each time step is (loosely speaking) the
previous time step, which is a very good initial value for the nonlinear solver. The
automatic damping algorithm is then not necessary. The damping factor in the
Newton method is instead set to a constant value slightly smaller than one. Also, for
the same reason, it suffices to update the Jacobian once per time step.

It is seldom worth the extra computational cost to update the Jacobian more than once
per time step. For most models it is more efficient to restrict the maximum time step
or possibly lower the damping factor in the Newton method.

LINEAR SOLVER
The linearized Navier–Stokes equation system has saddle point character, unless the
density depends on the pressure. This means that the Jacobian matrix has zeros on the
diagonal. Even when the density depends on the pressure, the equation system
effectively shares many numerical properties with a saddle point system.

For small 2D and 3D models, the default solver suggestion is a direct solver. Direct
solvers can handle most nonsingular systems and are very robust and also very fast for
small models. Unfortunately, they become slow for large models and their memory
requirement scales as somewhere between N1.5 and N2, where N is the number of
degrees of freedom in the model. The default suggestion for large 2D and 3D models
is therefore the iterative GMRES solver. The memory requirement for an iterative
solver optimally scales as N.

GMRES is accelerated by a multigrid method, per default the smoothed aggregation

algebraic multigrid (SAAMG) method. The cost of SAAMG is typically very low
compared to the number of GMRES iterations necessary if no multigrid method is
used. As the name implies, SAAMG builds its coarser meshes algebraically, so the
application requires no additional meshes in order to employ SAAMG. In contrast, the
geometric multigrid (GMG) method requires actual meshes. If a sufficient number of

130 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

multigrid levels can be constructed, GMG is often faster than SAAMG. GMG is also
superior for cluster computations and for shared-memory computations with many
cores. When the default linear solver is GMRES, an optional, but deactivated, linear
solver node is available where GMRES is accelerated by GMG.

Multigrid methods need smoothers, but the saddle point character of the linear system
restricts the number of applicable smoothers. The choices are further restricted by the
anisotropic meshes frequently encountered in fluid-flow problems. The efficiency of
the smoothers is highly dependent on the numerical stabilization. Iterative solvers
perform at their best when both Streamline Diffusion and Crosswind Diffusion are
active.

The default smoother for P1+P1 elements is SCGS. This is an efficient and robust
smoother specially designed to solve saddle point systems on meshes that contain
anisotropic elements. The SCGS smoother works well even without crosswind
diffusion. SCGS can sometimes work for higher-order elements, especially if Method in
the SCGS settings is set to Mesh element lines. But there is no guarantee for this, so the
default smoother for higher order elements is an SOR Line smoother. SOR Line
handles mesh anisotropy but does not formally address the saddle point character. It
does, however, function in practice provided that streamline diffusion and crosswind
diffusion are both active.

A different kind of saddle point character can arise if the equation system contains
ODE variables. Some advanced boundary conditions can add equations with such
variables. These variables must be treated with the Vanka algorithm. SCGS includes an
option to invoke Vanka. Models with higher-order elements must apply SCGS or use
the Vanka smoother. The latter is the default suggestion for higher-order elements, but
it does not work optimally for anisotropic meshes.

TIME-DEPENDENT SOLVERS
The default time-dependent solver for Navier–Stokes is the BDF method with
maximum order set to two. Higher BDF orders are not stable for transport problems
in general nor for Navier–Stokes in particular.

BDF methods have been used for a long time and are known for their stability.
However, they can have severe damping effects, especially the lower-order methods.
Hence, if robustness is not an issue, a model can benefit from using the generalized-
method instead. Generalized- is a solver that has properties similar to those of the
second-order BDF solver but it is much less diffusive.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 131

 Both BDF and generalized- are per default set to automatically adjust the time step.
While this works well for many models, extra efficiency and accuracy can often be
gained by specifying a maximum time step. It is also often beneficial to specify an initial
time step to make the solver progress smoothly in the beginning of the time series.

• Time-Dependent Solver
• Multigrid, Direct, Iterative, SCGS, SOR Line, and Vanka
• Stationary Solver

Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

A stationary formulation has per definition no time derivatives and Equation 3-12
reduces to:

T
  u   u =    – pI +   u +  u    + F (3-47)

Solving Equation 3-47 requires a starting guess that is close enough to the final
solution. If no such guess is at hand, the fully transient problem can be solved instead.
This is, however, a rather costly approach in terms of computational time. An
intermediate approach is to add a fictitious time derivative to Equation 3-47:

u – nojac  u  T
 ------------------------------- +   u   u =    – pI +   u +  u    + F
t̃

where t̃ is a pseudo time step. Since unojac(u) is always zero, this term does not
affect the final solution. It does, however, affect the discrete equation system and
effectively transforms a nonlinear iteration into a step of size t̃ of a time-dependent
solver.

Pseudo time stepping is not active per default. The pseudo time step t̃ can be chosen
individually for each element based on the local CFL number:

h
t̃ = CFL loc ------
u

where h is the mesh cell size. A small CFL number means a small time step. It is
practical to start with a small CFL number and gradually increase it as the solution
approaches steady state.

If the automatic expression for CFLloc is set to the built-in variable CFLCMP, then the
automatic setting suggests a PID regulator for the pseudo time step in the default

132 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

solver. The PID regulator starts with a small CFL number and increases CFLloc as the
solution comes closer to convergence.

The default manual expression is

1.3 min  niterCMP 9  +

if  niterCMP  20 9  1.3 min  niterCMP – 20 9  0  + (3-48)
if  niterCMP  40 90  1.3 min  niterCMP – 40 9  0 

The variable niterCMP is the nonlinear iteration number. It is equal to one for the first
nonlinear iteration. CFLloc starts at 1.3 and increases by 30% each iteration until it
reaches 1.39 10.6. It remains there until iteration number 20 at which it starts to
increase until it reaches approximately 106. A final increase after iteration number 40
then takes it to 1060. Equation 3-48 can, for some advanced flows, increase CFLloc
too slowly or too quickly. CFLloc can then be tuned for the specific application.

For details about the CFL regulator, see Pseudo Time Stepping.

Nitsche Constraints
Some boundary conditions are implemented using Nitsche constraints. These
boundary conditions include

• Wall — Slip, sliding walls, and moving walls (that is, walls with nonzero
translational velocity).
• Periodic Flow Condition
• Flow Continuity

The formulation used in the Fluid Flow interfaces in single-phase flow interfaces
corresponds to the Symmetric Interior Penalty Galerkin method (SIPG). The SIPG
method can be regarded to satisfy the boundary conditions in an integral sense rather
than pointwise. More information on SIPG can be found in Ref. 15.

In particular, the SIPG formulation includes a penalty parameter that must be large
enough for the formulation to be coercive. The higher the value, the better the
boundary condition is fulfilled, but a too high value results in an ill-conditioned
equation system. The penalty parameter is implemented according to Ref. 16.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 133

 Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow
The Particle Tracing Module is available to assist with these types of modeling
problems.

It is possible to model particle tracing with COMSOL Multiphysics provided that the
impact of the particles on the flow field is negligible. First compute the flow field, and
then, as an analysis step, calculate the motion of the particles. The motion of a particle
is defined by Newton’s second law

2
d x
= F  t x 
dx
m
d t2 dt

where x is the position of the particle, m the particle mass, and F is the sum of all forces
acting on the particle. Examples of forces acting on a particle in a fluid are the drag
force, the buoyancy force, and the gravity force. The drag force represents the force
that a fluid exerts on a particle due to a difference in velocity between the fluid and the
particle. It includes the viscous drag, the added mass, and the Basset history term.
Several empirical expressions have been suggested for the drag force. One of those is
the one proposed by Khan and Richardson (Ref. 13). That expression is valid for
spherical particles for a wide range of particle Reynolds numbers. The particle
Reynolds number is defined as

u – u p 2r
Re p = ----------------------------


where u is the velocity of the fluid, up the particle velocity, r the particle radius,  the
fluid density, and  the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The empirical expression for the
drag force according to Khan and Richardson is

2 -0.31 3.45
F = r  u – u p  u – u p   1.84Re p + 0.293Re p0.06 

The model Flow Past a Cylinder (Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow) demonstrates how to
add and set up particle tracing in a plot group using the Particle Tracing
with Mass node. It uses the predefined Khan–Richardson model for the
drag force and neglects gravity and buoyancy forces.

134 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces
1. G.G. Stokes, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., vol. 8, pp. 287–305, 1845.

2. P.M. Gresho and R.L. Sani, Incompressible Flow and the Finite Element Method,
Volume 2: Isothermal Laminar Flow, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.

3. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction To Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press,

1967.

4. R.L. Panton, Incompressible Flow, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

5. I. Harari and T.J.R. Hughes, “What are C and h? Inequalities for the Analysis and
Design of Finite Element Methods,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 97,
pp. 157–192, 1992.

6. Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Calo, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, “YZ Discontinuity
Capturing for Advection-dominated Processes with Application to Arterial Drug
Delivery,” Int. J. Num. Meth. Fluids, vol. 54, pp. 593–608, 2007.

7. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, 2007.

8. T.J.R. Hughes and M. Mallet, “A New Finite Element Formulation for

Computational Fluid Dynamics: III. The Generalized Streamline Operator for
Multidimensional Advective-Diffusive System,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng.,
vol. 58, pp. 305–328, 1986.

9. G. Hauke and T.J.R. Hughes, “A Unified Approach to Compressible and

Incompressible Flows,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 113, pp. 389–395,
1994.

10. G. Hauke, “Simple Stabilizing Matrices for the Computation of Compressible

Flows in Primitive Variables”, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 190,
pp. 6881–6893, 2001.

11. M.-C. Hsu, Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Cali, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, “Improving
stability of stabilized and multiscale formulations in flow simulations at small time
steps,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 199, pp. 828–840, 2010.

12. D.J. Tritton, Physical Fluid Dynamics, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 1988.

13. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, “Particle Technology and Separation
Processes,” Chemical Engineering, Volume 2, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 135

 14. J.L. Guermond, P. Minev, and J. Shen, “An overview of projection methods for
incompressible flows,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 195, pp. 6011–
6045, 2006.

15. B. Rivière, Discontinuous Galerkin Methods for Solving Elliptic and Parabolic
Equations, SIAM, 2008.

16. Y. Epshteyn and B. Rivière, “Estimation of penalty parameters for symmetric

interior penalty Galerkin methods,” J. Comput. Appl. Math., vol. 206, pp. 843–872,
2007.

17. R.P. Chhabra and J.F. Richardson, Non-Newtonian Flow and Applied Rheology,
2nd ed., Elsevier, 2008.

18. Y. Bazilevs and T.J.R. Hughes, “Weak imposition of Dirichlet boundary conditions
in fluid mechanics,” Comput. Fluids, vol. 36, pp. 12–26, 2007.

136 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Rotating Machinery,
Laminar Flow Interface
The theory for the Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow and Rotating Machinery,
Turbulent Flow interfaces is described in this section:

• About Rotating Machinery

• Frozen Rotor
• Setting Up a Rotating Machinery Model
• References

About Rotating Machinery

Both the Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow and Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow
interfaces model flow in geometries with rotating parts. For example, stirred tanks,
mixers, and pumps.

The Navier–Stokes equations formulated in a rotating coordinate system read (Ref. 1

and Ref. 2)


------ +    v  = 0 (3-49)
t

v
 ------ +   v   v + 2  v =
t
(3-50)

   – pI +   + F –   -------  r +      r 
 t 

where v is the velocity vector in the rotating coordinate system, r is the position vector,
and  is the angular velocity vector. The relation between v and the velocity vector in
the stationary coordinate system is

u = v + -----
r-
t

The Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces solve Equation 3-49 and
Equation 3-50, but reformulated in terms of a nonrotating coordinate system; that is,
they solve for u. This is achieved by invoking the Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian

THEORY FOR THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACE | 137

 Formulation (ALE) machinery. In rotating domains, x  xt as prescribed in the
Rotating Domain under Definitions. The Navier–Stokes equations on rotating
domains then read

x-
- – ------
------   +    u  = 0 (3-51)
T T

x
  u
------- – -------  u +   u   u =    – pI +   + F (3-52)
T T

The derivative operator T is the mesh time derivative of the density and appears in
the equation view as d([Link],TIME). Analogously, UT is the mesh time
derivative of the velocity. The variable TIME replaces t as the variable for time.

The user input for a rotating domain prescribes the angular frequency, w. To calculate
, the physics interfaces set up an ODE variable for the angular displacement . The
equation for  is

d
-------- = w (3-53)
dt

, is defined as wtimes the normalized axis of rotation. In 2D, the axis of rotation is
the z direction while it in 3D is specified in the Rotating Domain features. If the model
contains several rotating domains, each domain has its own angular displacement ODE
variable.

In nonrotating domains, the ordinary Navier–Stokes equations are solved. The

rotating and fixed parts need to be coupled together by an identity pair, where a
continuity boundary condition is applied.

Wall and Interior Wall boundary conditions apply in the rotating domain provided that
the Translational velocity under Wall Movement uses the default Automatic from
frame option.

Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian Formulation (ALE) in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

Frozen Rotor
Equation 3-51 through Equation 3-53 must be solved using a Time Dependent study.
This can be computationally expensive. The Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces

138 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

therefore support the so-called frozen rotor approach. The frozen rotor approach
assumes that the flow in the rotating domain, expressed in the rotating coordinate
system, is fully developed. Equation 3-49 then reduces to

   v  = 0 (3-54)

and Equation 3-50 to

  v   v + 2  v = (3-55)
   – pI +   + F –      r 

Frozen rotor is both a study type and an equation form. When solving a rotating
machinery model using a Frozen Rotor study step, the Rotating Machinery, Fluid
Flow interfaces effectively solve Equation 3-55 and Equation 3-55 in a “rotating”
domain, but “rotating” domains do not rotate at all. Boundary conditions remain
transformed as if the domains were rotating, but the domains remain fixed, or frozen,
in position. As in the time-dependent case, the Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow
interfaces solve for the velocity vector in the stationary coordinate system, u, rather
than for v.

To make Equation 3-51 and Equation 3-52 equivalent to Equation 3-54 and
Equation 3-55, the Frozen Rotor study step defines a parameter TIME, which by
default is set to zero (TIME appears in the Parameters node under Global Definitions).
Equation 3-53 is replaced by

 = wTIME

Since TIME is a parameter and x is a function of TIME, xT evaluates to its correct
value. Finally, T  0 and the mesh time derivative of the velocity is replaced by

u
------- =   u
T

In nonrotating domains, the ordinary, stationary Navier–Stokes equations are solved.

The Frozen Rotor study step invokes a stationary solver to solve the resulting equation
system.

The frozen rotor approach can in special cases give the same solution as solving
Equation 3-51 through Equation 3-53 to steady state. This is the case if, for example,
the whole geometry is rotating, or if the model is invariant with respect to the position
of the rotating domain relative to the nonrotating domain. The latter is the case for a
fan placed in the middle of a straight, cylindrical duct.

THEORY FOR THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACE | 139

 In most cases, however, there is no steady-state solution to the rotating machinery
problem. Only a pseudo-steady state where the solution varies periodically around
some average solution. In those cases, the frozen rotor approach gives an approximate
solution to the pseudo-steady state. The approximation depends on the position in
which the rotor is frozen, and the method cannot capture transient effects (see Ref. 3
and Ref. 4). An estimate of the effect of the rotor position can be obtained by making
a parametric sweep over TIME.

The frozen rotor approach is very useful for attaining initial values for time-dependent
simulations. Starting from a frozen rotor solution, the pseudo-steady state can be
reached within a few revolutions, while starting from u  0 can require tens of
revolutions. See, for example, Ref. 5.

Only interfaces that explicitly support frozen rotors are included in a Frozen Rotor
study step.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Setting Up a Rotating Machinery Model

The Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces primarily handle two types of
geometries with rotating parts.

The first type is where the whole geometry rotates. Typical examples are individual
parts in turbomachinery and lab-on-a-chip devices. For such cases, the selection for the
Rotating Domain under the Definitions node should be all domains in the geometry.

The other type is geometries where it is possible to divide the modeled device into
rotationally invariant geometries. The operation can be, for example, to rotate an
impeller in a baffled tank, as in Figure 3-1 where the impeller rotates from position 1
to 2.

The first step to set up these type of models is to divide the geometry into two parts,
as shown in Step 1a. Draw the geometry using separate domains for fixed and rotating
parts. If you intend to do a time-dependent simulation, activate the assembly (using an
assembly instead of a union, see Geometry Modeling and CAD Tools in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual) and create identity pairs, which makes it possible to
treat the domains as separate parts in an assembly.

140 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The second step is to remove the nonrotating domains from the Rotating Domain
selection (Step 1b).

Once this is done, proceed to the usual steps of setting the fluid properties, boundary
conditions. Apply a Flow Continuity to assembly pairs (Step 2a). Then mesh and solve
the problem.

1 2

1a 1b 2a

Figure 3-1: The modeling procedure in the Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interface.

References
1. H.P. Greenspan, The Theory of Rotating Fluids, Breukelen Press, 1990.

2. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press,

2000.

3. CFD Online, Best practice guidelines for turbomachinery CFD, https://

[Link]/Wiki/Best_practice_guidelines_for_turbomachinery_CFD.

4. A. Brucato, M. Ciofalo, F. Grisafi, and G. Micale, “Numerical Prediction of Flow

Fields in Baffled Stirred Vessels: A Comparison of Alternative Modelling Approaches”,
Chemical Engineering Science, vol. 53, no. 21, pp. 3653–3684, 1998.

5. J.-P. Torré, D.F. Fletcher, T. Lasuye, and C. Xuereb, “Single and Multiphase CFD
Approaches for Modelling Partially Baffled Stirred Vessels: Comparison of
Experimental Data with Numerical Predictions”, Chemical Engineering Science,
vol. 62, no. 22, pp. 6246–6262, 2007.

THEORY FOR THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR FLOW INTERFACE | 141

 Theory for the Viscoelastic Flow
Interface
The theory for the Viscoelastic Flow interface is described in this section:

• General Viscoelastic Flow Theory

• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
• Solvers for Laminar Flow
• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models
• References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

General Viscoelastic Flow Theory

The Viscoelastic Flow Interface is used to simulate incompressible and isothermal flow
of viscoelastic fluids. It solves the continuity equation, the momentum balance
equation, and a constitutive equation that defines the extra elastic stress contribution.
The continuity and momentum balance can be expressed as

  u = 0 (3-56)

u
 ------- +   u   u =    – pI +   + F (3-57)
t

where  is the extra stress tensor, which is defined as a sum of a viscous and a viscoelastic
or elastic contribution as

 = 2 s S + T e (3-58)

where s is the solvent viscosity, S is the strain-rate tensor, and Te is the elastic (or
viscoelastic) stress tensor. To adequately describe a flow of fluid with a complex
rheological behavior, the symmetric stress tensor Te is represented as a sum of the
individual modes:

Te =  Tem (3-59)
m

To close the equation system, the constitutive relation for each mode is required.

142 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The constitutive relation can be formulated using different dependent variables.
Several commonly used constitutive models can be written using stress formulation as
a hyperbolic partial differential transport equation of the form

1 -  em 
------------- f rm  T e  + -------------
- = f pm  T e S (3-60)
2 em m 2 em T em m

where the relaxation function frm and the viscosity factor fpm are model-specific
functions of stress, em is a relaxation time, em is a polymer viscosity, and the upper
convective derivative operator is defined as

 T T
T +  u   T –   u T + T  u   (3-61)
t

The first two terms on the right-hand side represent the material derivative, and the
other two terms represent the deformation. For more information, see Ref. 1.

OLDROYD-B MODEL
For the Oldroyd B model, the relaxation function and the viscosity factor are given by

f rm = T e , f pm = 1 (3-62)
m

The Oldroyd-B model can be derived from the kinetic theory representing the
polymer molecules as suspensions of the Hookean spring in a Newtonian solvent.
While demonstrating some basic features of viscoelasticity, the model can only predict
a constant shear viscosity and gives unrealistic results for purely extensional flows due
to the lack of a mechanism that limits the extensibility.

FENE-P MODEL
The finitely extensible nonlinear elastic model (FENE) is based on the kinetic theory
that describes the polymer chains as a bead-spring dumbbell and accounts for finite
extension of the polymer molecules. The FENE model with Peterlin closure (FENE-P)
shows a finite extensibility and a shear-thinning behavior. The expressions for the
relaxation function and the viscosity factor are given by

1  3  em  1
f rm = 1 + ----------
-  --------------------------- + ---------- tr  T e  T e , f pm = --------------------------- (3-63)
2
L em  1 – 3  L em
2  em
m
 m
1 – 3  L em
2

where Lem is the extensibility.

THEORY FOR THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 143

 FENE-CR MODEL
Several different closures for FENE types models exists The expressions for FENE-CR
(Finitely Extensible Nonlinear Elastic-Chilcott Rallison) model are given by

1 - 2  em 
 em +  em  T em  T em
f rm = -------------------
2
L ---------
- tr (3-64)
L em – 3
1  2 + ---------  em
f pm = -------------------
- L em - tr  T e 
2   m 
L em – 3 em

ROLIE–POLY MODEL
The Rouse Linear Entangled Polymers (Rolie–Poly) model is a model that derived
based on the tube theory. The model incorporates the molecular motion mechanisms
of reptation in the tubes, the stretching of polymer chains, and convective constraint
release (CCR) due to the release of entanglements as a result of the relaxation of the
other chains surrounding the reference chain.

 em  em 2 m
f rm = T e + 2 ------------  1 – ------- T e + ---------- I +  m  m
1
 Te  (3-65)
m  Rm m m  em m

f pm = 1

 em
m = 1 + ------------- tr  T e 
3 em m

where em is the reptation relaxation time, Rm is the Rouse relaxation time,
parameters m and m control the convective constrain release.

GIESEKUS MODEL
The Giesekus model is often used to model the flow of the semi-diluted and
concentrated polymers. It adds the quadratic nonlinearity that is attributed to the
effect of the hydrodynamic drag induced by the polymer-polymer interactions. The
corresponding relaxation function and the viscosity factor are given by

 em
f rm =  1 +  em ---------
-  , f pm = 1 (3-66)
  e T em T em
m

where em is the dimensionless mobility factor.

144 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

LPTT AND EPTT MODEL
The Phan–Thien–Tanner viscoelastic model is derived from the kinetic theory of an
elastic network representing a polymeric melt. The rates of creation and destruction of
junctions between the polymer strands depend on stress in the network. The
expressions for the relaxation function and the viscosity factor for the linear Phan–
Thien–Tanner model (LPTT) are given by

 em
f rm = 1 +  em ---------- tr  T e  T e , f pm = 1 (3-67)
 em m m

where em is the extensibility. The expressions for the relaxation function for the
exponential Phan–Thien–Tanner model (EPTT) is given by

 em
f rm = exp  em ---------- tr  T e  T e (3-68)
 em m m

CONFORMATION FORMULATION
The conformation tensor is a macroscopic representation of the polymer molecules
structure, for example a representation of the average orientation of the polymer
chains. The conformation tensor is a positive definite symmetric tensor that is equal to
the identity matrix in the absence of deformation


f rm  C e  +  em C e = 0 (3-69)
m m

where frm is a the relaxation function. The polymer stress is related to the
conformation tensor through the strain function

 em
T em = ---------- f sm  C em  (3-70)
 em

For more information, see Ref. 3. For many popular constitutive models, the strain
and relaxation functions are polynomials of A, usually of first or second orders, with
coefficients which may depend of the invariants of A. The strain and relaxation

THEORY FOR THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 145

 functions for the models that are available in the viscoelastic flow interface are given in
the Table 3-2.
TABLE 3-2: STRAIN AND RELAXATION FUNCTIONS.

CONSTITUTIVE MODEL fs fr
Oldroyd B
C em – I C em – I

FENE-P
C em C em
--------------------------------------------
-–I --------------------------------------------
-–I
2
1 – tr  C e   L em 1 – tr  C e   L em
2
m m

FENE-CR
C em – I C em – I
--------------------------------------------
- --------------------------------------------
-
2 2
1 – tr  C e   L em 1 – tr  C e   L em
m m

LPTT
C em – I  1 +  em tr  C e – I    C e – I 
m m

EPTT
C em – I exp   em tr  C e – I    C e – I 
m m

Giesekus 2
C em – I  em  C e – I  + C e – I
m m

Rolie–Poly  em
C em – I  C e m – I  + 2 ------------  1 – -------
1
 Rm m
2 m
Cem + m m  Cem – I 

CONFORMATION FORMULATION VS ELASTIC TENSOR FORMULATION

Note that, for FENE-CR, FENE-P, and Rolie–Poly models conformation and elastic
stress formulations are not fully equivalent. Several terms are not included in the elastic
stress formulation. For example, the complete equation for FENE-CR model is

f rm = f pm  1 + -------  ---------  T e
D 1
Dt f pm m

1  2 + --------- em
f pm = -------------------
- L em - tr  T e 
2   m 
L em – 3 em

The time derivative of fpm is dropped in the elastic formulation in the viscoelastic
interface (Equation 3-64).

146 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The theory about boundary conditions is found in the section Theory for the
Single-Phase Flow Interfaces. Note that for the viscoelastic models, the extra stress
tensor is defined as a sum of a viscous and an elastic contribution:   K  Te.
Therefore, an additional term should be added to the expression for the normal extra
stress: Kn  Kn  Ten.

Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

The constitutive equations (Equation 3-60) can easily become unstable if discretized
using the Galerkin finite element method (Ref. 2). Stabilized finite element methods
are usually necessary in order to obtain physical solutions. The streamline diffusion
method is used for the equations for the elastic stress tensor.

The theory about stabilization of the momentum equations Equation 3-56–

Equation 3-57 is found in Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid
Flow.

Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

Solvers for Viscoelastic Flow

The default solver suggestions for single phase flow interfaces are discussed in Solvers
for Laminar Flow. Note that if an iterative solver is used, the separate hybrid
preconditioners are used for the velocity group and the viscoelastic stresses.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Selecting a Preconditioner for an Iterative Linear System Solver

Pseudo Time Stepping for Viscoelastic Flow Models

A stationary formulation has per definition no time derivatives. Solving Equation 3-56
through Equation 3-60 requires a starting guess that is close enough to the final
solution. If no such guess is at hand, the fully transient problem can be solved instead.
This is, however, a rather costly approach in terms of computational time. An

THEORY FOR THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 147

 intermediate approach is to add a fictitious time derivative. Further details is found in
Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models.

References for the Viscoelastic Flow Interfaces

1. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, 2005.

2. T.J. Craven, J.M. Rees, and W.B. Zimmerman, “Stabilized finite element modelling
of Oldroyd-B viscoelastic flow,” COMSOL Conference 2006, Birmingham, U.K.,
2006.

3. M.A. Alves, [Link], F.T. Pinho, “Numerical Methods for Viscoelastic Fluid
Flows”, Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., vol. 53, pp. 509-541, 2021

148 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Potential Flow
Interface
The theory for the Incompressible Potential Flow interface is described in the
following section.

General Incompressible Potential Flow Theory

The Incompressible Potential Flow interface is used to simulate irrotational, inviscid,
and incompressible flow. The continuity equation for incompressible flow can be
expressed as a divergence-free constraint for the velocity

u = 0 (3-71)

Moreover, irrotational flow is described as

u = 0 (3-72)

As the curl of the gradient of a scalar field is zero by definition, the velocity can be
approximated as the gradient of a scalar velocity potential, ,

u = –  (3-73)

so that Equation 3-71 and Equation 3-73 result in the Laplace equation

–    = 0 (3-74)

The local gauge pressure can be obtained from Bernoulli’s equation

 2
p = p Tot – ---  (3-75)
2

where

 2
p Tot = --- U scale (3-76)
2

and Uscale is the user-defined free-stream velocity.

THEORY FOR THE POTENTIAL FLOW INTERFACE | 149

150 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES
 4

Multiphase Flow Interfaces

There are several Multiphase Flow interfaces available with the Polymer Flow
Module. These are found under the Fluid Flow>Multiphase Flow branch ( ) when
adding a physics interface. See Multiphase Flow to help select the physics interface
to use.

In this chapter:

• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field Interfaces
• The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set, Brinkman Equations Interface
• The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface
• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface
• Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces
• Theory for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface
• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

151
 The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level
Set and Laminar Two-Phase Flow,
Phase Field Interfaces
This section includes the following topics:

• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface

• The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature
• The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
• The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface
• The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar Flow, Two-Phase, Level
Set and Phase Field Interfaces

Mathematics, Moving Interfaces

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interface ( ) found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Level Set branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed to
track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The flow is assumed to be laminar,
that is, to be of low to moderate Reynolds number. The fluids can be incompressible
or compressible.

When adding the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set multiphysics interface, a Laminar
Flow and a Level Set interface are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a
multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature, is
added automatically under the Multiphysics node. The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
is also added, but with empty selection. Other Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling
features and The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature can be added when needed
to model walls.

152 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Simulations using the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of its
history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Discretization
By default the fluid flow discretization is set to P1+P1, and the level set discretization
is set to Linear. This combination provides exact conservation of the integral of the level
set variable when using the nonconservative form of the level set equation.

• Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

• Theory of Laminar Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set, ( ) and Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set,
( ) interfaces contain a multiphysics coupling feature, Two-Phase Flow, Level Set,
which is added automatically.

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set multiphysics coupling feature defines the density and
dynamic viscosity of the fluid used in the Laminar Flow interface, and it defines the
surface tension on the interface in form of a volume force used in the momentum
equation. It also enables the Level Set interface to use the velocity field calculated from
the Laminar Flow interface to transport the interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
in the model) is tpf1.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 153
 DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select All domains (the default)
or select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific domains.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density, viscosity, or the surface tension
coefficient, can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material.
For the latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be
required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The default Absolute pressure pA is p  pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the fluid flow physics interface level.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

154 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The effective density and dynamic viscosity can either be Locally defined or picked up
from a Multiphase Material. When the properties are defined locally, provide the
properties for each phase in the respective fluid properties section, and the averaging
method in the advanced settings section. If a multiphase material is used, these settings
are controlled from the material. Using a multiphase material is advantageous for
models coupling two-phase flow with other physics interfaces, such as Heat Transfer
in Fluids or Electrostatics. In such cases, the multiphase material can ensure that the
effective material properties for these physics interfaces are averaged using the volume
fraction from the Level Set physics interface.

Click the Go to Material button () to move to the selected material node. Click the
Add Multiphase Material button ( ) to add a multiphase material with two phases.
The added material then becomes the one selected in the Multiphase Material list.

Multiphase Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES
A Fluid Properties section will be available per phase if the Material Properties are set to
Locally defined. Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of the two
fluids. The fluids are denoted Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid 1from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid 1 list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid 11 and Dynamic viscosity of
fluid 11 are both set to From Material.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref for incompressible flows (as
specified by the Compressibility setting of the fluid flow interface).

The non-Newtonian Power law, Carreau, Carreau–Yasuda, Cross, Cross–Williamson,

Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–Papanastasiou, Casson–Papanastasiou,
DeKee–Turcotte–Papanastasiou, Robertson–Stiff–Papanastasiou, and Ellis models can
alternatively be used to specify the dynamic viscosities of the two fluids.

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for Fluid
A, select User defined in the Density of fluid 1 1 or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid 1 1
list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 155
 Similarly, the properties of Fluid 2 can be specified. The default material is set to None.

Care should be taken when using the Domain Material setting for the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2. The material properties are
obtained from the domain irrespective of the location of the interface. If
two different materials are selected in domains 1 and 2, with the phase
boundary initially coincident with the domain boundary, the model has
convergence issues once the phase boundary moves away from the
domain boundary. This is because a density discontinuity and a viscosity
discontinuity occurs at the boundary separating the two fluids. For this
reason, selecting the material directly is recommended when setting the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
If the Material Properties are set to Locally defined, you can specify the averaging
method for density and dynamic viscosity in this section. The default method for
Density averaging and Viscosity averaging is Volume average. In addition to the default
method, Density averaging can be set to Heaviside function or Harmonic volume average,
while Viscosity averaging can be set to Heaviside function, Harmonic volume average, Mass
average or Harmonic mass average. When a Heaviside function is used, enter a value for
the corresponding mixing parameter, l or l.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation. The surface tension force is not
added to porous domains.

Select a Surface tension coefficient (SI unit: N/m):

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (for example, Water/Air or Glycerol/Air). The predefined correlations
are based on the data in Ref. 7, Ref. 8, and Ref. 9.
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient 
(SI unit: N/m).

156 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set ( ) interface contains an optional multiphysics
coupling boundary feature, Wetted Wall. It is an exclusive feature that overrides the
Wall feature in the Laminar interface as well as the No Flow feature in the Level Set
interface. It cannot be used in boundaries that have a Flow Continuity feature in the flow
physics interface or a Continuity feature in the level set physics interface.

The Wetted Wall boundary condition is suitable for walls in contact with the fluid-fluid
interface. When this boundary condition is used, the fluid-fluid interface can move
along the wall.

For laminar flow, when the Wall condition is set to Navier slip, this boundary condition
enforces the no-penetration condition u nwall0 and adds a tangential stress on the
form

K nt = – 
--- u


where Knt  Kn  Kn  nwallnwallKn  Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor.  is
the slip length. For numerical calculations, a suitable choice is h, where h is the
mesh element size. The boundary condition does not set the tangential velocity
component to zero. However, the extrapolated tangential velocity component is 0 at
a distance  outside the wall (see Figure 4-1). When the Wall condition is set to
Nonlinear Navier slip or Asymptotic slip, the frictional force has a nonlinear dependency
on the velocity (see Wall).If the surface tension force is included in the momentum
equation in The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature, the Wetted Wall
boundary condition also adds the following boundary force to enforce the contact
angle:

F  =   n wall  n – cos  w n

The contact angle w is defined as the angle between the fluid interface and the wall
(see Figure 4-1). For more information, see Ref. 4 and Ref. 5. Note that the contact
angle is not enforced on boundaries adjacent to porous domains. In order to properly
account for direction and yield stress, when using Hatzikiriakos slip in the Wall
condition, the surface tension contribution has to be combined with the viscous stress
in the expression for the slip velocity,

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 157
 
 K nt

= –  k 1 sinh   k 2  K nt –  y    K  if K nt   y
-------------
-
u slip
nt

 0 if K nt   y

K nt = K n –  K n  n wall n wall –    n wall  n – cos  w   n  t wall t wall

where Kn  Knwall, K is the viscous stress tensor, and twall is a unit vector tangential
to the wall, in the direction of the projected interface normal.

The contact angle w can be defined directly or from Young’s equation, which
considers the components of the forces in the plane of the surface:

 cos   w  +  s2 =  s1 (4-1)

where s1 is the surface energy density on the fluid 1 — solid (wall) interface and s2
is the surface energy density on the fluid 2 — solid (wall) interface.

Fluid 1

u Wall
Wall


Fluid 2


Figure 4-1: Definition of the contact angle  at interface/wall contact points (left) and
an illustration of the slip length  (right).

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The default Name (for the first Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling feature in the model)
is ww1.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, select All boundaries (the default) or
select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific boundaries.

158 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

Translational velocity can also be set to Zero (Fixed wall) to force utr = 0. This is typically
used in problems where the mesh is deforming or rotating, but we want the boundary
to keep zero velocity. For example, in fixed walls tangential to a Rotating Domain.

WETTED WALL
Select the Wall condition — Navier Slip (the default), Nonlinear Navier slip, Hatzikiriakos
slip, or Asymptotic slip. For more details, see Wall.

When using Navier Slip, or Nonlinear Navier slip, the Slip Length setting is per default set
to Factor of minimum element length. The slip length  is then defined as   fhhmin,
where hmin is the smallest element side (corresponds to the element size in the wall
normal direction for boundary layer elements) and fh is a user input. Select User defined
from Slip Length selection list in order to manually prescribe (SI unit: m)

If the fluid physics interface includes porous domains, check Use porous slip wall
treatment to use the porous slip wall treatment to provide tangential stresses and the
slip velocity on boundaries adjacent to porous domains. If Use porous slip wall

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 159
 treatment is not checked, the condition selected in Wall condition is used for porous
boundaries.

CONTACT ANGLE
Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation. For Directly enter a Contact angle w (SI unit: rad). The default is
/2 radians. For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for Phase 1-Solid
surface energy density s1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface energy density s2
(SI unit: J/m2).

Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature

The Interior Wetted Wall, multiphysics coupling boundary feature can only be applied
on interior boundaries.

It is similar to The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature available on exterior boundaries of

the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set ( ) multiphysics interface, except that it applies
on both sides of an interior boundary. It is an exclusive feature which overrides the
Interior Wall feature in the Laminar interface as well as the Thin Barrier feature in the
Level Set interface. It is available for laminar flow and turbulent flow with wall
functions or automatic wall treatment.

The Interior Wetted Wall coupling feature allows discontinuities (velocity, pressure,
level set variable) across the boundary and can be used to avoid meshing thin structures
in contact with the fluid-fluid interface. When this boundary condition is used, the
fluid-fluid interface can move along the wall.

For laminar flow, when the Wall condition is set to Navier slip, this boundary condition
enforces the no-penetration condition u  nwall   on both sides of the wall, and adds
a tangential stress on the form

K nt = – 
--- u


where Knt  Kn  Kn  nwallnwallKn  Knwall, and K is the viscous stress tensor.  is
the slip length. For numerical calculations, a suitable choice is h, where h is the
mesh element size.

160 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 If the surface tension force is included in the momentum equation, the Interior Wetted
Wall boundary condition also adds the following boundary force on both sides of the
walls to enforce the contact angle:

F  =   n wall  n – cos  w n

Note that the contact angle is not enforced on boundaries adjacent to porous domains.
For more information, see The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The default Name (for the first Interior Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling feature in the
model) is iww1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, select All boundaries (the default) or
select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific boundaries.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 161
 WETTED WALL
Select the Wall condition — Navier Slip (the default), Nonlinear Navier slip, Hatzikiriakos
slip, or Asymptotic slip. For more details, see Wall.

When using Navier Slip, or Nonlinear Navier slip, the Slip Length setting is per default set
to Factor of minimum element length. The slip length  is then defined as   fhhmin,
where hmin is the smallest element side (corresponds to the element size in the wall
normal direction for boundary layer elements) and fh is a user input. Select User defined
from Slip Length selection list in order to manually prescribe (SI unit: m)

If the fluid physics interface includes porous domains, check Use porous slip wall
treatment to use the porous slip wall treatment to provide tangential stresses and the
slip velocity on boundaries adjacent to porous domains. If Use porous slip wall
treatment is not checked, the condition selected in Wall condition is used for porous
boundaries.

CONTACT ANGLE
Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation. For Directly enter a Contact angle w (SI unit: rad). The default is
/2 radians. For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for Phase 1-Solid
surface energy density s1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface energy density s2
(SI unit: J/m2).

The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface ( ) found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed to
track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The flow is assumed to be laminar,
that is, to be of low to moderate Reynolds number. The fluids can be incompressible
or compressible.

When adding the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a Laminar
Flow and a Phase Field in Fluids interface are added to the Model Builder. In addition,
a multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature,
is added automatically under the Multiphysics node. Note that unlike the Two-Phase
Flow, Level Set interfaces, the wetted wall feature here is not implemented as a separate

162 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 multiphase coupling boundary feature but as a default Wetted Wall feature in the Phase
Field in Fluids interface.

Wetted Wall

Simulations using the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Discretization
By default the fluid flow discretization is set to P1+P1, and the phase field discretization
is set to Linear. This combination provides improved conservation of the integral of the
phase field variable when using the nonconservative form of the phase field equations.

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field, ( ) and Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field, ( ) interfaces contain a multiphysics coupling feature, Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field, which is added automatically.

The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics coupling feature defines the density and
dynamic viscosity of the fluid used in the Laminar Flow interfaces, and it defines the
surface tension on the interface in form of a volume force used in the momentum
equation. It also enables the Phase Field in Fluids interface to use the velocity field
calculated from the Laminar Flowinterface to transport the interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 163
 The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field in the model) is tpf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select All domains (the default)
or select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific domains.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density, viscosity, or the surface tension
coefficient, can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material.
For the latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be
required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The default Absolute pressure pA is ppref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the fluid flow physics interface level.

164 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The effective density and dynamic viscosity can either be Locally defined or picked up
from a Multiphase Material. When the properties are defined locally, provide the
properties for each phase in the respective fluid properties section, and the averaging
method in the advanced settings section. If a multiphase material is used, these settings
are controlled from the material. Using a multiphase material is advantageous for
models coupling two-phase flow with other physics interfaces, such as Heat Transfer
in Fluids or Electrostatics. In such cases, the multiphase material can ensure that the
effective material properties for these physics interfaces are averaged using the volume
fraction from the Phase Field in Fluids physics interface.

Click the Go to Material button () to move to the selected material node. Click the
Add Multiphase Material button ( ) to add a multiphase material with two phases.
The added material then becomes the one selected in the Multiphase Material list.

Multiphase Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES
A Fluid Properties section will be available per phase if the Material Properties are set to
Locally defined. Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of the two
fluids. The fluids are denoted Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid 1from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid 1 list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid 11and Dynamic viscosity of fluid
11 are both set to From Material.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref for incompressible flows (as
specified by the Compressibility setting of the fluid flow interface).

The non-Newtonian Power law, Carreau, Carreau–Yasuda, Cross, Cross–Williamson,

Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–Papanastasiou, Casson–Papanastasiou,

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 165
 DeKee–Turcotte–Papanastasiou, Robertson–Stiff–Papanastasiou, and Ellis models can
alternatively be used to specify the dynamic viscosities of the two fluids.

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for Fluid
A, select User defined in the Density of fluid 1 1 or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid 11
list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

Similarly, the properties of Fluid 2 can be specified. The default material is set to None.

Care should be taken when using the Domain Material setting for the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2. The material properties are
obtained from the domain irrespective of the location of the interface. If
two different materials are selected in domains 1 and 2, with the phase
boundary initially coincident with the domain boundary, the model has
convergence issues once the phase boundary moves away from the
domain boundary. This is because a density discontinuity and a viscosity
discontinuity occurs at the boundary separating the two fluids. For this
reason, selecting the material directly is recommended when setting the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2.

The fluid defined as Fluid 1 affects the wetting characteristics on wetted walls. See the
Wetted Wall node for details.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
f the Material Properties are set to Locally defined, you can specify the averaging method
for density and dynamic viscosity in this section. Select the method used for Density
averaging and Viscosity averaging. The default method for both settings is Volume
average. In addition to the default method, Density averaging can be set to Heaviside
function or Harmonic volume average, while Viscosity averaging can be set to Heaviside
function, Harmonic volume average, Mass average or Harmonic mass average. When a
Heaviside function is used, enter a value for the corresponding mixing parameter, l or
l.

When the surface tension force is included in the momentum equation, you can select
the Shift surface tension force to the heaviest phase check box. This can prevent
significant spurious oscillations in the velocity field for the lighter phase in cases with
a large difference in density between the two phases. The amount of shifting is
controlled by the Smoothing factor ds,Fst (default 0.1). The surface tension force is
then multiplied by

166 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 V f 1 – 0.5 V f 2 – 0.5
f s = -----------------------   1 H  ------------------------- +  2 H  ------------------------- 
2
(4-2)
 1 + 2  d s Fst d s Fst

Shift surface tension force to the heaviest phase works better when combined with
Heaviside function for the averaging of density and viscosity.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation. If the surface tension force is
included, select Include surface tension gradient effects in surface tension force to
account for the Marangoni effect due to gradients in the surface tension coefficient.

Select a Surface tension coefficient (SI unit: N/m):

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (for example, Water/Air or Glycerol/Air). The predefined correlations
are based on the data in Ref. 7, Ref. 8, and Ref. 9.
• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient 
(SI unit: N/m).

Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar Flow,
Two-Phase, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces
The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field interfaces are multiphysics interfaces
combining Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interfaces together with Level Set or
Phase Field in Fluids interfaces.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for the Laminar Flow interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

LEVEL SET
The available physics features for the Level Set interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 167
 PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS
The available physics features for the Phase Field in Fluids interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface.

All domain, boundary, point, and pair nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

168 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set,
Brinkman Equations Interface
This Multiphysics interface was designed to track the interface between two immiscible
fluids within a porous medium as for example when simulating resin transfer molding.

The tracking is done using the Level Set equation, and the velocity field for this
equation can be calculated from the Brinkman Equations.

The immiscible fluids can be incompressible or compressible. The interface is available

in 2D, 2D axial symmetric, and 3D.

When adding the Two-Phase Flow, Level Set, Brinkman Equations multiphysics interface,
a Brinkman Equations and a Level Set interface are added to the Model Builder. In
addition, the multiphysics coupling feature Two-Phase Flow, Level Set is created
automatically under the Multiphysics node (see The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
Coupling Feature). The Wetted Wall coupling feature is also added, but with empty
selection. Other Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling features and the Interior Wetted
Wall coupling feature can be added when needed to model walls. For more information
about these coupling features read The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature and The
Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature.

Simulations using the Two-Phase Flow, Level Set, Brinkman equations interface are
always time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of
its history.

Note that this multiphysics coupling does not include capillary effects arising inside the
porous structure itself as these effects can be neglected for relatively high flow
velocities.

Use the following links to get more information about the Brinkman Equations and
the Level Set interfaces and the coupling features.

• The Brinkman Equations Interface

• Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface
• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Laminar Two-Phase
Flow, Phase Field Interfaces
• Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET, BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 169

 The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase
Field Interface
This section includes the following topics:

• The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

• The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar Three-Phase Flow,
Phase Field Interface

Mathematics, Moving Interfaces

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed
to track the interfaces between three immiscible and incompressible fluids. The flow is
assumed to be laminar; that is, a flow characterized by a low-to-moderate Reynolds
number. The density of each fluid is assumed to be constant, but the there is no
restriction on the density differences between the separate fluids.

When adding the Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a
Laminar Flow and a Ternary Phase Field interface are added to the Model Builder. In
addition the Multiphysics node, including the multiphysics coupling feature Three-Phase
Flow, Phase Field is added.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

Simulations using the Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

170 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
Use the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field ( ) multiphysics coupling to simulate the flow
of a three immiscible fluids while explicitly tracking the interface separating each pair
of the fluids.

The Three-Phase Flow interface solves Navier–Stokes equations for the conservation
of momentum, and a continuity equation for the conservation of mass. The positions
of the interfaces separating the fluid phases are tracked by solving four additional
transport equations: two equations governing phase field variables and two equations
for the corresponding generalized chemical potentials. The movement of the
fluid-fluid interfaces is determined by minimization of free energy.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is tfpf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the three-phase flow, or
select All domains as needed.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through
user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional
inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these
properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own

THE LAMINAR THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 171

 tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The default Absolute pressure pA is ppref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes equations, and pref is from the user input defined at the fluid
flow physics interface level.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The effective density and dynamic viscosity can either be Locally defined or picked up
from a Multiphase Material. When the properties are defined locally, provide the
properties for each phase in the respective fluid properties section, and the averaging
method in the advanced settings section. If a multiphase material is used, these settings
are controlled from the material. Using a multiphase material is advantageous for
models coupling two-phase flow with other physics interfaces, such as Heat Transfer
in Fluids or Electrostatics. In such cases, the multiphase material can ensure that the
effective material properties for these physics interfaces are averaged using the volume
fraction from the Ternary Phase Field physics interface.

Click the Go to Material button ( ) to move to the selected material node. Click the
Add Multiphase Material button ( ) to add a multiphase material with three phases.
The added material then becomes the one selected in the Multiphase Material list.

Multiphase Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

172 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

FLUID PROPERTIES
A Fluid Properties section will be available per phase if the Material Properties are set to
Locally defined. Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of all three
fluids. The fluids are denoted Fluid A, Fluid B, and Fluid C, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid A from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid A list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid A Aand Dynamic viscosity of
fluid A A are both set to From material.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref for incompressible flows (as
specified by the Compressibility setting of the laminar flow interface).

The non-Newtonian Power law, Carreau, Carreau–Yasuda, Cross, Cross–Williamson,

Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–Papanastasiou, Casson–Papanastasiou,
DeKee–Turcotte–Papanastasiou, Robertson–Stiff–Papanastasiou, and Ellis models can
alternatively be used to specify the dynamic viscosities of the three fluids.

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for
Fluid A, select User defined in the Density of fluid A A or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid
A A list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

• Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar

Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface
The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface is a multiphysics interface
combining The Laminar Flow Interface and The Ternary Phase Field Interface.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interface are listed in Domain,
Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

THE LAMINAR THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 173

 TERNARY PHASE-FIELD
The available physics features for The Ternary Phase Field Interface are listed in
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Ternary Phase Field Interface.

All domain, boundary, point, and pair nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

174 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving
Mesh Interface
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed
to model laminar two–phase flow of immiscible fluids separated by a moving interface.
The velocity field, pressure, and mesh deformation are solved for, and the location of
the interface is tracked by the deformed mesh.

When adding the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh multiphysics interface, a
Laminar Flow interface is added to the component, and a Moving Mesh interface with a
Deforming Domain feature is added under the Definitions node. The Laminar Flow
interface adds the Navier–Stokes equations and provides a way of defining the
properties of the fluids. For each of the fluids the density and viscosity must be
specified (these are typically taken from the corresponding materials, but can be user
defined).

Simulations using the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of its
history. There are additional boundary conditions to describe how the fluid-fluid
interface moves from the Laminar Flow context menu under the option Fluid Interface
Features:

• Fluid-Fluid Interface
• Free Surface
• Contact Angle (as a subfeature to the two conditions above)

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics (prior to version 5.4), a

specific physics interface called Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh
(tpfmm) was added to the Model Builder. Now, a predefined multiphysics
coupling approach is used, improving the flexibility and design options
for your modeling. For specific details, see The Multiphysics Branch and
Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 175

 Select Laminar Flow Properties
For a full list of available properties, see The Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow
Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

PHYSICAL MODEL
This physics interface deforms the mesh within the domains on either side of the two
fluid interfaces to track its movement.

The Compressibility defaults to Incompressible flow to use the incompressible (constant

density) formulation of the Navier–Stokes equations. Select Compressible flow (Ma<0.3)
to use the compressible formulation.

If flow is occurring at very low Reynolds numbers, the inertial term in the Navier–
Stokes equations can be neglected and the linear Stokes equations can be solved on the
domain. This flow type is referred to as creeping flow or Stokes flow and can occur in
microfluidics and MEMS devices, where the flow length scales are very small. To make
this approximation select the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box, which
significantly improves the solver speed.

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Velocity field and Pressure. The
names can be changed in the corresponding fields, but the names of fields and
dependent variables must be unique within a model.

Deforming Domain
When the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh multiphysics interface is added using
the Model Wizard, a Deforming Domain node is added automatically in the Model Builder
under the Definitions>Moving Mesh node. This node serves to represent domains and
boundaries where the mesh can deform. By default, the selection is all domains. Under
the Deforming Domain, you can also choose the Mesh smoothing type, by default set to
Yeoh with a default Stiffening factor of 10. More information of the smoothing type can
be found in the Deforming Domain chapter in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

By default, the mesh is fixed at all external boundaries of the geometry. Use the
Symmetry/Roller node to select the external boundaries, where the fluid-fluid
interface can slide along the boundary. You can also add other types of boundary

176 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

conditions for the mesh motion, for details see Moving Mesh Features in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Fluid-Fluid Interface
The Fluid-Fluid Interface node defines the initial position of a fluid-fluid interface and
includes equations to track the evolution of the interface. The Contact Angle subnode
is added by default, and is also available from the context menu (right-click the parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

MODEL INPUT
Enter a value for the Temperature T (SI unit: K). This option is only necessary when
the surface tension coefficient comes from a library of coefficients, as explained below.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation.

The Surface tension coefficient (SI unit: N/m) can be User defined, or select Library
coefficient, liquid/gas interface (default) or Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface select an option from the list — Water/Air
(default), Acetone/Air, Acetic acid/Air, Ethanol/Air, Ethylene glycol/Ethylene glycol vapor,
Diethyl ether/Air, Glycerol/Air, Heptane/Nitrogen, Mercury/Mercury vapor, or
Toluene/Air.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface select an option from the list —
Benzene/Water, 20°C, Corn oil/Water, 20°C, Ether/Water, 20°C, Hexane/Water, 20°C,
Mercury/Water, 20°C, or Olive oil/Water, 20°C.

The predefined correlations are based on the data in , , and .

MASS FLUX
The mass flux setting specifies the mass transfer across the boundary, due to processes
such as boiling. The default Mass Flux Mf (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) is User defined, with a
value of 0.

NORMAL DIRECTION
The normal direction on the selected boundaries can be reversed by selecting Reverse
normal direction. The direction is indicated by a red arrow in the Graphics window.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 177

 The Fluid-Fluid Interface feature imposes a mesh deformation in the
normal direction. On adjacent boundaries, the mesh displacement parallel
to those boundaries cannot be fixed if the contact point is moving. In this
case a Mesh Slip, Symmetry/Roller, Prescribed Normal Mesh
Displacement, or Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity boundary condition
under Definitions>Moving Mesh should be selected. A Mesh Slip condition
is automatically used on boundaries that are adjacent to the Fluid-Fluid
Interface and dot not have a prescribed Moving Mesh boundary
condition.

If a Fluid-Fluid Interface feature is in contact with a solid boundary, the

movement of the contact point is not compatible with the no slip
condition. For laminar flow the boundary condition with the option
should be selected.

Free Surface
The Free Surface node defines the initial position of an external fluid interface - that is,
an interface in which the viscosity in the fluid outside the domain can be neglected. By
applying this feature the motion of the two-phase interface can be tracked. In the
tangential direction the free surface motion is governed by the fluid motion in
combination with the surface tension of the fluid-fluid interface.

The Free Surface node can only be applied to outer boundaries of a Deforming Domain
that do not have any boundary condition assigned under Moving Mesh.

To control the attachment angle between the free surface and adjacent walls, a Contact
Angle subnode is by default added under the Free Surface node. A different contact
angle subnode can be added from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

MODEL INPUT
Enter a value for the Temperature T (SI unit: K). This option is only necessary when
the surface tension coefficient comes from a library of coefficients, as explained below.

178 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

FREE SURFACE
Enter an External pressure pext (SI unit: Pa).

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation.

The default Surface tension coefficient (SI unit: N/m) can be User defined, or select
Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface (default) or Library coefficient, liquid/liquid
interface.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface select an option from the list — Water/Air
(default), Acetone/Air, Acetic acid/Air, Ethanol/Air, Ethylene glycol/Ethylene glycol vapor,
Diethyl ether/Air, Glycerol/Air, Heptane/Nitrogen, Mercury/Mercury vapor, or
Toluene/Air.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface select an option from the list —
Benzene/Water, 20°C, Corn oil/Water, 20°C, Ether/Water, 20°C, Hexane/Water, 20°C,
Mercury/Water, 20°C, or Olive oil/Water, 20°C.

The predefined correlations are based on the data in Ref. 5, Ref. 6, and Ref. 7.

MASS FLUX
The mass flux setting specifies the mass transfer across the boundary, due to processes
such as boiling. The default Mass Flux Mf (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) is User defined, with a
value of 0.

The Free Surface feature imposes a mesh deformation in the normal

direction. On adjacent boundaries, the mesh displacement parallel to
those boundaries cannot be fixed if the contact point is moving. In this
case a Mesh Slip, Symmetry/Roller, Prescribed Normal Mesh
Displacement, or Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity boundary condition
under Definitions>Moving Mesh should be selected. A Mesh Slip condition
is automatically used on boundaries that are adjacent to the Free Surface
and dot not have a prescribed Moving Mesh boundary condition.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 179

 If a Free Surface feature is in contact with a solid boundary, the movement
of the contact point is not compatible with the no slip condition. For
laminar flow the Wall boundary condition with the Navier Slipoption
should be selected.

Contact Angle
The Contact Angle subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Fluid-Fluid Interface Free Surface parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu. The condition applies forces on the wall that balance the surface tension for the
prescribed contact angle. Note that the contact angle can only be enforced when the
surface tension force is included in the momentum equation in the parent feature.

For laminar flow with moving mesh, the Contact Angle node should be used on edges
or points where a Wall feature with the Navier Slip option is prescribed adjacent to the
free surface. In this case, the Navier Slip option is required for the contact line to move
along the wall.

The representation of the contact angle is dependent on the mesh resolution in the
region where the fluid-fluid interface attaches to the wall. If, during the simulation, the
contact angle is found to fluctuate around a given value, this indicates that the
resolution needs to be improved. This can for example be achieved by adding more
mesh boundary layers on the wall.

CONTACT ANGLE
Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation.

• For Directly enter a Contact angle w (SI unit: rad). The default is /2 radians.
• For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for Phase 1-Solid surface
energy density s1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface energy density s2 (SI
unit: J/m2).

NORMAL WALL VELOCITY

Select whether to Constrain the wall-normal velocity. This ensures that the fluid velocity
normal to the wall on the contact edge or point is exactly the desired value. This can
be helpful when the adjacent wall uses a Nitsche Constraints and the no-penetration
condition is satisfied in an integral sense rather than pointwise. Moreover, constraining
the wall-normal velocity simplifies the equilibrium of forces in the wall-normal

180 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

direction. This setting should not be selected when the adjacent boundary has an
unknown velocity.

The contact angle w is defined between the fluid-fluid interface and the
surface of the wall adjacent to phase 1.

The moving mesh boundary condition must be compatible with the

motion of the wall for the problem to have a valid solution.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 181

 Theory for the Level Set and Phase
Field Interfaces
The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field interfaces can be used to model the
flow of two different, immiscible fluids, where the exact position of the interface
between the two fluids is of interest. The fluid-fluid interface is tracked using an
auxiliary function on a fixed mesh. These methods account for differences in the two
fluids’ densities and viscosities and include the effects of surface tension and gravity.

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field
Interfaces theory is described in this section:

• Level Set and Phase Field Equations

• Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations
• Phase Initialization
• Numerical Stabilization
• References for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

Level Set and Phase Field Equations

By default, the Level Set and Phase Field interfaces use the incompressible formulation
of the Navier–Stokes equations:

u T
 +   u   u =    – p I +   u + u   + F g + F st + F ext + F (4-3)
t

u = 0 (4-4)

Note that Equation 4-3, and Equation 4-4 are solved in the contained interface,
Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interface. Note that the form of the continuity
equation, appropriate for high density difference mixtures, differs from the definition
in Theory of Laminar Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

USING THE LEVEL SET METHOD

If the level set method is used to track the interface, it adds the following equation:

182 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 -
------ + u   =     –   1 –   --------- (4-5)
t   

where  is the reinitialization parameter (set to 1 by default), and  is the interface

thickness controlling parameter (set proportional to hmax where hmax is the maximum
element size in the component). The density is a function of the level set function. Let
1 and 2 be the constant densities of Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively. Here, Fluid 1
corresponds to the domain where   0.5, and Fluid 2 corresponds to the domain
where   0.5. When Density averaging is set to Volume average, the density is defined
as,

 =  1 +   2 –  1 

switching to Heaviside function, the density is defined as,

 – 0.5
 =  1 +   2 –  1 H  -----------------
 l 

where H is a smooth step function and l is a mixing parameter defining the size of the
transition zone. When the Harmonic volume average is selected,

1
 = -----------------------------------------------
 1 –    1 +   2

Similarly, the dynamic viscosity can be defined by setting Viscosity averaging to Volume
average,

 =  1 +   2 –  1 

Heaviside function,

 – 0.5
 =  1 +   2 –  1 H  -----------------
 l 

Harmonic volume average,

1
 = ----------------------------------------------
-
 1 –    1 +   2

Mass average,

 1  1 –   1 +  2  2
 = ----------------------------------------------------
-


THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 183
 or Harmonic mass average,


 = -----------------------------------------------------------
-
1  1 –    1 + 2   2

where 1 and 2 are the dynamic viscosities of Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively. For
inelastic non-Newtonian fluids, 1,2 is replaced by app1,2 in the previous expressions.
Further details of the theory for the level set method are in Ref. 1.

USING THE PHASE FIELD METHOD

If the phase field method is used to track the interface, it adds the following equations:

 + u   
=   -----2-  (4-6)
t 

 f ext
2
 = –     +   – 1  +  -----
2 2
(4-7)
 

where the quantity  (SI unit: N) is the mixing energy density and  (SI unit: m) is a
capillary width that scales with the thickness of the interface. These two parameters are
related to the surface tension coefficient,  (SI unit: N/m), through the equation

2 2
 = ----------- ---
3 

and  is the mobility parameter which is related to  through   2 where  is the
mobility tuning parameter (set to 1 by default). The volume fractions of Fluid 1 and
Fluid 2 are computed as

V f 2 = min  max    1 +    2  0  1 , V f 1 = 1 – V f 2

where the min and max operators are used so that the volume fractions have a lower
limit of 0 and an upper limit of 1. Let 1 and 2 be the constant densities of Fluid 1
and Fluid 2, respectively. When Density averaging is set to Volume average, the density
is defined as,

 =  1 V f 1 +  2 V f 2

switching to Heaviside function, the density is defined as,

V f 2 – 0.5
 =  1 +   2 –  1 H  -------------------------
l

184 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

where H is a smooth step function and l is a mixing parameter defining the size of the
transition zone. When the Harmonic volume average is selected,

1
 = -----------------------------------------------
-
V f 1   1 + V f 2   2

Similarly, the dynamic viscosity can be defined by setting Viscosity averaging to Volume
average,

 = V f 1  1 +  2 V f 2

Heaviside function,

V f 2 – 0.5
 =  1 +   2 –  1 H  -------------------------
 l 

Harmonic volume average,

1
 = ------------------------------------------------
V f 1   1 + V f 2   2

Mass average,

 1 V f 1  1 +  2 V f 2  2
 = -----------------------------------------------------
-


or Harmonic mass average,


 = -------------------------------------------------------------
 1 V f 1   1 +  2 V f 2   2

where 1 and 2 are the dynamic viscosities of Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively. For
inelastic non-Newtonian fluids, 1,2 are replaced by app1,2 in the previous
expressions.

The mean curvature (SI unit: 1/m) can be computed by entering the following
expression:

G
 = 2  1 +    1 –   ----


where G is the chemical potential defined as:

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 185
 2
G =   – 2 +    – 1 - + ----- f-
----------------------
 2  

Details of the theory for the phase field method are found in Ref. 2.

FORCE TERMS
The four forces on the right-hand side of Equation 4-3 are due to gravity, surface
tension, a force due to an external contribution to the free energy (using the phase field
method only), and a user-defined volume force.

The Surface Tension Force for the Level Set Method

For the level set method, the surface tension force acting on the interface between the
two fluids is:

F st = n +  s 

where  is the surface tensions coefficient (SI unit: N/m), n is the unit normal to the
interface, and     n is the curvature.  (SI unit: 1/m) is a Dirac delta function
located at the interface. s is the surface gradient operator

T
 s =  I – nn 

The -function is approximated by a smooth function according to

 = 6    1 –  

The Surface Tension Force for the Phase Field Method

The surface tension force for the phase field method is implemented as a body force

f- 
F st =  G – -----


where G is the chemical potential (SI unit: J/m3) defined in and f is a user-defined
source of free energy. When Shift surface tension force to the heaviest phase is selected
the surface-tension force is added as,

V f,1 – 0.5 V f,2 – 0.5 f

F st = ------------------   1 H  ------------------------ +  2 H  ------------------------   G – ------ 
2
1 + 2 d s Fst d s Fst 

where ds,Fst is a smoothing factor. This can be used to avoid unphysical acceleration
of a light phase near a phase interface caused by the smearing of the phase interface
across a few mesh cells.

186 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

If Include surface tension gradient effects in surface tension force is selected, extra terms
are added to account for the Marangoni effect due to gradients in the surface tension
coefficient (see Ref. 6):

2
f-  +  ------------  – 1 
2 2
 - + ----------------------
F st =  G – -----    –     
   2  4 2 

The Gravity Force

The gravity force is Fg = g where g is the gravity vector. Add this as a Gravity feature
to the fluid domain.

The User-Defined Volume Force

When using a Phase Field interface, a force arising due to a user-defined source of free
energy is computed according to:

f
F ext =   


This force is added when a -derivative of the external free energy has been defined in
the External Free Energy section of the Fluid Properties feature.

Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations

When the velocity field is divergence free, you can use either the conservative or the
nonconservative formulation of the level set or phase field equation. The conservative
form perfectly conserves the mass of each fluid, but the computational time is generally
longer.

When the Level Set or Phase Field in Fluids interface are coupled to a fluid flow
interface by means of The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature or The
Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature, improved conservation of the integral
of the level set or phase field variable is obtained using the nonconservative form
provided that the discretization order of the level set or phase field variable is equal to
or lower than the order of the pressure.

Phase Initialization
If the study type Transient with Phase Initialization is used in the model, the level set
or phase field variable is automatically initialized. For this study, two study steps are
created: Phase Initialization and Time Dependent. The Phase Initialization step solves

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 187
 for the distance to the initial interface, Dwi. The Time Dependent step then uses the
initial condition for the level set function according to the expression

1 -
 0 = -----------------------
D 
1 + e wi

in domains initially filled with Fluid 1 and

1
 0 = -------------------------
-
–D  
1 + e wi

in domains initially filled with Fluid 2.

Correspondingly, the phase field method uses the expressions

D wi
 0 = – tanh  ----------
2

in Fluid 1 and

D wi
 0 = tanh  ----------
2

in Fluid 2. The initial condition for the help variable is 0 = 0. These expressions are
based on the analytical solution of the steady state solution of Equation 4-5,
Equation 4-6, and Equation 4-7 for a straight, nonmoving interface.

If the Phase Initialization ( ) study step is being used, for the

initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes should use Specify phase: Fluid 1 and the
other Specify phase: Fluid 2. The initial fluid-fluid interface is then
automatically placed on all interior boundaries between both phases. Note
that when the value of Level set variable or Phase field variable is set to
User defined, arbitrary user defined initial values have to be provided. In
this case, the smooth initialization is not used, and a Time Dependent
study should be used instead of Time Dependent with Phase
Initialization.

188 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 • The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Laminar Two-Phase
Flow, Phase Field Interfaces
• Studies and Solvers and Time Dependent with Phase Initialization in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Numerical Stabilization
Three types of stabilization methods are available for the flow (Navier–Stokes) and
interface (level set or phase field) equations. Two are consistent stabilization methods
— Streamline diffusion and Crosswind diffusion — and one is inconsistent — Isotropic
diffusion.

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
from the Show More Options dialog box.

• Theory for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

• Selection Information in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

References for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

1. E. Olsson and G. Kreiss, “A Conservative Level Set Method for Two Phase Flow”,
J. Comput. Phys., vol. 210, pp. 225–246, 2005.

2. P. Yue, J.J. Feng, C. Liu, and J. Shen, “A Diffuse-interface Method for Simulating
Two-phase Flows of Complex Fluids”, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 515, pp. 293–317, 2004.

3. B. Lafaurie, C. Nardone, R. Scardovelli, S. Zaleski, and G. Zanetti “Modelling

Merging and Fragmentation in Multiphase Flows with SURFER.”, J. Comput. Phys.,
vol. 113, no. 1, pp. 134–147, 1994.

4. Y. D. Shikhmurzaev, “The Moving Contact line on a Smooth Solid Surface”,

Int. J. Multiph. Flow, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 589–610, 1993.

5. J. F. Gerbeau and T. Lelièvre, “Generalized Navier Boundary Condition and

Geometric Conservation Law for surface tension”,
Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng, vol. 198, no. 5-8, pp. 644–656, 2009.

6. C. Liu, J. Shen, J. J. Feng, and P. Yue, “Variational Approach in Two-Phase Flows

of Complex Fluids: Transport and Induced Elastic Stress”, Chapter 11 in

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 189
 Mathematical Models and Methods in Phase Transitions, Alan Miranville, ed, Nova
Publishers, pp. 259–278, 2005.

7. J. J. Jasper, “The Surface Tension of Pure Liquid Compounds”,

J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data., vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 841-1009, 1972.

8. R. C. Weast, ed.,“CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics”, ed. 69, MIT Press,
1988.

9. A. G. Gaonkar, “Interfacial Tensions of Vegetable Oil/Water Systems: Effect of Oil

Purification”, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., vol. 66, no. 8, pp. 1090-1092, 1989.

190 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Three-Phase Flow,
Phase Field Interface
The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface can be used to model the flow and
interaction of three different, immiscible fluids, when the exact positions of the
interfaces separating the fluids are of interest. The fluid-fluid interfaces are tracked
using a ternary phase field formulation which account for differences in the fluids’
densities and viscosities and include the effects of surface tension.

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface theory is described in the
following sections:

• Governing Equations of the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

• Reference for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

Governing Equations of the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

LAMINAR FLOW EQUATIONS

The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface is used to study the evolution of three
immiscible fluid phases denoted by fluid A, fluid B, and fluid C. The interface solves
the Navier–Stokes equations governing conservation of momentum and mass. The
momentum equations solved correspond to

u T 2
 +   u   u =   – p I +   u + u  – ---     u  I + F st + F (4-8)
t 3

where Fst is the surface tension force. The physics interface assumes that the density
of each phase is constant. The density may however vary between the phases. In order
to accurately handle systems where density of the phases are significantly different, as
well as systems with phases of similar density, the following fully compressible
continuity equation is solved by the interface

--------------
log - +   u + u   log  = 0
(4-9)
t

THEORY FOR THE THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 191

 TERNARY PHASE-FIELD EQUATIONS
In order to track the interfaces between three immiscible fluids, a ternary phase field
model based on the work of Boyer and co-workers in Ref. 1 is used. The model solves
the following Cahn–Hilliard equations

 M0
--------i +    u i  =    --------  i
t  i 
(4-10)
4 T 1  F F   3
 ----
 i = ----------
  - -------- – -------- – ---  j  2  i
  j  
i  j
 4
ji

governing the phase field variable, i, and a generalized chemical potential, iof each
phase i = A, B, C. The phase field variables vary between 0 and 1 and are a measure
of the concentration of each phase. The phase field variable for phase A is one in
instances containing only this phase, and zero where there is no phase A. Since the
fluids are immiscible, variations in the phase field variable occur, and define the
interface separating two phases. At each point the phase field variables satisfy the
following constraint

 i = 1 (4-11)
i = A B  C

The density of each phase is assumed to be constant which implies that the phase field
variable corresponds to the volume fraction of the phase in question. In order to satisfy
Equation 4-11, two sets of the equations shown in Equation 4-10 are solved, namely
those for phase A and phase B. The phase field variable, and correspondingly the mass
fraction, for fluid C is computed from Equation 4-11.

The density and viscosity of the fluid mixture used in Equation 4-3 and 4-4 are defined
as:

 = A A + B B + C C
(4-12)
 = A A + B B + C C

Free Energy
The free energy of the three phase system is defined as a function of the phase field
variables in the manner of:

192 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 2 2 2 2 2 2
F =  AB  A  B +  AC  A  C +  BC  B  C +
(4-13)
2 2 2
 A  B  C   A  A +  B  B +  C  C  +  A  B  C

Here the ij denotes the surface tension coefficient of the interface separating phase i
and j, and the capillary parameters i are defined for each phase in the manner of:

 A =  AB +  AC –  BC
 B =  AB +  BC –  AC (4-14)
 C =  BC +  AC –  AB

 in the free energy is a function or parameter specifying the additional free bulk
energy of the system. By default is zero. In this case it can be seen that the free energy
in Equation 4-13 represents the mixing energy, since only interfaces between two
phases (where two phase field variables varies between the limiting values) contributes
to the free energy.

Ternary Phase Field Parameters

In Equation 4-10,  (SI unit: 1/m) is a parameter controlling the interface thickness,
M0 (SI unit: m3/s) is a molecular mobility parameter, and the parameter T is defined
as

3 = ------
1- + ------
1- + ------
1-
------ (4-15)
T A B C

When using the interface it is recommended that the parameter  is given a value in the
same order as the elements in the regions passed by the fluid-fluid interfaces. The
mobility determines the time scale of the Cahn–Hilliard diffusion and must be large
enough to retain a constant interfacial thickness, but small enough to avoid damping
the convective transport. In order to ensure that the mobility is in the correct range,
it is recommended to apply a mobility parameter such that the following holds
approximately

–2
M 0 = L c U c   10 (4-16)

where Lc and Uc are the characteristic length and velocity scales of the system at hand.

SURFACE TENSION
The surface tension force applied in the momentum equations (Equation 4-3) as a
body force computed from the generalized chemical potentials:

THEORY FOR THE THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 193

 F st =   i  i (4-17)
i = A  B C

Reference for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

1. F. Boyer, C. Lapuerta, S. Minjeaud, B. Piar, and M. Quintard,
“Cahn-Hilliard/Navier–Stokes model for the simulation of three-phase flows,”
Transport in Porous Media, vol. 28, pp. 463–484, 2010.

194 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow,
Moving Mesh Interface
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface can be used to model the flow
of two different, immiscible fluids, when the exact position of the interface is of
interest. The interface position is tracked by a moving mesh, with boundary conditions
that account for surface tension and wetting, as well as mass transport across the
interface.

In this section:

• Domain Level Fluid Flow

• About the Moving Mesh
• About the Fluid Interface Boundary Conditions
• Contact Angle Boundary Conditions
• References for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

Domain Level Fluid Flow

Two Phase Flow Moving Mesh interface is a predefined physics interface coupling
between a Single-Phase Flow interface and the Moving Mesh interface. Within the
domains corresponding to individual phases the fluid flow is solved using the Navier–
Stokes equations as in the Laminar Flow interface. The general form for the isothermal
Navier–Stokes equations is:


------ +    u  = 0
t

u
 ------- +   u   u =    – pI +   + F
t

where:

•  is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 195

 •  is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa).
For a Newtonian fluid the viscous stress tensor, , is given by:

2
 = 2S – ---     u I (4-18)
3

The dynamic viscosity  (SI unit: Pa·s) is allowed to depend on the thermodynamic
state but not on the velocity field.

Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

About the Moving Mesh

The mesh within the fluid flow domain is deformed to account for the movement of
the interface between the two fluids. The software perturbs the mesh nodes so they
conform with the moving interface and with other moving or stationary boundaries in
the model. The boundary displacement is propagated throughout the domain to
obtain a smooth mesh deformation everywhere. This is done by solving equations for
the mesh displacements (a Laplace, Winslow, or hyperelastic smoothing equation).
Taking two dimensions as an example, a location in the deformed mesh with
coordinates (x, y) can be related to its coordinates in the original undeformed mesh
(X, Y) by a function of the form:

x = x  X Y t  y = y  X Y t 

The original, undeformed, mesh is referred to as the material frame (or reference
frame) whilst the deformed mesh is called the spatial frame. COMSOL Multiphysics
also defines geometry and mesh frames, which are coincident with the material frame
for this physics interface.

The fluid flow equations (along with other coupled equations such as electric fields or
chemical species transport) are solved in the spatial frame in which the mesh is
perturbed. The movement of the phase boundary is therefore accounted for in these
interfaces.

Deformed Geometry and Moving Mesh in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

196 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

About the Fluid Interface Boundary Conditions
The interfaces between phases are tracked with specific boundary conditions for the
mesh displacement and the fluid flow. Two options are available — Free Surface and
Fluid-Fluid Interface. The Free Surface boundary condition is appropriate when the
viscosity of the external fluid is negligible compared to that of the internal fluid. In this
case the pressure of the external fluid is the only parameter required to model the fluid
and the flow is not solved for in the external fluid. For a fluid-fluid interface the flow
is solved for both phases.

FLUID-FLUID INTERFACE
The boundary conditions applied at an interface between two immiscible fluids, fluid 1
and fluid 2 (see Figure 4-2), are given by (Ref. 1):

u 1 = u 2 +  ----- 1-  M n
1- – ----- (4-19)
  f i
1 2

n i   2 = n i   1 + f st (4-20)

Mf 
u mesh =  u 1  n i – --------
- n (4-21)
   i1

where u1 and u2 are the velocities of the fluids 1 and 2 respectively, umesh is the
velocity of the mesh at the interface between the two fluids, ni is the normal of the
interface (outward from the domain of fluid 1), 1 and 2 are the total stress tensors in
domains 1 and 2 respectively, fst is the force per unit area due to the surface tension
and Mf is the mass flux across the interface (SI unit: kg/(m2s)).

Figure 4-2: Definition of fluid 1 and fluid 2 and the interface normal.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 197

 The tangential components of Equation 4-19 enforce a no-slip condition between the
fluids at the boundary. In the absence of mass transfer across the boundary,
Equation 4-19 and Equation 4-21 ensure that the fluid velocity normal to the
boundary is equal to the velocity of the interface. When mass transfer occurs these
equations result from conservation of mass and are easily derived in the frame where
the boundary is stationary.

The components of the total stress tensor, uv, represent the uth component of the
force per unit area perpendicular to the v direction. n·  nv uv (using the summation
convention) is therefore interpreted as the force per unit area acting on the boundary
- in general this is not normal to the boundary. Equation 4-20 therefore expresses the
force balance on the interface between the two fluids.

Two boundary conditions (Equation 4-19 and Equation 4-20) are

necessary to couple the two domains as there are two separate sets of
Navier–Stokes equations, one set for each of the domains.

The force due to the surface tension is given by the following expression:

f st =    s  n i n i –  s  (4-22)

where s is the surface gradient operator (s  I  ni niTwhere I is the identity

matrix and  is the surface tension at the interface.

In the two dimensional case it is straightforward to see the physical origin of

Equation 4-22. Consider an element of the surface of unit depth into the page as
shown in Figure 4-3. The normal force per unit area Fn on the element in the limit
s  0 is:

F n s =   +   sin     

Because R  s in the limit,


F n = ----
R

The quantity s·ni in the first term on the right-hand side of Equation 4-22 is related
to the mean curvature, , of the surface by the equation s·ni. In two dimensions
the mean curvature   1/R so s·ni  1/R. The first term in Equation 4-22 is
therefore the normal force per unit area acting on the boundary due to the surface
tension.

198 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The tangential force per unit area, Ft, acting on the interface in Figure 4-3 can be
obtained from the force balance along the direction of s in the limit s  0:

F t s =   +   cos    –     +   – 

  +   – 
F t  -----------------------------
s

This is equivalent to the second term on the right of Equation 4-22.

To obtain additional insight into the boundary condition, it is helpful to rewrite

Equation 4-20 as

T T
n i    p 1 – p 2 I –  1  u 1 –  u 1   +  2  u 2 –  u 2    =    s  n i n i –  s 

assuming Newtonian fluids with viscosities 1 and 2 for fluids 1 and 2, respectively,
and that p1 and p2 are the pressures in the respective fluids adjacent to the boundary.
This equation expresses the equality of two vector quantities. It is instructive to
consider the components perpendicular and tangential to the boundary. In the
direction of the boundary normal

T T
p 1 – p 2 + n i    2  u 2 –  u 2   –  1  u 1 –  u 1     n i =    s  n i n(4-23)
i

whereas in the tangential direction, ti,

T T
n i    2  u 2 –  u 2   –  1  u 1 –  u 1     t i =  s  (4-24)

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 199

 Figure 4-3: Diagrammatic representation of the forces acting on an element of a
two-dimensional curved surface.

For the case of a static interface, Equation 4-23 expresses the pressure difference across
the interface that results from its curvature. For a moving interface, the surface tension
balances the difference in the total normal stress on either side of the interface.

Equation 4-24 involves only velocity gradients and the gradient of the surface tension.
The implication of this is that surface tension gradients always drive motion; this is
known as the Marangoni effect.

FREE SURFACE
It is often the case that the viscosity of fluid 1 is significantly greater than that of fluid 2
(for example for a liquid-vapor interface). In this case, the viscosity terms in the total
stress from fluid 2 can be neglected and Equation 4-20 becomes:

n i   1 = – p ext n i + f st (4-25)

The outer fluid (fluid 2) now enters the equation system only through the pressure
term and the system can be represented by a domain consisting solely of the fluid 1
domain with an expression (or constant value) for the external pressure, pext, in the
fluid 2 domain. Since the velocity in fluid 2 does not affect fluid 1, fluid 2 does not
need to be explicitly modeled and Equation 4-19 can be dropped.

200 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Contact Angle Boundary Conditions
At a three-phase boundary, it is necessary to add force terms on the boundary to ensure
that the fluid maintains a consistent contact angle. Additionally the Wall boundary
condition with the Navier Slip option must be used on the walls. The forces acting on
the contact point are applied to the model by the node.

Figure 4-4: Forces per unit length acting on a fluid-fluid interface at a three phase
boundary with a solid wall. The surface tension force per unit length, , is balanced by a
reaction force per unit length at the surface, Fn, and by the forces generated by the surface
energies of the two phases at the interface: s1 and s2.

In equilibrium, the surface tension forces and the normal restoring force from the
surface are in balance at a constant contact angle (c), as shown in Figure 4-4. This
equilibrium is expressed by Young’s equation, which considers the components of the
forces in the plane of the surface:

 cos   c  +  s1 =  s2 (4-26)

where  is the surface tension force between the two fluids, s1 is the surface energy
density on the fluid 1 — solid interface and s2 is the surface energy density on the
fluid 2 — solid interface.

There is still debate in the literature as to precisely what occurs in nonequilibrium

situations (for example, drop impact) when the physical contact angle deviates from
the contact angle specified by a simple application of Young’s equation. A simple
approach is to assume that the unbalanced part of the in plane Young Force acts on the
fluid to move the contact angle toward its equilibrium value (Ref. 2). COMSOL

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 201

 Multiphysics employs this approach as it is physically motivated and is consistent with
the allowed form of the boundary condition from thermodynamics (Ref. 3 and
Ref. 4).

The normal force balance at the solid surface is handled by the wall boundary
condition, which automatically prevents fluid flow across the solid boundary by the
application of a constraint force. The contact angle feature applies a force on the fluid
at the interface, fwf, with magnitude:

f wf =   cos   c  – cos    m s

where  is the actual contact angle and ms is the binormal to the solid surface, as
defined in Figure 4-5.

Figure 4-5: Diagram showing normal and tangential vectors defined on the interface
between two fluids and a solid surface in 3D (left) and 2D (right). The following vectors
are defined: ni, the fluid-fluid interface unit normal; ns, the solid surface unit normal;
tc, the tangent to the three-phase contact line; and mi and ms, the two unit binormals,
which are defined as mi  tcni and ms  tcns, respectively.

References for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

1. R. Scardovelli and S. Zaleski, “Direct Numerical Simulation of Free Surface and
Interfacial Flow,” Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., vol. 31, pp. 567–603, 1999.

2. J. Gerbeau and T. Lelièvre, “Generalized Navier Boundary Condition and

Geometric Conservation Law for Surface Tension,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech.
Eng., vol. 198, pp. 644–656, 2009.

202 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

3. W. Ren and E. Weinan, “Boundary Conditions for the Moving Contact Line
Problem”, Phys. Fluids, vol. 19, p. 022101, 2007.

4. W. Ren and D. Hu, “Continuum Models for the Contact Line Problem”, Phys.
Fluids, vol. 22, p. 102103, 2010.

5. J. J. Jasper, “The Surface Tension of Pure Liquid Compounds”,

J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data., vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 841-1009, 1972.

6. R. C. Weast, ed.,“CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics”, ed. 69, MIT Press,
1988.

7. A. G. Gaonkar, “Interfacial Tensions of Vegetable Oil/Water Systems: Effect of Oil

Purification”, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., vol. 66, no. 8, pp. 1090-1092, 1989.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 203

204 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES
 5

Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

Interfaces
This chapter discusses physics interfaces under the Fluid Flow>Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ).

In this chapter:

• The Brinkman Equations Interface

• The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
• Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface
• Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface

205
 The Brinkman Equations Interface
The Brinkman Equations (br) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to compute fluid
velocity and pressure fields of single-phase flow in porous media in the laminar flow
regime. The physics interface extends Darcy’s law to describe the dissipation of the
kinetic energy by viscous shear, similar to the Navier–Stokes equations. Fluids with
varying density can be included at Mach numbers below 0.3. Also the viscosity of a
fluid can vary, for example, to describe non-Newtonian fluids. To simplify the
equations, select the Stokes–Brinkman flow feature to reduce the dependence on
inertial effects when the Reynolds number is significantly less than 1. The physics
interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main node is the Porous Medium feature, which adds the Brinkman equations and
provides interfaces for defining the fluid material and the porous matrix.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Porous Medium, Wall (the default boundary type, using No slip as the
default boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add
other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces.
You can also right-click Brinkman Equations to select physics features from the context
menu.

The boundary conditions are essentially the same as for the Laminar Flow interface.
Differences exist for the following boundary types: Outlet, Symmetry, Open
Boundary, and Boundary Stress where the viscous part of the stress is divided by the
porosity to appear as

1 T 2 
-----    u +  u   – ---     u I 
p  3 

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections such as Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, Inconsistent Stabilization, and
Advanced Settings, all accessed by clicking the Show button ( ) and choosing the
applicable option. You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

206 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is br.

PHYSICAL MODEL
This node specifies the properties of the Brinkman Equations interface, which describe
the overall type of fluid flow model.

Compressibility
By default the physics interface uses the Incompressible flow formulation of the
Brinkman equations to model constant density flow. Alternatively, from the
Compressibility list select Weakly compressible flow, which should be used when the
pressure dependency of the density can be neglected, or Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) to
solve for the full compressible flow of which, however, the Mach number must be
below 0.3.

Swirl Flow
For 2D axisymmetric models, select the Swirl flow check box to include the swirl
velocity component, that is the velocity component u in the azimuthal direction.
While u can be nonzero, there can be no gradients in the  direction.

Note that this feature is only available for specific modules. See
[Link] for a detailed overview.

Neglect Inertial Term (Stokes–Brinkman Flow)

The Neglect inertial term (Stokes–Brinkman) check box is selected by default to model
flow at low Reynolds numbers for which the inertial term can be neglected. This results
in the linear Stokes–Brinkman equations.

Include Gravity
Gravity is not included by default. Select the Include gravity check box to activate the
acceleration of gravity. This automatically adds a global Gravity feature node to the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 207

 are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity.

Porous Treatment of No Slip Condition

Choose how the No Slip condition on Wall boundaries and Interior Wall boundaries
adjacent to Porous Medium should be treated. The options are Standard no slip
formulation and Porous slip (default) . The latter option provides a unified treatment
when the porous matrix is fully resolved as well as when it is under resolved ensuring
a smooth transition between regions with different resolutions; see No Slip under Wall
in the The Creeping Flow and Laminar Flow Interfaces section.

Reference Pressure Level

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

Reference Temperature Level

Enter a Reference temperature level Tref (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15[K].

Reference Position
If Include gravity is selected, a Reference position rref (SI unit: m) can be specified which
is then used for the calculation of the hydrostatic pressure.

TURBULENCE
Turbulent flow can be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS
(Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes). If turbulent flow is activated, you can set the
Turbulence model either to one of the algebraic turbulence models, Algebraic yPlus (the
default) or L-VEL, or to one of the following two-equation turbulence models: k-Low
Reynolds Number k-. The Wall treatment is set to Automatic (default) or Low Re while
Wall functions is the only option for k-. For more information about turbulence
modeling, see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s
Guide.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components, and the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

208 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form option adds pseudo time
derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used in order to speed
up convergence. When selected, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For
the default Automatic option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy condition) is determined by a PID regulator.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman Equations
Interface
• Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models and Pseudo Time
Stepping
• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
• Nitsche Constraints

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman

Equations Interface
The Brinkman Equations Interface has the following domain, boundary, point, and
pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access
the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

These nodes are described in this section:

• Porous Medium • Volume Force

• Initial Values • Fluid Properties
• Mass Source

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 209

 The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described for the Laminar Flow
interface :

• Flow Continuity • Periodic Flow Condition

• Inlet • Point Mass Source
• Line Mass Source • Pressure Point Constraint
• Boundary Stress • Symmetry
• Outlet • Wall
• Open Boundary

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the Brinkman equations: Equation 4-34 and
Equation 4-35 (excluding any mass sources). It has two default subfeatures — the
Fluid subfeature where the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity  (SI
unit: Pa·s) are defined and the Porous Matrix subfeature where the permeability  (SI
unit: m2) and porosity p (dimensionless) are specified.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
(in the Porous Matrix subnode) should be set according to the coordinate system
selected in this section.

210 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship characteristic for low Reynolds
number laminar flows.
• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship due to inertial or turbulence
effects.

POROUS MEDIUM TURBULENCE MODEL

If in the parent feature node a turbulence model other than Algebraic yPlus or L-VEL is
selected, define a model which complements the basic turbulence model and accounts
for the influence of the porous matrix on turbulent flow in porous media.

• For Default and Nakayama-Kuwahara specify the Coefficient of subgrid turbulence

generation by porous matrix Cstpm which by default is set to 0.212.
• For Pedras-de Lemos, specify the Choice of the Pedras-de Lemos model coefficient.
When User defined is chosen, specify the Coefficient of subgrid turbulence generation
by porous matrix Cstpm with default value 0.212. Choosing Original results in
C stpm = 0.28   p , while choosing Recalibrated results in Cstpm0.18.

DISTANCE EQUATION
This section is available for the turbulence models Algebraic yPlus or L-VEL. Select how
the Reference length scale lref (SI unit: m) is defined — Automatic (default) or Manual:

• For Automatic the wall distance is automatically evaluated to one tenth of the
shortest side of the geometry bounding box. This is usually quite accurate but it can
sometimes give a too high value if the geometry consists of several slim entities. In
such cases, define the reference length scale manually.
• For Manual it defines a different value or expression for the length scale. The default
is 1 m.

lref controls the result of the distance equation. Objects that are much smaller than lref
are effectively be diminished while the distance to objects much larger than lref are
accurately represented.

Fluid
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Porous Medium parent
node.

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 211

 MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

FLUID PROPERTIES
Specify the Density  and the Dynamic viscosity  (SI unit: Pa·s) of the fluid. The
defaults use values From material, for User defined enter a value or expression.

The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the
shear rate in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often
described as thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity.

Porous Matrix
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The Porosity p (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses by default the value
From material. For User defined the default value is 1.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. Depending on the Flow model selection in the parent Porous Medium feature node
you can choose between the following options:

• Permeability (the default) to directly enter the permeability of the porous matrix or
Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean Particle
diameter for Darcian flow or
• Forchheimer or Ergun for Non-Darcian flow.

Note that some of these options are only available for certain modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

212 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The default Permeability  (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material list. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.

For Kozeny-Carman, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value
is 0.5 mm.

In case a Non-Darcian flow model is chosen in the parent node, Forchheimer is the
default selection for the Permeability model. For Forchheimer, the default Permeability
(SI unit: m2) uses the value From material. Furthermore, the dimensionless
Forchheimer parameter cF can be defined. The default value is 0.55.

If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm). The
permeability  is then calculated using Equation 2-4.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

Mass Source
The Mass Source node adds a mass source (or mass sink) Qm to the right-hand side of
the continuity equation: Equation 5-1. This term accounts for mass deposit and/or
mass creation in porous domains. The physics interface assumes that the mass
exchange occurs at zero velocity.

 
   +    u  = Q m (5-1)
t p

DOMAIN SELECTION
Only Porous Matrix domains are available.

MASS SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Source term Qbr (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default
is 0 kg/(m3·s).

Volume Force
Use the Volume Force node to specify the force F on the right-hand side of
Equation 5-2. It then acts on each fluid element in the specified domains.

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 213

 -  u u
---- +  u    ----- =
p   t p
(5-2)
1 T 2   –1 Q m
–  p +   -----    u +  u   – ---     u I  –    + -------- u + F
p  3    p2 

VOLUME FORCE
Enter the components of Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field and the pressure that can
serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and the Pressure
p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0 m/s and 0 Pa, respectively.

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations to solve for
free flow in nonporous domains. The node also provides an interface for defining the
material properties of the fluid.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through user inputs,
variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs — for
example, temperature or pressure — may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the single-phase flow interfaces are set to model isothermal flow. Hence,
the Temperature is User defined and defaults to 293.15 K. If a Heat Transfer interface
is included in the component, the temperature may alternatively be selected from this
physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a
Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht)
option is available.

214 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The choice of pressure variable depends on the system of equations being solved. For
example, in a unidirectional incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop over the
modeled domain is probably many orders of magnitude smaller than the atmospheric
pressure, which, when included, may reduce the stability and convergence properties
of the solver. In other cases, such as when the pressure is part of an expression for the
gas volume or the diffusion coefficients, it may be more convenient to solve for the
absolute pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is ppref where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes equations, and pref is from the user input defined at the
physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a gauge
pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be set to
0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

FLUID PROPERTIES
If density variations with respect to pressure are to be included in the computations,
the flow must be set to compressible.

The Dynamic viscosity  describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have low viscosities, and substances often
described as thick (such as oil) have higher viscosities.

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value. When a turbulence model that solves for the turbulent
kinetic energy, k, is used, the option Include buoyancy-induced turbulence is available.
When selected, the Buoyancy contribution is by default set to Automatic from
multiphysics. Contributions are only obtained from multiphysics couplings that

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 215

 support buoyancy-induced turbulence, such as Nonisothermal Flow. If the Buoyancy
contribution is switched to User defined, a text field for the Turbulent Schmidt number
appears. See also Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit [Link]

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

216 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Free and Porous Media Flow,
Br i nk m a n Interfac e
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman (fp) interface ( ) is found under the Porous
Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface. It is used to
compute fluid velocity and pressure fields of single-phase flow where free flow is
connected to porous media. The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman interface is
used over at least two different domains: a free channel and a porous medium. The
physics interface is well suited for transitions between slow flow in porous media,
governed by the Brinkman equations, and fast flow in channels described by the
Navier–Stokes equations. Fluids with varying density can be included at Mach
numbers below 0.3. Also the viscosity of a fluid can vary, for example, to describe
non-Newtonian fluids. The physics interface can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analyses.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add a Porous Medium node to be used on the domain selection corresponding
to the porous media, or add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Free and Porous Media Flow,
Brinkman to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is fp.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Compressibility
By default the physics interface uses the Incompressible flow formulation of the Navier–
Stokes and Brinkman equations to model constant density flow. If required, select

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 217

 Weakly compressible flow from the Compressibility list, to account for small variations in
the density, which are only dependent on the temperature (nonisothermal flow) or
Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) for fully compressible flow. However, for the flow modeled
with this physics interface, the Mach number must be below 0.3.

Swirl Flow
For 2D axisymmetric components, select the Swirl flow check box to include the swirl
velocity component, that is the velocity component u in the azimuthal direction.
While u can be nonzero, there can be no gradients in the  direction. Note that this
feature is only available for specific modules. Visit
[Link] for a detailed overview.

Neglect Inertial Term

Select the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box if the inertial forces are small
compared to the viscous forces.

Enable porous media domains

The Enable porous media domains check box is selected by default to solve the
Brinkman equations in porous domains. If it is unchecked, the Porous Medium node is
no longer available in this interface.

Include Gravity
Gravity is not included by default. Select the Include gravity check box to activate the
acceleration of gravity. This automatically adds a global Gravity feature node to the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes
are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity.

Porous Treatment of No Slip Condition

Choose how the No Slip condition on internal boundaries should be treated. The
options are Standard no slip formulation and Porous slip (default). The latter option
provides a unified treatment when the porous matrix is fully resolved as well as when
it is under resolved ensuring a smooth transition between regions with different
resolutions; see No Slip under Wall in the The Creeping Flow and Laminar Flow
Interfaces section.

Reference Pressure Level

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

218 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Reference Temperature
Enter a Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15[K].

Reference Position
If Include gravity is selected, a Reference position rref (SI unit: m) can be specified which
is then used for the calculation of the hydrostatic pressure.

TURBULENCE
Turbulent flow can be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS
(Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes) or Large Eddy Simulation (which is only available
in 3D). If turbulent flow is activated, you can choose from different Turbulence models
and options for Wall treatment. For a description of the different turbulence models,
wall treatment options, and turbulence model parameters see Theory for the
Turbulent Flow Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components, and the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
• Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface has the following domain,
boundary, point, and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics
ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or
right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 219

 • Fluid Properties • Porous Medium
• Gravity • Mass Source
• Initial Values • Volume Force
• Wall

Note that some features are only available with certain COMSOL products (see
[Link]

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described for the Laminar Flow
interface:

• No Viscous Stress • Open Boundary

• Flow Continuity • Periodic Flow Condition
• Inlet • Point Mass Source
• Line Mass Source • Pressure Point Constraint
• Outlet • Symmetry

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Fluid Properties
Use the Fluid Properties node to define the fluid material, density, and dynamic
viscosity.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Fluid material uses the Domain material (the material defined for the
domain). Select another material as needed.

The default Density  (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material based on the Fluid
material selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is
0 kg/m3.

220 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Dynamic viscosity  (SI unit: Pa·s) uses values From material based on the Fluid
material selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is
0 Pa·s.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the Brinkman equations (excluding any mass sources)
to the interface. It has two default subfeatures — the Fluid subfeature where the fluid
density (SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity  (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined and the
Porous Matrix subfeature where the permeability  (SI unit: m2) and porosity p
(dimensionless) are specified.

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship characteristic for low Reynolds
number laminar flows.
• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship due to inertial or turbulence
effects.

POROUS MEDIUM TURBULENCE MODEL

Defines a model which complements the basic turbulence model and accounts for the
influence of the porous matrix on turbulent flow in Porous Media.

• Default and Nakayama-Kuwahara specify Coefficient of subgrid turbulence generation

by porous matrix Cstpm which by default is set to 0.212.
• Pedras-de Lemos asks to specify Choice of the Pedras-de Lemos model coefficient. When
User defined is chosen, specify Coefficient of subgrid turbulence generation by porous
matrix Cstpm with default value 0.212. Choosing Original results in
C stpm = 0.28   p , while choosing Recalibrated results in C stpm = 0.18 .

Fluid
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Porous Medium parent
node.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 221

 MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

FLUID PROPERTIES
Specify the Density  and the Dynamic viscosity  (SI unit: Pa·s) of the fluid. The
defaults use values From material, for User defined enter a value or expression.

The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the
shear rate in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often
described as thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity.

Porous Matrix
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The Porosity p (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses by default the value
From material. For User defined the default value is 1 which is equivalent to free flow.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. Depending on the Flow model selection in the parent Porous Medium feature node
you can choose between the following options:

• Permeability (the default) to directly enter the permeability of the porous matrix or
Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean Particle
diameter for Darcian flow or
• Forchheimer or Ergun for Non-Darcian flow.

Note that some of these options are only available for certain modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

222 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The default Permeability (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material list. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.

For Kozeny-Carman, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value
is 0.5 mm.

In case a Non-Darcian flow model is chosen in the parent node, Forchheimer is the
default selection for the Permeability model. For Forchheimer, the default Permeability
(SI unit: m2) uses the value From material. Furthermore, the dimensionless
Forchheimer parameter cF can be defined. The default value is 0.55.

If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm). The
permeability  is then calculated using Equation 2-4.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

Mass Source
Enter a value or expression for an optional mass source (or sink) Source term Qm (SI
unit: kg/(m3·s)). This term accounts for mass deposit or mass creation within porous
domains. The physics interface assumes that the mass exchange occurs at zero velocity.

Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the force F on the right-hand side of the Navier–
Stokes or Brinkman equations, depending on whether a Fluid Properties or Porous
Medium node is active on the domain. It then acts on each fluid element in the
specified domains.

VOLUME FORCE
Enter the components of the Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 223

 Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field and the pressure that can
serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and for the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0 m/s and 0 Pa, respectively.

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value. When a turbulence model that solves for the turbulent
kinetic energy, k, is used, the option Include buoyancy-induced turbulence is available.
When selected, the Buoyancy contribution is by default set to Automatic from
multiphysics. Contributions are only obtained from multiphysics couplings that
support buoyancy-induced turbulence, such as Nonisothermal Flow. If the Buoyancy
contribution is switched to User defined, a text field for the Turbulent Schmidt number
appears. See also Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit [Link]

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at stationary, moving, and leaking walls.

224 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the wall.

• No Slip1 • Leaking Wall

• Slip

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for a stationary solid wall for laminar flow
(and SST, Low Re k-, Algebraic yPlus, L-VEL, and Spalart–Allmaras turbulence
models). The condition prescribes u = 0; that is, the fluid at the wall is not moving.

Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n. It is implicitly assumed
that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer develops.
From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation if the main
effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.

Leaking Wall
This boundary condition may be used to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or
leaving the domain with the velocity u = ul through a perforated wall. The
components of the Fluid velocity ul on the leaking wall should be specified.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

• Theory for the Wall Boundary ConditionThe Moving Mesh Interface

in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 225

 Theory for the Brinkman Equations
Interface
The Brinkman Equations Interface theory is described in this section:

• About the Brinkman Equations

• Brinkman Equations Theory
• References for the Brinkman Equations Interface

About the Brinkman Equations

The Brinkman equations describe fluids in porous media for which the momentum
transport within the fluid due to shear stresses is of importance. This mathematical
model extends Darcy’s law to include a term that accounts for the viscous transport in
the momentum balance, and it treats both the pressure and the flow velocity vector as
independent variables. Use the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman interface to
model combinations of porous media and free flow domains. These types of problems
are often encountered in applications such as monolithic reactors and fuel cells

In porous domains, the flow variables and fluid properties are defined at any point
inside the medium by means of averaging of the actual variables and properties over a
certain volume surrounding the point. This control volume must be small compared
to the typical macroscopic dimensions of the problem, but it must be large enough to
contain many pores and solid matrix elements.

Porosity is defined as the fraction of the control volume that is occupied by pores.
Thus, the porosity can vary from zero for pure solid regions to unity for domains of
free flow.

The physical properties of the fluid, such as density and viscosity, are defined as
intrinsic volume averages that correspond to a unit volume of the pores. Defined this
way, they present the relevant physical parameters that can be measured experimentally,
and they are assumed to be continuous with the corresponding parameters in the
adjacent free flow.

The flow velocity is defined as a superficial volume average, and it corresponds to a

unit volume of the medium including both the pores and the matrix. It is sometimes
called the Darcy velocity, defined as the volume flow rate per unit cross section of the

226 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

medium. Such a definition makes the velocity field continuous across the boundaries
between porous regions and regions of free flow.

Brinkman Equations Theory

The dependent variables in the Brinkman equations are the Darcy velocity and the
pressure. The flow in porous media is governed by a combination of the continuity
equation and the momentum equation, which together form the Brinkman equations:

 
   +    u  = Q m (5-3)
t p

-  u
+  u    ----- =
u
----
p   t p
(5-4)
1 T 2   Q m
–  p +   -----    u +  u   – ---     u I  –   – 1  + -------- u+F
p  3    p2 

In these equations:

•  (SI unit: kg/(m·s)) is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid

• u (SI unit: m/s) is the velocity vector
•  (SI unit: kg/m3) is the density of the fluid
• p (SI unit: Pa) is the pressure
• p is the porosity
•  (SI unit: m2) is the permeability of the porous medium, and
• Qm (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)) is a mass source or sink

Influence of gravity and other volume forces can be accounted for via the force term
F (SI unit: kg/(m2·s2)).

When the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected, the term
(u ·up) on the left-hand side of Equation 5-2 is disabled.

The mass source, Qm, accounts for mass deposit and mass creation within the domains.
The mass exchange is assumed to occur at zero velocity.

The Forchheimer and Ergun drag options add a viscous force proportional to the
square of the fluid velocity, Fuu, on the right-hand side of Equation 5-2;
seeReferences for the Darcy’s Law Interface in the CFD Module User Guide .

THEORY FOR THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 227

 In case of a flow with variable density, Equation 5-1 and Equation 5-2 must be solved
together with the equation of state that relates the density to the temperature and
pressure (for instance the ideal gas law).

For incompressible flow, the density stays constant in any fluid particle, which can be
expressed as

     + u   = 0
t p

and the continuity equation (Equation 5-1) reduces to

  u = Q m

References for the Brinkman Equations Interface

1. D. Nield and A. Bejan, Convection in Porous Media, 3rd ed., Springer, 2006.

2. M. Le Bars and M.G. Worster, “Interfacial Conditions Between a Pure Fluid and a
Porous Medium: Implications for Binary Alloy Solidification,” J. Fluid Mech.,
vol. 550, pp. 149–173, 2006.

228 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface uses the Navier–Stokes
equations to describe the flow in open regions, and the Brinkman equations to
describe the flow in porous regions.

The same fields, u and p, are solved for in both the free flow domains and in the porous
domains. This means that the pressure in the free fluid and the pressure in the pores is
continuous over the interface between a free flow domain and a porous domain. It also
means that continuity is enforced between the fluid velocity in the free flow and the
Darcy velocity in the porous domain. This treatment is one of several possible models
for the physics at the interface. Examples of other models can be found in Ref. 1.

The continuity in u and p implies a stress discontinuity at the interface between a

free-flow domain and a porous domain. The difference corresponds to the stress
absorbed by the rigid porous matrix, which is a consequence implicit in the
formulations of the Navier–Stokes and Brinkman equations.

Reference for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
1. M.L. Bars and M.G. Worster, “Interfacial Conditions Between a Pure Fluid and a
Porous Medium: Implications for Binary Alloy Solidification,” J. Fluid Mech.,
vol. 550, pp. 149–173, 2006.

THEORY FOR THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 229
230 | CHAPTER 5: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES
 6

Mathematics, Moving Interfaces

The Level Set and Phase Field in Fluids Moving Interfaces are available under the
Mathematics>Moving Interface branch ( ) when adding interfaces.

• The Level Set Interface

• The Phase Field in Fluids Interface
• The Ternary Phase Field Interface
• Theory for the Level Set Interface
• Theory for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface
• Theory for the Ternary Phase Field Interface

231
 T he L e v e l S e t In t erface
In this section:

• The Level Set Interface

• The Level Set in Porous Media Interface
• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface

The Level Set Interface

The Level Set (ls) interface ( ), found under the Mathematics>Moving Interface
branch ( ) when adding an interface, is used to track moving interfaces in fluid-flow
models by solving a transport equation for the level set function. Simulations using the
Level Set interface are always time dependent because the position of an interface
almost always depends on its history.

The main node is the Level Set Model feature, which adds the level set equation and
provides an interface for defining the level set properties and the velocity field.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Level Set Model, No Flow (the default boundary condition), Initial
Values, and Initial Values, Fluid 2. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Level Set to
select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ls.

STABILIZATION
To display this sections, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select
Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box.

232 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

There are two stabilization methods available — Streamline diffusion and Crosswind
diffusion. Both are active by default and should remain selected for optimal
performance.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this sections, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Specify the Convective term as Nonconservative form (default) or Conservative form.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Level Set interface uses Linear elements.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is the Level set variable phi. The name can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.

• Conservative and Nonconservative Form

• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface
• Theory for the Level Set Interface

The Level Set in Porous Media Interface

The Level Set in Porous Media (ls) interface ( ), found under the Mathematics>Moving
Interface branch ( ) when adding an interface, is used to track moving interfaces in
fluid-flow through porous media models by solving a transport equation for the level
set function. Simulations using the Level Set in Porous Media interface are always time
dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

The main node is the Porous Medium Level Set Model feature, which adds the level
set equation and provides interfaces for defining the level set properties, the velocity
field and the porosity of the porous matrix.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Porous Medium, No Flow (the default boundary condition), Initial
Values, and Initial Values, Fluid 2. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Level Set in
Porous Media to select physics features from the context menu.

THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 233

 SETTINGS
The rest of the settings are the same as for the Level Set interface.

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface
has the following domain, boundary, and pair nodes described.

• Continuity • Periodic Condition (see Periodic

• Initial Values Boundary Conditions in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
• Inlet
Manual)
• Level Set Model
• Porous Matrix
• No Flow
• Porous Medium
• Open Boundary
• Symmetry1
• Outlet1
• Thin Barrier
1
Described for the Laminar Flow interface.

Boundary conditions for axial symmetry boundaries are not required. For
the symmetry axis at r0, the software automatically provides a suitable
boundary condition and adds an Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the
axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Level Set Model

If the Level Set Model node is a domain feature under the The Level Set Interface, it
adds the following transport equation governing a level set function :

 + u   
=     ls  –   1 –   ----------
t   

234 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

If it is a domain subfeature under the Porous Medium domain feature, it adds the
following equation

 
p + u   =     ls  –   1 –   ----------
t   

In both cases the Level Set Model node provides the options to define the associated
level set parameters and the velocity field.

LEVEL SET PARAMETERS

Enter a value or expression for the Reinitialization parameter  (SI unit: m/s). The
default is 1 m/s.

Enter a value or expression for the Parameter controlling interface thickness ls
(SI unit: m). The default expression is ls.ep_default, a value proportional to the
maximum element size with a proportionality factor dependent on the ratio of the
maximum and minimum element sizes in the domain.

CONVECTION
Enter values or expressions for the components (u, v, and w in 3D, for example) of the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s). The applied velocity field transports the level set
function through convection.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the level set equation. It has two default subfeatures —
the Level Set Model feature where the reinitialization parameter (SI unit: m/s) and
the parameter controlling the interface thickness ls (SI unit: m) are defined, and the
Porous Matrix feature where the porosity p (dimensionless) is specified.

Porous Matrix
This node contains inputs for the material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium parent node.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The Porosity p (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses by default the value
From material. For User defined the default is 1.

THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 235

 Initial Values
Use the Initial Values node to define the initial values of the level set variable.

INITIAL VALUES
The initial positions of the two fluids, and consequently the separating interface, can
be specified in two ways. The level set function can be specified explicitly, using any
type of variable or expression. Alternatively the fluid occupying the current domain
selection can be specified. Using the former method, a Time Dependent study step can
directly be solved. Using the latter method, a Phase Initialization study step is needed
in order to initialize the level set function across the fluid-fluid interface.

Specify the Level set variable as one of the following:

• To specify the fluid occupying the domain, select Specify phase (default). Then select
the check box Fluid 1 (  0) or Fluid 2 (  1).
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the level set variable .

If the Phase Initialization ( ) study step is being used, for the

initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes should use Specify phase: Fluid 1 (  0)
and the other Specify phase: Fluid 2 (  1). The initial fluid-fluid interface
is then automatically placed on all interior boundaries between both
phases. The smooth initialization is not used in domains with User defined
initial values.

See .

Inlet

LEVEL SET CONDITION

Specify Level Set Condition according to one of the following options:

• Fluid 1 (  0)
• Fluid 2 (  1)
• Specify level set function explicitly

When the Specify level set function explicitly is selected, the level set function  must be
specified explicitly. The value must be in the range from 0 to 1, where the default is 0.

236 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

No Flow
The No Flow node adds a boundary condition that represents boundaries where there
is no flow across the boundary. This is the default boundary condition.

Open Boundary
Use this node to set up transport across boundaries where both convective inflow and
outflow can occur. On the parts of the boundary where fluid flows into the domain,
an exterior value of the level set function is prescribed. On the remaining parts, where
fluid flows out of the domain, a condition equivalent to the Outflow node is instead
prescribed.

The direction of the flow across the boundary is typically calculated by a fluid flow
interface and is provided as a model input to the Level Set interface.

LEVEL SET CONDITION

Specify Level Set Condition according to one of the following options:

• Fluid 1 (  0)
• Fluid 2 (  1)
• Specify level set function explicitly

When the Specify level set function explicitly is selected, the level set function  must be
specified explicitly. The value must be in the range from 0 to 1, where the default is 0.

Thin Barrier
The Thin Barrier feature is available on interior boundaries and introduces a
discontinuity in the level set variable across the boundary. A No Flow condition is
prescribed on each side. This node can be used to avoid meshing thin structures.

Continuity
The Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the level set variable is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.

THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 237

 By default, the No Flow node is used as fallback unless another feature has been
selected for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Right-click the physics interface and select Pairs>Continuity.

Ribbon
Physics tab with the physics interface selected:

Pairs>Continuity

238 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

The Phase Field in Fluids Interface
The Phase Field in Fluids (pf) interface ( ), found under the Mathematics>Moving
Interface branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to track moving
fluid-fluid interfaces by solving two transport equations, one for the phase field
variable, , and one for the mixing energy density, . The position of the interface is
determined by minimizing the free energy.

The main node is the Phase Field Model feature, which adds the phase field equations
and provides an interface for defining the phase field model properties.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Phase Field Model, Wetted Wall (the default boundary condition), Initial
Values, and Initial Values, Fluid 2. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Phase Field in
Fluids to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is pf.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this sections, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
settings options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Specify the Convective term as Nonconservative form (default) or Conservative form.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Phase Field in Fluids interface uses Linear elements.

THE PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS INTERFACE | 239

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines the dependent variables (fields) Phase field variable  and Phase
field help variable . If required, edit the name, but dependent variables must be
unique within a model.

• Conservative and Nonconservative Form

• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field in Fluids
Interface
• Theory for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field in Fluids
Interface
includes the following domain, boundary, and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order,
available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac
or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• Periodic Condition (see Periodic Boundary

• Continuity
Conditions in the COMSOL Multiphysics
• Initial Values
Reference Manual)
• Inlet
• Phase Field Model
• Interior Wetted Wall
• Symmetry
• Outlet
• Wetted Wall

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

240 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

Phase Field Model
The Phase Field Model node adds the equations described in The Equations for the
Phase Field Method. The node defines the associated phase field parameters including
surface tension and interface thickness.

PHASE FIELD PARAMETERS

Define the following phase field parameters. Enter a value or expression for the:

• Surface tension coefficient  (SI unit: N/m).

Parameter controlling interface thickness epf (SI unit: m). The default expression is
pf.ep_default, a value proportional to the maximum element size with a
proportionality factor dependent on the ratio of the maximum and minimum element
sizes in the domain.

• Mobility tuning parameter  (SI unit: m·s/kg). This parameter determines the time
scale of the Cahn–Hilliard diffusion and it thereby also governs the diffusion-related
time scale for the interface. Select User defined (default) or Calculate from velocity.
For User defined enter a value or expression for the mobility tuning parameter The
default is 1 m·s/kg, which is a good starting point for most models.
For Calculate from velocity enter a value for the expected velocity at the interface U
(SI unit: m/s).  is then computed as:

Uh max
 = -----------------
-
3 2

where hmax is the largest mesh cell size.

Keep the  parameter value large enough to maintain a constant interface

thickness but still low enough to not damp the convective motion. A too
high mobility can also lead to excessive diffusion of droplets.

EXTERNAL FREE ENERGY

Add a source of external free energy to the phase field equations. This modifies the last
term on the right-hand side of the equation:

2
 f
 = –     +   – 1  +  -----
2 2
   

THE PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS INTERFACE | 241

 The external free energy f (SI unit: J/m3) is a user-defined free energy. In most cases,
the external free energy can be set to zero. Manually differentiate the expression for
the external free energy with respect to  and then enter it into the -derivative of
external free energy field f.

CONVECTION
Enter values or expressions for the components (u, v, and w in 3D, for example) of the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s). The applied velocity field transports the phase field
variables through convection.

Initial Values
Use the Initial Values node to define the initial values of the phase field variable.

INITIAL VALUES
The initial positions of the two fluids, and consequently the fluid-fluid interface, can
be specified in two ways. The phase field variable can be specified explicitly, using any
type of variable or expression. Alternatively the fluid occupying the current domain
selection can be specified. Using the former method, a Time Dependent study step can
directly be solved. Using the latter method, a Phase Initialization study step is needed
in order to initialize the phase field function across the fluid-fluid interface.

Specify the Phase field variable as one of the following:

• To specify the fluid occupying the domain, select Specify phase (default). Then select
the check box Fluid 1 (  1) or Fluid 2 (  1).
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the phase field variable .

If the Phase Initialization ( ) study step is being used, for the

initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes is set to Specify phase: Fluid 1 (  1) and
the other to Specify phase: Fluid 2 (  1). The initial fluid-fluid interface
is then automatically placed on all interior boundaries between both
phases. The smooth initialization is not used in domains with User defined
initial values.

242 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

Inlet

SETTINGS
Specify Phase field Condition according to one of the following options:

• Fluid 1 (  1)
• Fluid 2 (  1)
• Specify phase field function explicitly

When Specify phase field function explicitly is selected, the phase field function  must
be specified in the entire domain. The value must be in the range from 1 to 1, where
the default is 1.

Wetted Wall
The Wetted Wall node is the default boundary condition representing wetted walls.
Along a wetted wall the contact angle for the fluid, w, is specified, and across it, the
mass flow is zero. This is prescribed by

2 2
n    =  cos   w  

in combination with


n  -----2-  = 0


The contact angle w can be defined directly or from Young’s equation, which
considers the components of the forces in the plane of the surface:

 cos   w  +  s2 =  s1 (6-1)

where s1 is the surface energy density on the fluid 1 — solid (wall) interface and s2
is the surface energy density on the fluid 2 — solid (wall) interface.

WETTED WALL
Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation. For Directly enter a value or expression for the Contact angle w (SI
unit: rad). The default value is /2 radians. For Through Young’s equation enter values
or expressions for Phase 1-Solid surface energy density s1 (SI unit: J/m2) and
Phase 2-Solid surface energy density s2 (SI unit: J/m2).

THE PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS INTERFACE | 243

 Interior Wetted Wall
The Interior Wetted Wall feature is available on interior boundaries. It is similar to the
Wetted Wall condition except that it applies on both sides of an interior boundary and
introduces a discontinuity of the phase field variables across the boundary. This node
can be used to avoid meshing thin structures.

Along an interior wetted wall the contact angle for the fluid, w, is specified on both
sides of the boundary, and across it, the mass flow is zero.

WETTED WALL
Enter a value or expression for the Contact angle w. The default value is 2 rad.

Continuity
The Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the phase field variables are continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wetted Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been
selected for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Right-click the physics interface and select Pairs>Continuity.

Ribbon
Physics tab with the physics interface selected:

Pairs>Continuity

244 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

The Ternary Phase Field Interface
The Ternary Phase Field (terpf) interface ( ), found under the Mathematics>Moving
Interface branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to track moving
interfaces separating three different phases. The interface solves four transport
equations: two equations governing phase field variables, A and B, and two
equations for the corresponding generalized chemical potentials, A and B. The
position of the interfaces are determined by minimization of the free energy.

The phase field variables are defined such that they represent the volume fraction of
the respective phase. The volume fraction of the third phase not solved for, but
computed from the natural constraint that the sum of the volume fractions of all phases
is one.

The main node of the interface is the Phase Field Model feature, which adds the phase
field equations and provides an interface for defining the phase field model properties
such as surface tensions and parameters controlling the interface thickness.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Mixture Properties, Wetted Wall and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Ternary Phase Field to select physics features from the context
menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is terpf.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines the dependent variables (fields):

• Phase field variable, fluid A phiA

• Phase field variable, fluid B phiB

THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 245

 • Generalized chemical potential of fluid A etaA
• Generalized chemical potential of fluid B etaB

If required, edit the any of the names, but dependent variables must be unique within
a model.

Theory for the Ternary Phase Field Interface

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Ternary Phase Field
Interface
The Ternary Phase Field Interface includes the following domain, boundary, and pair
nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows
users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking the interface
node to access the context menu (all users).

• Initial Values • Phase Field Model

• Inlet • Symmetry
• Outlet • Wetted Wall

Mixture Properties
The Mixture Properties node adds the equations described in . The node defines the
associated phase field parameters, including the surface tension coefficients and
parameters controlling the thickness of the interfaces.

MODEL INPUTS
The surface tension coefficients can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by
selecting a material. For the latter option, an additional input, the temperature, may
be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field

246 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

PHASE FIELD PARAMETERS

Define the following phase field parameters. Enter a value or expression for the:

Parameter controlling interface thickness . The default expression is

terpf.ep_default*sqrt(2), a value proportional to the maximum element size
with a proportionality factor dependent on the ratio of the maximum and minimum
element sizes in the domain.

• Mobility tuning parameterM0. This parameter determines the time scale of the
Cahn–Hilliard diffusion and it thereby also governs the diffusion-related time scale
for the interface. Keep the mobility tuning parameter value large enough to
maintain a constant interface thickness but still low enough to not damp the
convective motion. A too high mobility can also lead to excessive diffusion of
droplets. By default, M0 is set to 1·104 m3/s, which is a good starting point for
most models.
• Additional free bulk energy . When needed, add a user-defined expression for the
additional bulk energy.

SURFACE TENSION
Specify the surface tension coefficients for the three types of interfaces present.

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (Water/Air, Glycerol/Air, and so forth).
• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient.

The predefined correlations are based on the data in Ref. 3, Ref. 4, and Ref. 5.

THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 247

 CONVECTION
Enter values or expressions for the components (u, v, and w in 3D, for example) of the
Velocity field u. The applied velocity field transports the phase field variables through
convection.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the phase field variables that can serve as
initial conditions for a transient simulation.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for Phase field variable A and the Phase field variable B
corresponding to the mass fraction of the respective phase. The value must be in the
range from 0 to 1.

Inlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net convective flow
of the phases into the adjacent domain.

INLET
Specify phase field variables, corresponding to the volume fractions, of phase A and
phase B. The value must be in the range from 0 to 1. The volume fraction of phase C
will be evaluated such that the sum of all mass fractions equals one.

Mathematically this boundary condition imposes

M0
 i =  i 0 , n  --------  i = 0
i

for phases i = A and B.

Outlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net convective
outflow from the domain.

Mathematically this boundary condition imposes

M0
n  --------  i = 0
i

248 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

for phases i = A and B.

Symmetry
Use this condition on boundaries that represent a geometrical symmetry line across
which the flow of the fluid phases is zero.

Mathematically this boundary condition imposes

M0
n  --------  i = 0
i

for phases i = A and B.

Wetted Wall
Use this node to represent a solid wall along which the contact angles between the
separating interfaces and the wall should be prescribed.

WETTED WALL
Enter values or expressions for the contact angles for the three interfaces types:

• The Contact angle of interface from phase A to phase C .

• The Contact angle of interface from phase B to phase C .
• The Contact angle of interface from phase A to phase B .

THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 249

 The definition of the contact angles with respect to the wall are shown in the figure
below.

Figure 6-1: Definitions of the contact angels in the Wetted Wall feature of the Ternary
Phase Field interface.

250 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

Theory for the Level Set Interface
Fluid flow with moving interfaces or boundaries occur in a number of different
applications, such as fluid-structure interaction, multiphase flows, and flexible
membranes moving in a liquid. One way to track moving interfaces is to use a level set
method. A certain contour line of the globally defined function, the level set function,
then represents the interface between the phases. For the fluid-fluid interface can be
advected with an arbitrary velocity field.

In this section:

• The Level Set Method

• Conservative and Nonconservative Form
• Initializing the Level Set Function
• Variables For Geometric Properties of the Interface
• Reference for the Level Set Interface

The Level Set Method

The level set method is a technique to represent moving interfaces or boundaries using
a fixed mesh. It is useful for problems where the computational domain can be divided
into two domains separated by an interface. Each of the two domains can consist of
several parts. Figure 6-2 shows an example where one of the domains consists of two
separated parts. The interface is represented by a certain level set or isocontour of a
globally defined function, the level set function . In COMSOL Multiphysics,  is a
smooth step function that equals zero (0) in one domain and one (1) in the other.
Across the interface, there is a smooth transition from zero to one. The interface is

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 251

 defined by the 0.5 isocontour, or level set, of . Figure 6-3 shows the level set
representation of the interface in Figure 6-2.

Figure 6-2: An example of two domains divided by an interface. In this case, one of the
domains consists of two parts. Figure 6-3 shows the corresponding level set representation.

Figure 6-3: A surface plot of the level set function corresponding to Figure 6-2.

The physics interface solves Equation 6-2 in order to move the interface with the
velocity field u:

 + u   
=     ls  –   1 –   ---------- (6-2)
t   

The terms on the left-hand side give the correct motion of the interface, while those
on the right-hand side are necessary for numerical stability. The parameter, ls,
determines the thickness of the region where  varies smoothly from zero to one and
is typically of the same order as the size of the elements of the mesh. By default, ls is

252 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

constant within each domain and proportional to the largest value of the mesh size, h,
within the domain. The parameter  determines the amount of reinitialization or
stabilization of the level set function. It needs to be tuned for each specific problem. If
 is too small, the thickness of the interface might not remain constant and oscillations
in  can appear because of numerical instabilities. On the other hand, if  is too large
the interface moves incorrectly. A suitable value for  is the maximum magnitude of the
velocity field u.

Conservative and Nonconservative Form

If the velocity is divergence free, that is, if

u = 0 (6-3)

the volume (area for 2D problems) bounded by the interface should be conserved if
there is no inflow or outflow through the boundaries. To obtain exact numerical
conservation in cases where Equation 6-3 is not fully satisfied, switch to the
conservative form

 +    u  
=     ls  –   1 –   ---------- (6-4)
t 

in Settings window for .

Using the conservative level set form, exact numerical conservation of the integral of
 is obtained. However, the nonconservative form is better suited for numerical
calculations and usually converges more easily. The nonconservative form, which is the
default form, only conserves the integral of the level set function approximately, but
this level of conservation is sufficient for most applications.

The Level Set Equation in Porous Domains

In a porous domain, the equation that determines the evolution of the interface is

 u 
+ pore   =     ls  –   1 –   ---------- (6-5)
t   

Here upore is the pore velocity. Instead using the Darcy velocity u=upore/p,
multiplying the equation with the porosity p, and rescaling  such that it again can be

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 253

 set proportional to the maximum magnitude of the velocity field u, the equation can
be rewritten as:

 
p + u   =     ls  –   1 –   ---------- (6-6)
t   

This is the nonconservative form of the level set equation that is solved in the Porous
Medium feature.

To obtain exact numerical conservation of the integral of p, switch to the

conservative form

-
     +    u  =      –   1 –   --------- (6-7)
t p  ls  

The conservative form can be derived from the nonconservative form if it is assumed
that the velocity field u satisfies the following continuity equation:

 p
+u = 0 (6-8)
t

Initializing the Level Set Function

If the study type Transient with Phase Initialization is used in the model, the level set
variable is first initialized so that it varies smoothly between zero and one over the
interface. For that study, two study steps are created, Phase Initialization and Time
Dependent. The Phase Initialization step solves for the distance to the initial interface,
Dwi. The Time Dependent step then uses the initial condition for the level set function
according to the following expression:

1
 0 = -------------------------
-
–D  
1 + e wi

in domains initially outside the interface and

1 -
 0 = -----------------------
D 
1 + e wi

254 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

in domains initially inside the interface. Here, inside refers to domains where   0.5
and outside refers to domains where   0.5.

If the Transient with Phase Initialization ( ) study is being used, then, for
the initialization to work, it is crucial that there are two Initial Values
nodes. One of the Initial Values nodes should use Specify phase: Fluid 1
(  0) and the other Specify phase: Fluid 2 (  1). The initial fluid-fluid
interface is then automatically placed on all interior boundaries between
both phases. The smooth initialization is not used in domains with User
defined initial values.

• Studies and Solvers and Time Dependent with Initialization in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Variables For Geometric Properties of the Interface

Geometric properties of the interface are often needed. The unit normal to the
interface is given by

-
n = --------- (6-9)
  = 0.5

This variable is available in the physics interface as the interface normal [Link].

Reference for the Level Set Interface

1. E. Olsson and G. Kreiss, “A Conservative Level Set Method for Two Phase Flow,”
J. Comput. Phys., vol. 210, pp. 225–246, 2005.

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 255

 Theory for the Phase Field in Fluids
Interface
The Phase Field in Fluids Interface theory is described in this section:

• About the Phase Field Method

• The Equations for the Phase Field Method
• Conservative and Nonconservative Forms
• Additional Sources of Free Energy
• Initializing the Phase Field Function
• Variables and Expressions
• Reference for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface

About the Phase Field Method

The phase field method offers an attractive alternative to more established methods for
solving multiphase flow problems. Instead of directly tracking the interface between
two fluids, the interfacial layer is governed by a phase field variable, . The surface
tension force is added to the Navier–Stokes equations as a body force by multiplying
the chemical potential of the system by the gradient of the phase field variable.

The evolution of the phase field variable is governed by the Cahn–Hilliard equation,
which is a 4th-order PDE. The Phase Field in Fluids interface decomposes the Cahn–
Hilliard equation into two second-order PDEs.

For the level set method, the fluid interface is simply advected with the flow field. The
Cahn–Hilliard equation, on the other hand, does not only convect the fluid interface,
but it also ensures that the total energy of the system diminishes correctly. The phase
field method thus includes more physics than the level set method.

The free energy of a system of two immiscible fluids consists of mixing, bulk distortion,
and anchoring energy. For simple two-phase flows, only the mixing energy is retained,
which results in a rather simple expression for the free energy.

The Equations for the Phase Field Method

The free energy is a functional of a dimensionless phase field parameter, :

256 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

   --2-   + f   T  dV =
1
 ftot dV
2 2
F    T  =

where  is a measure of the interface thickness. Equation 6-10 describes the evolution
of the phase field parameter:

 +  u    f f tot
=     tot –   (6-10)
t    

where ftot (SI unit: J/m3) is the total free energy density of the system, and u
(SI unit: m/s) is the velocity field for the advection. The right-hand side of
Equation 6-10 aims to minimize the total free energy with a relaxation time controlled
by the mobility  (SI unit: m3·s/kg).

The free energy density of an isothermal mixture of two immiscible fluids is the sum
of the mixing energy and elastic energy. The mixing energy assumes the Ginzburg–
Landau form:

1 2  2 2
f mix     = ---   + --------2-   – 1 
2 4

where  is the dimensionless phase field variable, defined such that the volume fraction
of the components of the fluid are (1+ )/2 and (1 )/2. The quantity  (SI unit: N)
is the mixing energy density and  (SI unit: m) is a capillary width that scales with the
thickness of the interface. These two parameters are related to the surface tension
coefficient,  (SI unit: N/m), through the equation

2 2
 = ----------- --- (6-11)
3 

The PDE governing the phase field variable is the Cahn–Hilliard equation:

 + u   =    G
(6-12)
t

where G (SI unit: Pa) is the chemical potential and  (SI unit: m3·s/kg) is the mobility.
The mobility determines the time scale of the Cahn–Hilliard diffusion and must be
large enough to retain a constant interfacial thickness but small enough so that the
convective terms are not overly damped. In COMSOL Multiphysics the mobility is
determined by a mobility tuning parameter that is a function of the interface thickness
2. The chemical potential is:

THEORY FOR THE PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS INTERFACE | 257

 2
G =  – +
2   – 1 -
---------------------- (6-13)
2


The Cahn–Hilliard equation forces  to take a value of 1 or 1 except in a very thin

region on the fluid-fluid interface. The Phase Field in Fluids interface breaks
Equation 6-12 up into two second-order PDEs:

-
 + u   =   -----  (6-14)
t 
2

2 2
 = –     +   – 1  (6-15)

Conservative and Nonconservative Forms

If the velocity field is divergence free, that is, if

u = 0 (6-16)

the volume (area for 2D problems) bounded by the interface should be conserved if
there is no inflow or outflow through the boundaries. To obtain exact numerical
conservation in cases where Equation 6-16 is not fully satisfied, switch to the
conservative form

 +   u 
=   -----2- 
t 

Using the conservative phase field form, exact numerical conservation of the integral
of  is obtained. However, the nonconservative form is better suited for numerical
calculations and usually converges more easily. The nonconservative form, which is the
default form, only conserves the integral of the phase field function approximately, but
this is sufficient for most applications.

When the Phase Field in Fluids interface is coupled to a fluid flow interface by means
of , conservation of the integral of  using the nonconservative form can be improved
provided that the discretization order of the phase field variables is equal to or lower
than the order of the pressure.

258 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

Additional Sources of Free Energy
In some cases, the expression for the free energy can include other sources. It is
possible to incorporate these by modifying Equation 6-15:

2
 f
 = –     +   – 1  +  -----
2 2
(6-17)
   

where f is a user-defined free energy (SI unit: J/m3).

The expression for the external free energy must be manually

differentiated with respect to  and then entered into the f field. In
most cases, the external free energy is zero.

Initializing the Phase Field Function

If the study type Transient with Phase Initialization is used in the model, the phase field
variable is first initialized so that it varies smoothly between zero and one over the
interface. For this study, two study steps are created, Phase Initialization and Time
Dependent. The Phase Initialization step solves for the distance to the initial interface,
Dwi. The Time Dependent step then uses the initial condition for the phase field
function according to the expression

D wi
 0 = – tanh  ----------
 2

in Fluid 1 and

D wi
 0 = tanh  ----------
2

THEORY FOR THE PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS INTERFACE | 259

 in Fluid 2. These expressions are based on a steady, analytic solution to Equation 6-14
and Equation 6-15 for a straight, nonmoving interface.

If the Transient with Phase Initialization ( ) study is being used, for the
initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes is set to Specify phase: Fluid 1 (  1) and
the other to Specify phase: Fluid 2 (  1). The initial fluid-fluid interface
is then automatically placed on all interior boundaries between both
phases. The smooth initialization is not used in domains with User defined
initial values.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Variables and Expressions

The physics interface defines the chemical potential, which can be rewritten in terms
of the dependent variable ,

-
G = ------
2


and the surface tension force F G.

Geometric properties of the interface are often needed. The unit normal to the
interface is given by

-
n = --------- (6-18)
  = 0.5

This variable is available in the physics interface as the interface normal [Link].

The mean curvature (SI unit: 1/m) of the interface can be computed by entering the
following expression:

G
 = 2  1 +    1 –   ----


260 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

Reference for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface
1. P. Yue, C. Zhou, J.J. Feng, C.F. Ollivier-Gooch, and H.H. Hu, “Phase-field
Simulations of Interfacial Dynamics in Viscoelastic Fluids Using Finite Elements with
Adaptive Meshing,” J. Comp. Phys., vol. 219, pp. 47–67, 2006.

THEORY FOR THE PHASE FIELD IN FLUIDS INTERFACE | 261

 Theory for the Ternary Phase Field
Interface
The Ternary Phase Field Interface theory is described in this section:

• About the Phase Field Method

• The Equations of the Ternary Phase Field Method
• Reference for the Phase Field in Fluids Interface

About the Phase Field Method

The phase field method offers an attractive alternative to more established methods for
solving multiphase flow problems. Instead of directly tracking the interface between
two fluids, the separating interface is identified as the region across which the phase
field variables of the two adjacent phases varies between its two limiting values. The
surface tension force is added to the Navier–Stokes equations as a body force by
multiplying the chemical potentials of the phases by the gradient of the corresponding
phase field variable.

The evolution of each phase field variable is governed by the Cahn–Hilliard

equation, which is a 4th-order PDE. The Ternary Phase Field interface decomposes
each Cahn–Hilliard equation into two second-order PDEs.

For the level set method, the fluid interface is simply advected with the flow field. The
Cahn–Hilliard equation, on the other hand, does not only convect the fluid interface,
but it also ensures that the total energy of the system diminishes correctly. The phase
field method thus includes more physics than the level set method.

The free energy of a system of immiscible fluids consists of mixing, bulk distortion, and
anchoring energy. For simple three-phase flows, only the mixing energy is retained.

The Equations of the Ternary Phase Field Method

The ternary phase field model implemented in COMSOL is based the work of Boyer
and co-workers in Ref. 2. The model is designed in order to study the evolution of the
three immiscible phases, denoted phase A, phase B, and phase C, respectively. Each
phase is represented by a phase field variable , which takes values between 0 and 1.
The phase field variables satisfies the constraint

262 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

  i = 0 (6-19)
i = A B  C

and density of each phase is assumed to be constant. This implies that the phase field
variable corresponds directly to the volume fraction of the phase in question.

The free energy of the three phase system is defined as a function of the phase field
variables in the manner of:

2 2 2 2 2 2
F =  AB  A  B +  AC  A  C +  BC  B  C +
(6-20)
2 2 2
 A  B  C   A  A +  B  B +  C  C  +  A  B  C

Here the ij denotes the surface tension coefficient of the interface separating phase i
and j, and the capillary parameters i are defined as

 i =  ij +  ik –  jk (6-21)

and  is a function or parameter specifying the additional free bulk energy. By default
is zero. In this case it can be seen that the free energy in Equation 6-20 represents
the mixing energy, since only interfaces between two phases (where two phase field
variables varies between the limiting values) contributes to the free energy.

The Cahn–Hilliard equations to be solved for each phase p = A, B, C are

 u j  i  M 0  i
--------i + ------------- = --------  -------- --------
t x j x j  i x j
(6-22)
4 T 1-  F F   3
 ----   i
 i = ----------  -------- – -------- – ---  j --------  --------
   j      4 x j  x j 
i j
ji

It can be noted that the Cahn–Hilliard equation is originally a 4th-order PDE. In

COMSOL Multiphysics, that PDE is split up into two second-order PDEs by
introducing an additional dependent variable, the generalized potential , one for each
phase. In order to satisfy Equation 6-20, two sets of the equations shown in
Equation 6-22 are solved, those for phase A and phase B. The phase field variable, and
correspondingly the mass fraction, for fluid C is computed from Equation 6-20.

In Equation 6-22  (SI unit: 1/m) is a parameter controlling the interface thickness,
M0 (SI unit: m3/s) is a molecular mobility parameter, and the parameter T is defined
as

THEORY FOR THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 263

 3 = ------
1- + ------
1- + ------
1-
------ (6-23)
T A B C

Reference for the Ternary Phase Field Interface

2. F. Boyer, C. Lapuerta, S. Minjeaud, B. Piar, and M. Quintard, “Cahn–
Hilliard/Navier–Stokes model for the simulation of three-phase flows”, Transport in
Porous Media, vol. 28, pp. 463–484, 2010.

3. J. J. Jasper, “The Surface Tension of Pure Liquid Compounds”,

J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data., vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 841-1009, 1972.

4. R. C. Weast, ed.,“CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics”, ed. 69, MIT Press,
1988.

5. A. G. Gaonkar, “Interfacial Tensions of Vegetable Oil/Water Systems: Effect of Oil

Purification”, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., vol. 66, no. 8, pp. 1090-1092, 1989.

264 | CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACES

 7

Chemical Species Transport Interfaces

The physics interfaces under the Chemical Species Transport branch ( )

accommodate all types of material transport that can occur through diffusion and
convection. When the material is transported by a flowing medium, the Reacting
Flow multiphysics coupling automatically defines the dependencies of fluid
properties on the species concentrations, and the convective velocity for the species
transport.

In this chapter:

• The Transport of Diluted Species Interface

• The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Multiphysics Interface (in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual)
• Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface

265
 T he T r a ns po r t of D i l u t ed S p ec i es
Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species (tds) interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species
Transport branch ( ), is used to calculate the concentration field of a dilute solute in
a solvent. Transport and reactions of the species dissolved in a gas, liquid, or solid can
be handled with this interface. The driving forces for transport can be diffusion by
Fick’s law, convection when coupled to a flow field, and migration, when coupled to
an electric field.

The interface supports simulation of transport by convection and diffusion in 1D, 2D,
and 3D as well as for axisymmetric components in 1D and 2D. The dependent variable
is the molar concentration, c. Modeling multiple species transport is possible, whereby
the physics interface solves for the molar concentration, ci, of each species i.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tds.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If any part of the model geometry should not partake in the mass transfer model,
remove that part from the selection list.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS
For 2D components, the Thickness field (default value: 1 m) defines a parameter for the
thickness of the geometry perpendicular to the two-dimensional cross-section. Both
constant and varying thicknesses are supported. The value of this parameter is used,
among other things, to automatically calculate molar flow rates from the total molar
flux.

266 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
For 1D components, enter a Cross-sectional area Ac (SI unit: m2) to define a parameter
for the area of the geometry perpendicular to the 1D component. Both constant and
varying areas are supported. The value of this parameter is used, among other things,
to automatically calculate molar flow rates from the total molar flux. The default is 1
m2.

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Mass transport due to diffusion is always included. Use the check boxes available under
Additional transport mechanisms to control other transport mechanisms.

Note: Some of the additional transport mechanisms listed below are only available in
certain products. For details see [Link]

• By default, the Convection check box is selected. Clear the check box to disable
convective transport.
• Select the Migration in electric field check box to activate transport of ionic species in
an electric field. See further the theory section Adding Transport Through
Migration.

Transport of ionic species in an electric field is available in a limited set of

add-on products. See
[Link] for more details on
availability.

Mass Transport in Porous Media

The Mass transport in porous media check box activates functionality specific to species
transport in porous media:

• Porous Medium
• Unsaturated Porous Medium
• Porous Electrode Coupling

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 267

 • Volatilization
• Species Source

Note: Mass transport in porous media is only available in a limited set of

add-on products. See
[Link] for more details on
availability.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this sections, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization.

• When the Crosswind diffusion check box is selected, a weak term that reduces
spurious oscillations is added to the transport equation. The resulting equation
system is always nonlinear. There are two options for the Crosswind diffusion type:
- Do Carmo and Galeão — the default option. This type of crosswind diffusion
reduces undershoots and overshoots to a minimum but can in rare cases give
equation systems that are difficult to fully converge.
- Codina — this option is less diffusive compared to the Do Carmo and Galeão
option but can result in more undershoots and overshoots. It is also less effective
for anisotropic meshes. The Codina option activates a text field for the Lower
gradient limit glim. Its defaults to 0.1[mol/m^3]/[Link], where [Link]
is the local element size.
• For both consistent stabilization methods, select an Equation residual. Approximate
residual is the default and means that derivatives of the diffusion tensor components
are neglected. This setting is usually accurate enough and is computationally faster.
If required, select Full residual instead.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization. By default,
the Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected, because this type of stabilization adds
artificial diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this
option can be used to get a good initial guess for under resolved problems.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed. Select a Convective term —

268 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Nonconservative form (the default) or Conservative form. The conservative formulation
should be used for compressible flow. See for more information.

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options.

The Compute boundary fluxes check box is activated by default so that COMSOL
Multiphysics computes predefined accurate boundary flux variables. When this option
is selected, the solver computes variables storing accurate boundary fluxes from each
boundary into the adjacent domain.

If the check box is cleared, the COMSOL Multiphysics software instead computes the
flux variables from the dependent variables using extrapolation, which is less accurate
in postprocessing results but does not create extra dependent variables on the
boundaries for the fluxes.

The flux variables affected in the interface are:

• ndflux_c (where c is the dependent variable for the concentration). This is the
normal diffusive flux and corresponds to the boundary flux when diffusion is the
only contribution to the flux term.
• ntflux_c (where c is the dependent variable for the concentration). This is the
normal total flux and corresponds to the boundary flux plus additional transport
terms, for example, the convective flux when you use the nonconservative form.

Also the Apply smoothing to boundary fluxes check box is available if the previous check
box is selected. The smoothing can provide a more well-behaved flux value close to
singularities.

For details about the boundary fluxes settings, see Computing Accurate Fluxes in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transfer problems be set to Real, which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can
occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 269

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable name is the Concentration c by default. The names must be
unique with respect to all other dependent variables in the component.

Add or remove species variables in the model and also change the names of the
dependent variables that represent the species concentrations.

Enter the Number of species. Use the Add concentration ( ) and Remove
concentration ( ) buttons as needed.

FURTHER READING

• Theory for Transport of Diluted Species in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.
• Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
• In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for
links to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window
or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

• Effective Diffusivity in Porous Materials: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Diffusion/effective_diffusivity
• Micromixer: Application Library path
COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/micromixer

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface

This interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species Transport branch ( ), is used
to calculate the species concentration and transport in free and porous media. The
interface is the same as the Transport of Diluted Species interface but it uses other
defaults: The Mass Transport in Porous Media property is selected, and a Porous
Medium node is added by default. The interface includes reaction rate expressions and
solute sources for modeling of species transport and reaction in porous media.

This interface is dedicated to modeling transport in porous media, including immobile

and mobile phases, where the chemical species may be subjected to diffusion,
convection, migration, dispersion, adsorption, and volatilization in porous media. It

270 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

supports cases where either the solid phase substrate is exclusively immobile, or when
a gas-filling medium is also assumed to be immobile.

It applies to one or more diluted species or solutes that move primarily within a fluid
that fills (saturated) or partially fills (unsaturated) the voids in a solid porous medium.
The pore space not filled with fluid contains an immobile gas phase. Models including
a combination of porous media types can be studied.

The main feature nodes are the Porous Medium and Unsaturated Porous Medium nodes,
which add the equations for the species concentrations and provide an interface for
defining the properties of the porous media, as well as additional properties governing
adsorption, volatilization, dispersion and diffusion, migration, and the velocity field to
model convection.

The physics interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Porous Medium, No Flux (the default boundary condition), and Initial Values.
Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions, reaction rate expressions, and species sources. You can also
right-click Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media to select physics features from
the context menu.

SETTINGS
The rest of the settings are the same as .

FURTHER READING

• Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous

Media in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface

• Variably Saturated Flow and Transport — Sorbing Solute:

Application Library path
Subsurface_Flow_Module/Solute_Transport/sorbing_solute
Web link:
[Link]
ort-8212-sorbing-solute-490

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 271

 Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface
has the following domain, boundary, point, and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical
order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu
(Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

• To add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what operating

system you are using.
• Contextual subnodes (attributes) are available by clicking the parent
node in the Model Builder, and then selecting the subnode from the
Attributes menu.

272 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

• Adsorption • Periodic Condition
• Concentration • Point Mass Source
• Continuity on Interior Boundaries • Porous Matrix
• Dispersion • Porous Medium
• Electrode Surface Coupling • Porous Electrode Coupling
• Equilibrium Reaction • Reaction Coefficients
• Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction • Reactions
• Fluid • Solid
• Flux • Species Properties
• Flux Discontinuity • Species Source
• Fracture • Surface Reactions
• Gas • Surface Equilibrium Reaction
• Inflow • Symmetry
• Initial Values • Thin Diffusion Barrier
• Line Mass Source • Thin Impermeable Barrier
• Liquid • Transport Properties
• Mass-Based Concentrations • Unsaturated Porous Medium
• No Flux • Volatilization
• Open Boundary
• Out-of-Plane Flux
• Outflow
• Partition Condition

Some features require certain add-on modules. For details see

[Link]

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r  0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on boundaries representing the
symmetry axis.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 273

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces

Defining conditions on interfaces between different phases, typically a wall in contact
with a fluid, it is worthwhile to be careful with how variables in the conditions are
evaluated. COMSOL Multiphysics supports that variables are defined differently on
adjacent domains (or any other geometry dimension). Evaluating a variable with
differing definitions, the mean value is returned on a boundary separating the different
domains. The density, pressure, or temperature are examples of variables that may
differ in a fluid and a solid. In order to specify on which side a variable is evaluated, the
up and down operators (described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual)
can be used.

Species Properties
Use this node to define parameters specific to each of the species. It is available when
the Migration in electric field check box is selected in the Transport Mechanisms section
of the interface.

The node will change its label depending on what inputs are available in the node. If
only Charge is available, it will be labeled “Species charges”.

CHARGE
Enter the charge number zc (dimensionless, but requires a plus or minus sign) for each
species.

ACTIVITY
This section is available when the Species Activity combo box is set to Debye-Hückel or
User defined.

If Debye-Hückel is selected, enter the ion size number, a0, for each species. If User
defined is selected, enter the activity coefficient, f, for each species.

274 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Transport Properties
The settings in this node are dependent on the check boxes selected under Transport
Mechanisms in the Settings window for the Transport of Diluted Species interface. It
includes only the sections required by the activated transport mechanisms. It has all the
equations defining transport of diluted species as well as inputs for the material
properties.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. Select the source of the Temperature.
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the temperature in the input field. This
input option is always available.

You can also select the temperature solved for by a Heat Transfer interface added to
the model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the
Temperature list.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. Select the source of the Velocity field. For User defined, enter values or
expressions for the velocity components in the input fields. This input option is always
available.

You can also select the velocity field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the
model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity
field list.

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent fluid.

Use the Source list to select to pick up diffusion coefficients defined in a material or a
Chemistry interface.

Select Material, and a Fluid material to use a diffusion coefficient in a material available
in the model. User-defined property groups including a diffusion coefficient output
property are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient list.

Select Chemistry to use a diffusion coefficient from a Chemistry interface added to

model component. Diffusion coefficients are automatically defined when Calculate
transport properties is selected on the interface level of a Chemistry interface. All

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 275

 defined diffusion coefficients are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient
list.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Fluid diffusion coefficient Dc of each
species in the corresponding input field. This can be a scalar value for isotropic
diffusion or a tensor describing anisotropic diffusion. Select the appropriate tensor
type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full that describes the diffusion transport, and
then enter the values in the corresponding element (one value for each species).

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. See details:
[Link]

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• Enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V, which is User defined; this
input option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has also been
added to the model.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved by Electrochemistry interface that has
been added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species diffusivity and the
temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, and under Mobility,
select the appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full —
and type in the value of expression of the mobility um,c.

Enter the Charge number zc (dimensionless, but requires a plus or minus sign) for each
species.

The temperature (if you are using mobilities based on the Nernst–Einstein relation) is
taken from Model Inputs section.

Note that the migration in electric fields feature is only available in some COMSOL
products. See details: [Link]

276 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

EXAMPLE MODELS

• Separation Through Dialysis: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Mixing_and_Separation/dialysis
Web link:
[Link]

• Transport in an Electrokinetic Valve: Application Library path

Microfluidics_Module/Fluid_Flow/electrokinetic_valve
Web link:
[Link]
e-603

Solid
Use this node to describe diffusion in a solid phase domain. In this feature, the
activities of the species are assumed to be ideal.

DIFFUSION
Specify the diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species in the solid.

Enter a value or expression for the Diffusion coefficient Dc of each species in the
corresponding input field. This can be a scalar value for isotropic diffusion or a tensor
describing anisotropic diffusion. Select the appropriate tensor type — Isotropic,
Diagonal, or Symmetric that describes the diffusion transport, and then enter the values
in the corresponding element (one value for each species).

ADVANCED
This section is only available with the Advanced Physics Options selected and when the
model contains a split between the material frame and the spatial frame. A split of these
frames occurs when using a Moving Mesh node or a Structural Mechanics interface like
Solid Mechanics. In such a model, the reference geometry (the material frame) differs
from the deformed geometry (the spatial frame). The diffusive transport of species is
solved for on the material frame, but the equation is adjusted for geometry
deformations so that species conservation is achieved on the spatial frame. Use the
Diffusion model to define the frame of reference for the diffusion tensor.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 277

 Select Reference geometry based (Lagrangian) to specify the diffusion tensor in the
undeformed geometry, implying that the diffusion is defined in the material frame
(indicated by coordinates X, Y, Z). This is the preferred setting for an anisotropic
diffusion in combination with solid body translation or rotation. Also in general when
the diffusion tensor components have been measured in an undeformed geometry.

Select Deformed geometry based (Eulerian) to specify the diffusion tensor in the
deformed geometry. This means that the diffusion is defined in the spatial frame
(indicated by coordinates x, y, z). Use this setting when the diffusion tensor
components have been measured in a deformed geometry.

The Advanced Physics Options is found in the Show More Options dialog box, accessed
by clicking the Show More Options button ( ).

Note that multiple species are only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics
add-on products. See details: [Link]

Initial Values
The Initial Values node specifies the initial values for the concentration of each species.
These serve as an initial guess for a stationary solver or as initial conditions for a
transient simulation.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If there are several types of domains with different initial values defined, it might be
necessary to remove some domains from the selection. These are then defined in an
additional Initial Values node.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Concentration or concentrations,
ci. This also serves as a starting guess for stationary problems.

Mass-Based Concentrations
Use the Mass-Based Concentrations node to add postprocessing variables for mass-based
concentrations (SI unit: kg/m3) and mass fractions (dimensionless) for all species.

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MIXTURE PROPERTIES
The default Solvent density solvent is taken From material. For User defined, enter a
value or expression manually. Define the Molar mass of each species, which is needed
to calculate the mass-based concentration.

Reactions
Use the Reactions node to account for the consumption or production of species
through chemical reactions. Define the rate expressions as required.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern the source term in the transport equations.

Several reaction nodes can be used to account for different reactions in different parts
for the modeling geometry.

REACTION RATES
Add a rate expression Ri (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) for species i. Enter a value or expression
in the field. Note that if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the
Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be
automatically generated and picked up using the drop-down list. For an example, see
the application Fine Chemical Production in a Plate Reactor as linked below.

REACTING VOLUME
This section is only available when the Mass Transport in Porous Media property is
available and selected. See [Link] for
more details on availability.

When specifying reaction rates for a species in porous media, the specified reaction rate
may have the basis of the total volume, the pore volume, or in the case of using the
volume of a particular phase (applicable when modeling an unsaturated porous
medium).

• For Total volume, the reaction expressions, in mol/(m3·s), are specified per unit
volume of the model domain (multiplied by unity).
• For Pore volume, the reaction expressions, in mol/(m3·s), are specified per unit
volume of total pore space. The reaction expressions will be multiplied by the
domain porosity, p. (p equals unity for nonporous domains).

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 279

 • For Liquid phase, the reaction expressions, in mol/(m3·s), are specified per unit
volume of liquid in the pore space. The expressions will be multiplied by the liquid
volume fraction l. (l equals the porosity (p) on Porous Medium domains).
• For Gas phase, the reaction expressions, in mol/(m3·s), are multiplied by the gas
volume fraction g  p  lg equals 0 for Porous Medium domains.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter on chemical species transport, starting with the section Mass
Balance Equation.

• Fine Chemical Production in a Plate Reactor: Application Library

path
Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Mass_and_Heat_T
ransfer/plate_reactor
Web link:
[Link]
te-reactor-8589

No Flux
This node is the default boundary condition on exterior boundaries. It should be used
on boundaries across which there is no mass flux, typically solid walls where no surface
reactions occur. The condition applied for each species corresponds to

– n   – Dc  = 0

where n denotes the outward pointing normal of the boundary. When the mass
transport includes migration of ionic species, the no flux condition is:

– n   – Dc – zu m Fc  = 0

CONVECTION
By default, the feature prescribes a vanishing flux due to diffusion and migration in an
electric field. This is the appropriate no flux condition when the relative convective
velocity at the boundary is zero. When the fluid velocity at the boundary is not equal
to that of the boundary, it is often convenient to prescribe the total flux including the
convection. To do this select Include in the Convection section.

When including the convection, the no flux condition prescribed is

280 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 – n   – Dc + uc  = 0

or

– n   – Dc – zu m Fc + uc  = 0

when migration of ionic species is included.

Inflow
Use this node to specify all species concentrations at an inlet boundary.

If you want to specify the concentration of a subset of the partaking species, this can
be done by using the Concentration node instead.

For the Electroanalysis interface, this node is available when you select the Convection
check box on the physics interface Settings window.

CONCENTRATION
For the concentration of each species c0,c (SI unit: mol/m3), enter a value or
expression.

BOUNDARY CONDITION TYPE

The option Concentration constraint constrains the concentration values on the
boundary by the use of pointwise constraints.

The other option, Flux (Danckwerts) can be used when the concentration at the
boundary is not known, or when it varies in a nontrivial manner. This may, for example,
be useful when reactions with high reaction rates occur in the vicinity of the inlet. In
this case the concentration far upstream of the boundary is instead prescribed. The Flux
(Danckwerts) condition prescribes the total flux defined by the upstream concentration
and the fluid velocity at the boundary.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. You can find details about the different constraint settings in the
section Constraint Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section .

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 281

 Outflow
Apply this condition at outlets boundaries where species should be transported out of
the model domain by fluid motion or by an electric field (in the case of ions). It is
assumed that convection and migration (in an electric field) are the dominating
transport mechanisms across the boundary, and therefore that the diffusive transport
can be ignored, that is:

n   – D c  = 0

Note that the Convection or the Migration in electric field transport mechanisms needs
to be included for this node to be available.

Concentration
This condition node adds a boundary condition for the species concentration. For
example, a c = c0 condition specifies the concentration of species c.

CONCENTRATION
Individually specify the concentration for each species. Select the check box for the
Species to specify the concentration, and then enter a value or expression in the
corresponding field. To use another boundary condition for a specific species, click to
clear the check box for the concentration of that species.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
You can find details about the different constraint settings in the section Constraint
Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Flux
This node can be used to specify the species molar flux across a boundary. The flux can
for example occur due to chemical reactions or a phase change at the boundary. The
flux can also represent the transport to or from a surrounding environment currently
not included model.

The prescribed flux of a species c is by default defined as

282 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 – n   – Dc  = J 0

where n denotes the outward pointing normal of the boundary. When the mass
transport includes migration of ionic species, the flux is defined as:

– n   – Dc – zu m Fc  = J 0

The flux prescribed, J0, can include any arbitrary user-specified expression. It can be
constant or a function of a dependent variable or independent variable. Common
examples are a flux dependent of the concentration, temperature, pressure, or the
electric potential .

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

CONVECTION
By default, the flux due to diffusion and migration in an electric field is prescribed. This
is the appropriate flux condition when the relative velocity at the boundary is zero.
When the fluid velocity is not equal to that of the boundary, it is often convenient to
prescribe the total flux, including the convection. To do this select Include in the
Convection section.

When including the convection, the prescribed flux is defined as:

– n   – Dc + uc  = J 0

or

– n   – Dc – zu m Fc + uc  = J 0

when migration of ionic species is included.

INWARD FLUX
Select the Species check box for the species for which to specify the flux, and enter a
value or expression for the inward flux in the corresponding field. Use a minus sign
when specifying a flux directed out of the system. To use another boundary condition
for a specific species, click to clear the check box for that species.

External convection
Set Flux type to External convection to prescribe a flux to or from an exterior domain
(not modeled) assumed to include convection. The exterior can for example include a

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 283

 forced convection to control the temperature or to increase the mass transport. In this
case the prescribed mass flux corresponds to

J0 = kc  cb – c 

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node can be used to represent boundaries where the species
concentration is symmetric, that is, where there is no mass flux across the boundary.

This boundary condition is identical to that of the No Flux node.

Flux Discontinuity
This node represents a discontinuity in the mass flux across an interior boundary:

where the value N0 (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)) specifies the jump in total flux at the
boundary. This can be used to model a boundary source, for example a surface
reaction, adsorption, or desorption.

FLUX DISCONTINUITY
In this section the jump in species flux (or surface source) is specified.

Select the Species check box for the species to specify and enter a value or expression
for the material flux jump in the corresponding field. To use a different boundary
condition for a specific species, click to clear the check box for the flux discontinuity
of that species.

Partition Condition
The Partition Condition node can be used to prescribe the relation between the
concentration of a solute species in two adjoining immiscible phases. It can for example
be used on interior boundaries separating two liquid phases, a gas-liquid interface, or
on a boundary separating a liquid phase and a solid or porous media.

Select Partition coefficient from the Relation list to prescribe a linear relationship
between the concentration on either side of a boundary. For a species concentration
ci, the ratio between the concentration on the upside and on the downside of the

284 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

boundary (ci,u and ci,d respectively) is then defined in terms of a partition coefficient
Ki in the manner of

c i u
K i = --------
-
c i d

Use the associated input field to prescribe the partition coefficient for each species.

Select User defined from the Relation list to set up a nonlinear relation between the up
and downside concentrations. For such relations f(ci)u=f(ci)d, where f(ci)u is the
expression enforced on the upside. Use the associated input fields to enter the upside
and downside expressions for each species.

The up and downside of the selected boundary is indicated with a red arrow in the
Graphics window. The arrow points from the downside into the upside. Select the
Reverse direction check box to reverse the direction of the arrow on the selected
boundary, and update the definition of the up and downside concentrations
accordingly.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using a partition condition, see this application example:

Separation Through Dialysis: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Mixing_and_Separation/dialysis

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node can be used to define periodicity for the mass transport
between two sets of boundaries. The node prescribes continuity in the concentration
and the mass flux between the “source” and the “destination” side, respectively. Note
that these names are arbitrary and does not influence the direction in which mass is
transported. It is dictated by mass transfer equations in the adjacent domains.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 285

 BOUNDARY SELECTION
The node can be activated on more than two boundaries, in which case the feature tries
to identify two separate surfaces that each consist of one or several connected
boundaries.

DESTINATION SELECTION
For more complex geometries, it might be necessary to specify the destination
selection manually. To do so, right-click the Periodic Condition node and choose Manual
Destination Selection. You can then specify the boundaries that constitute the
destination surfaces in the Destination Selection section.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. This section contains settings for
specifying the type of constraint and whether to use a pointwise or weak constraint. See
Constraint Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
information.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

ORIENTATION OF DESTINATION
This section appears if the setting for Transform to intermediate map in the Orientation
of Source section is changed from the default value, Automatic, and Advanced Physics
Options is selected in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Destination section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MAPPING BETWEEN SOURCE AND DESTINATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Mapping Between Source and Destination section, see Mapping Between Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

286 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

FURTHER READING
For an example of using a periodic condition, see this application example:

The KdV Equation and Solitons: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Equation_Based/kdv_equation

Line Mass Source

The Line Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from a tube or line region
with an infinitely small radius.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the symmetry axis and the symmetry axis
3D Edges

SPECIES SOURCE
Enter the source strength, qꞏ l,c , for each species (SI unit: molm·s)). A positive value
results in species injection from the line into the computational domain, and a negative
value means that the species is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This
effect makes the physical strength of a line source located in a symmetry plane twice
the given strength.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 287

 Point Mass Source
The Point Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
domain around a point.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

SPECIES SOURCE
Enter the source strength, qꞏ p,c , for each species (SI unit: mols). A positive value
results in species injection from the point into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the species is removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that the physical strength of a point source
located in a symmetry plane is twice the given strength.

Open Boundary
Use this node to set up mass transport across boundaries where both convective inflow
and outflow can occur. On the parts of the boundary where fluid flows into the
domain, an exterior species concentration is prescribed. On the remaining parts, where
fluid flows out of the domain, a condition equivalent to the Outflow node is instead
prescribed.

The direction of the flow across the boundary is typically calculated by a fluid flow
interface and is provided as a model input to the Transport of Diluted Species
interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

EXTERIOR CONCENTRATION
Enter a value or expression for the Exterior concentration.

288 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Thin Diffusion Barrier
Use this boundary condition to model a thin layer through which mass is transported
by diffusion only. The node is applicable on interior boundaries and can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures.

THIN DIFFUSION BARRIER

Specify the Layer thickness, ds, and input a Diffusion coefficient, Ds,c, for each of the
species included.

Thin Impermeable Barrier

This feature models a thin mass transfer barrier. It is available on interior boundaries
and introduces a discontinuity in the concentration across the boundary. On each side,
a no-flux condition is prescribed for the mass transport implying that it acts as a barrier.
The feature can be used to avoid meshing thin structures.

Solving a model involving coupled fluid flow and mass transfer, the Thin Impermeable
Barrier feature can be combined with an Interior Wall feature in order to model a thin
solid wall.

Equilibrium Reaction
Use this node to model a reaction where the kinetics is so fast that the equilibrium
condition is fulfilled at all times. The node solves for an additional degree of freedom
(the reaction rate Req) to fulfill the equilibrium condition at all times in all space
coordinates.

If the Apply equilibrium condition on inflow boundaries check box is selected, the
specified inflow concentration values in all active Inflow boundary nodes for the physics
interface are modified to comply with the equilibrium condition.

• A necessary requirement for this is feature to be available is that two or

more species are solved for by the interface.
• This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See
[Link] for more details
on availability.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 289

 EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION
The list defaults to Equilibrium constant or select User defined. For either option, the
Apply equilibrium condition on inflow boundaries check box is selected by default.

For Equilibrium constant, enter an Equilibrium constant Keq (dimensionless). Also enter
a value or expression for the Unit activity concentration Ca0 (SI unit: mol/m3).
Selecting Equilibrium constant defines an equilibrium condition based on the
stoichiometric coefficients, the species activities, and the law of mass action.

For User defined, enter an Equilibrium expression Eeq (dimensionless).

STOICHIOMETRIC COEFFICIENTS
Enter a value for the stoichiometric coefficientc (dimensionless). The default is 0. Use
negative values for reactants and positive values for products in the modeled reaction.

Species with a stoichiometric coefficient value of 0 are not affected by the Equilibrium
Reaction node.

Surface Reactions
The Surface Reactions node can be used to account for the species boundary flux due
to chemical reactions occurring on a surface (heterogeneous reactions). For a domain
species participating in a surface reaction, the boundary flux corresponds to the
reaction rate at the surface.

SURFACE REACTION RATE

Specify the surface reaction rate J0 of each species resulting from the reactions. Note
that if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the Chemical
Reaction Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be automatically
generated and picked up using the drop-down list.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using the Surface Reactions node, see this application example:

Chemical Vapor Deposition of GaAs: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Mass_and_Heat_Tran
sfer/gaas_cvd

290 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Surface Equilibrium Reaction
Use this node to model an equilibrium reaction on a boundary (surface). The settings
for this node are similar to Equilibrium Reaction. Note that a necessary requirement
for this is feature to be available is that two or more species are solved for by the
interface.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction

This boundary node defines an irreversible reaction where the kinetics is so fast that
the only factor limiting the reaction rate is the transport of a species to the reacting
surface.

The node will set the Rate limiting species concentration to zero at the boundary, and
balance the fluxes of the species participating in the reaction and the current densities
according to the Stoichiometric Coefficients settings.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Porous Electrode Coupling

Use this node to add a molar source in a domain that is coupled to one or multiple
nodes of an Electrochemistry Interface.

The molar source is calculated from the number of electrons, stoichiometric

coefficients, and volumetric current densities of the coupled porous electrode reactions
specified in the Reaction Coefficients subnodes.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 291

 In the Transport of Concentrated Species interface, the molar sources (or sinks) are
multiplied by the species molar masses to obtain the corresponding mass sources.

Additional Reaction Coefficients subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Note that if you are also modeling the momentum transport and expect a
nonnegligible total mass source or sink, which is often the case in gas diffusion
electrodes, you need to also add a corresponding Porous Electrode Coupling node in
the Fluid Flow interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Reaction Coefficients
Add this node to the Electrode Surface Coupling and Porous Electrode Coupling
features to define molar fluxes and sources based on electrode current densities in an
Electrochemistry interface.

The molar flux or source is proportional to the stoichiometric coefficients and the
current density according to Faraday’s law.

Current densities from Electrode Reaction (iloc, SI unit: A/m2) or Porous Electrode
Reaction nodes (iv, SI unit: A/m3) of any Electrochemistry interface in the model are
available for selection as the Coupled reaction, and user-defined expressions are also
supported.

Enter the Number of participating electrons nm (dimensionless) and the Stoichiometric

coefficient vc (dimensionless) as explained in the theory section linked below.

Use multiple subnodes to couple to multiple reactions.

Electrode Surface Coupling

Use this node to define a flux boundary condition based on current densities of one or
multiple nodes in an Electrochemistry interface.

The flux is proportional to the current densities and the stoichiometric coefficients
according to Faraday’s law as defined by summation over the Reaction Coefficients
subnodes.

292 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Note that if you are also modeling the momentum transport and expect a
nonnegligible total mass flux over the boundary, which is often the case for gas
diffusion electrodes, you need to also add a corresponding Electrode Surface Coupling
node in the Fluid Flow interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Porous Medium
Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a solvent
(mobile fluid phase) through interstices in a solid porous medium. In addition to
transport due to convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include
species evolution through adsorption and dispersion.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Species transport through a porous medium is affected both by properties of the fluid
phase, and as well as properties of the solid matrix. These properties are defined in the
Fluid and Porous Matrix subnodes respectively. The Porous Medium node supports
material properties using a Porous Material node (described in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual), where properties are defined per phase in a similar
manner.

Add an Adsorption or a Dispersion subfeature to the Porous Medium to account for the
corresponding transport mechanism.

Fluid
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the mobile fluid solvent filling the pores
of a porous medium. It is used as a subnode to Porous Medium.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. By default, the Temperature model
input is set to Common model input, and the temperature is controlled from Default

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 293

 Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a locally defined Model Input. If a Heat
Transfer interface is included in the component, it controls the temperature Common
model input. Alternatively, the temperature field can be selected from another physics
interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a Heat
Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht) option
is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in
the input fields. This input option is always available. You can also select the velocity
field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the model component. These
physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity field list.

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent fluid.

Use the Source list to select to pick up diffusion coefficients defined in a material or a
Chemistry interface.

Select Material, and a Fluid material to use a diffusion coefficient in a material available
in the model. User-defined property groups including a diffusion coefficient output
property are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient list.

Select Chemistry to use a diffusion coefficient from a Chemistry interface added to

model component. Diffusion coefficients are automatically defined when Calculate
transport properties is selected on the interface level of a Chemistry interface. All
defined diffusion coefficients are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient
list.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Fluid diffusion coefficient DF,i of
each species in the corresponding input field.

In a porous medium the diffusivity is reduced due to the fact that the solid grains
impede Brownian motion. Select an Effective diffusivity model to account for the
reduced diffusivity. The available models are Millington and Quirk model (the default),
Bruggeman model, Tortuosity model, or No correction. For Tortuosity model, enter a
value for the tortuosity F,i (dimensionless).

294 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. See details:
[Link]

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V. This input
option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has added to
the component.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved for by an Electrochemistry interface
added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species effective diffusivity
and the temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, select the
appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full — and type
in the value or expression of the effective mobility ume,i.

Enter the Charge number zc for each species.

Porous Matrix
This node sets the porosity when modeling transport of diluted species in a Porous
Medium or a Unsaturated Porous Medium.

The default Porosity p of the solid matrix is taken From material. The Porous Matrix
node supports the use of a Porous Material node, where the porosity is defined in the
manner of

p = 1 –  s i – imf i
i i

where s,i and imf,i are the porosities of the Solid and Immobile Fluids subnodes under
the Porous Material node.

Select From pellet bed densities to compute the porosity using the (dry bulk) Bed
density b and the (single phase) Pellet density pe. The porosity is then defined from

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 295

 b
 p = 1 – -------
-
 pe

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the porosity.

Dispersion
Local variations in the velocity as the fluid flows around solid particles lead to
mechanical mixing, referred to as dispersion. Use this feature to account for dispersion
in a Porous Medium or a Unsaturated Porous Medium

This subfeature is available when both the Mass transfer in porous media mass transfer
check box and the Convection check box are selected in the Settings window for the
physics interface.

Select the Specify dispersion for each species individually check box to specify the
dispersion tensor DD (SI unit: m2/s) for each species separately. When not selected the
same dispersion tensor DD is used for all species.

Select an option from the Dispersion tensor list — Dispersivity or User defined.

Select Dispersivity to specify the dispersion in terms of dispersivities (SI unit: m). Select
an option from the Dispersivity model list: Isotropic (the default) or Transverse isotropic
based on the properties of the porous media. For isotropic porous media, specify the
longitudinal and transverse dispersivities. For transverse isotropic porous media,
specify the longitudinal, horizontal transverse, and vertical transverse dispersivities.

For User defined, specify the dispersion components in terms of constants or

expressions. Select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to enable the appropriate
tensor components.

Unsaturated Porous Medium

Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a solvent
(mobile fluid phase) through interstices in a solid porous medium. In addition to
transport due to convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include
species evolution through adsorption and dispersion.

Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a liquid
(mobile fluid phase) in a partially filled solid porous medium. The interstices of the
porous medium contains the liquid carrier phase and gas pockets. Apart from

296 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include species evolution
through adsorption, dispersion, and volatilization.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

The properties of each phase present are defined using the Liquid, the Gas, and the
Porous Matrix subnodes respectively. The Unsaturated Porous Medium node supports
material properties using a Porous Material node (described in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual), where properties are defined per phase in a similar
manner.

Add an Adsorption or a Dispersion subfeature to the Unsaturated Porous Medium to

account for the corresponding transport mechanism.

Liquid
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the mobile liquid solvent present in the
pores of the Unsaturated Porous Medium.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. By default, the Temperature model
input is set to Common model input, and the temperature is controlled from Default
Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a locally defined Model Input. If a Heat
Transfer interface is included in the component, it controls the temperature Common
model input. Alternatively, the temperature field can be selected from another physics
interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a Heat
Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht) option
is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

SATURATION
Select Saturation or Liquid volume fraction from the list.

For Saturation, enter a value for s (dimensionless) between 0 and 1. The liquid volume
fraction is then computed from the saturation and porosity as l = ps.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 297

 For Liquid volume fraction, enter a value for l (dimensionless) between 0 and the value
of the porosity.

Select a Liquid fraction time change: Liquid fraction constant in time (the default), Time
change in liquid fraction, or Time change in pressure head.

• For Time change in fluid fraction, enter d/dt (SI unit: 1/s).
• For Time change in pressure head, enter dHp/dt (SI unit: m/s) and a Specific
moisture capacity Cm (SI unit: 1/m). If a Darcy’s Law interface is included in the
component, the time change in pressure head solved for can be selected.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in
the input fields. This input option is always available. You can also select the velocity
field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the model component. These
physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity field list.

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent liquid.

Use the Source list to select to pick up diffusion coefficients defined in a material or a
Chemistry interface.

Select Material, and a Liquid material to use a diffusion coefficient in a material available
in the model. User-defined property groups including a diffusion coefficient output
property are available for selection in the Liquid diffusion coefficient list.

Select Chemistry to use a diffusion coefficient from a Chemistry interface added to

model component. Diffusion coefficients are automatically defined when Calculate
transport properties is selected on the interface level of a Chemistry interface. All
defined diffusion coefficients are available for selection in the Liquid diffusion coefficient
list.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Liquid diffusion coefficient DL,i of
each species in the corresponding input field.

In a porous medium the diffusivity is reduced due to the fact that the solid grains
impede Brownian motion. Select an Effective diffusivity model, liquid to account for the
reduced diffusivity in the liquid. The available models are Millington and Quirk model

298 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

(the default), Bruggeman model, Tortuosity model, or No correction. For Tortuosity
model, enter a value for the tortuosity L,i (dimensionless).

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. For details see:
[Link]

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V. This input
option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has added to
the component.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved for by an Electrochemistry interface
added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species effective diffusivity
and the temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, select the
appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full — and type
in the value or expression of the effective mobility ume,i.

Enter the Charge number zc for each species.

Gas
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the gas phase present in the pores of the
Unsaturated Porous Medium.

DIFFUSION
The settings for the diffusion of each species in the gas phase are identical to those in
the Liquid subnode.

VOLATILIZATION
Enter a value for the volatilization isotherm kG,c (dimensionless) for each species.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 299

 Adsorption
Use this node to model adsorption of the (fluid phase) solute species onto the surface
of the porous matrix. It is available as a subnode to the Porous Medium and the
Unsaturated Porous Medium nodes.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The density of the porous media is needed when modeling adsorption to the surface
of the porous matrix. Choose to input either the Dry bulk density , or the Solid phase
density s. The former is the density of the porous matrix including empty pores, while
the latter corresponds to the density of the pure solid phase. The density can be defined
from the domain material by selecting From material, or from a user defined expression.
When a Porous Material is used on the selection, the density will be requested from a
Solid subfeature. Several Solid features can be used to model a homogeneous mixture
of several solid components.

ADSORPTION
Select an Adsorption isotherm — Langmuir, Freundlich, Toth, BET, or User defined to
specify how to compute cP, the amount of species sorbed to the solid phase (moles per
unit dry weight of the solid):

• For Langmuir:

KL c c K L c Pmax
c P = c Pmax --------------------  K P = -------P- = ---------------------------
1 + KL c c  1 + KL c 
2

Enter a Langmuir constant kL,c (SI unit: m3/mol) and an Adsorption maximum
cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg).

• For Freundlich:

300 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 c N c cP
c P = K F  --------  K P = -------P- = N -----
c ref c c

Enter a Freundlich constant kF,c (SI unit: mol/kg), a Freundlich exponent NF,c
(dimensionless), and a Reference concentration cref,c (SI unit: mol/m3).
• For Toth:
bT c
c P = c Pmax ----------------------------------------------
N 1  NT
 1 +  bT c  T 

and

–  1 + ------
1-
c  N T
N
KP = -------P- = c Pmax b T  1 +  b T c  T 
c

Enter a Toth constant bT,c (SI unit: m3/mol), a Toth exponent NT,c (dimensionless),
and an Adsorption maximum cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg).
• For BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller):
KB c0 c
c P = -------------------------------------------------------------
-
 c S – c   1 +  K B – 1  -----
c
 c S

and

2 2
c K B c 0 c S   K B – 1 c + c S 
K P = -------P- = -----------------------------------------------------------------
-
c 2
 c – c S   c S +  K B – 1 c 
2

Enter a BET constant KB,c (dimensionless), a Monolayer adsorption capacity c0,c

(SI unit: mol/kg), and an Saturation concentration cS,c (SI unit: mol/m3).
• For User defined enter an Adsorption isotherm cP,c (SI unit: mol/kg):

cP = f  c 

For more information, see in the theory section.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section .

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 301

 Volatilization
This feature is available when the Mass transfer in porous media check box is selected in
the Settings window for the physics interface.

Use this feature to model mass transfer at the boundary due to volatilization. The
species dissolved in the liquid are assumed to be vaporized at the boundary, and
transported into the surrounding bulk region due to convection and diffusion. The
mass transfer at the boundary is defined as

– n  J c = – h c  k G,c c – c Gatm,c 

where hc is the mass transfer coefficient, kG,c the volatilization coefficient, and cGatm,c
the concentration in the surrounding atmosphere.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

VOLATILIZATION
Enter a Mass transfer coefficient hc defining the transfer into the surrounding media.
This can be given by boundary layer theory. When assuming that no convective flow
is present in the surrounding, the mass transfer coefficient can be defined from the gas
diffusion coefficient DGc and the thickness of the diffusion layer ds in the manner of

D Gc
h c = ----------
ds

Also give the atmospheric concentration for each species, cGatm,c. The Volatilization
coefficient kG,c for each species are taken from the adjacent Unsaturated Porous
Medium domain.

Species Source
In order to account for consumption or production of species in porous domains, the
Species Source node adds source terms expressions Si to the right-hand side of the
species transport equations.

302 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern the source term in the transport equations.

If there are several types of domains, with subsequent and different reactions occurring
within them, it might be necessary to remove some domains from the selection. These
are then defined in an additional Species Source node.

SPECIES SOURCE
Add a source term Si (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) for each of the species solved for. Enter a
value or expression in the field of the corresponding species.

Hygroscopic Swelling
The Hygroscopic Swelling multiphysics coupling node ( ) is used for moisture
concentration coupling between the Solid Mechanics interface and either the
Transport of Diluted Species or Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media
interfaces.

Hygroscopic swelling is an effect of internal strain caused by changes in moisture

content. This volumetric strain can be written as

 hs =  h M m  c mo – c mo,ref 

where h is the coefficient of hygroscopic swelling, Mm is the molar mass, cmo is the
moisture concentration, and cmo,ref is the strain-free reference concentration.

This feature requires a license of either the MEMS Module or the Structural Mechanics
Module. The multiphysics feature will appear automatically if both the Transport of
Diluted Species and the Solid Mechanics interfaces are added to the same component.
For the most current information about licensing, please see See
[Link]

FURTHER READING
More information about how to use hygroscopic swelling can be found in Hygroscopic
Swelling Coupling section in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide.

More information about multiphysics coupling nodes can be found in the section The
Multiphysics Branch.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 303

 Out-of-Plane Flux
The out-of-plane flux node is used to prescribe a flux in an out-of-plane domain, and
it can be used to reduce a model geometry to 2D, or even 1D, when the concentration
variation is small in one or more directions. This could be the case for example when
the object to model is thin or slender. Figure 7-1 shows examples of possible situations
in which this type of geometry reduction can be applied.

Jz

Jup

Jdown

Figure 7-1: Geometry reduction from 3D to 1D (top) and from 3D to 2D (bottom).

For a 1D component this node adds a single out-of-plane molar flux J0,z,i for species
i. For a 2D component two fluxes can be prescribed for each species; J0,u,i for the
upside of the domain, and J0,d,i for the downside of the domain.

The fluxes are added as a source contribution to the right-hand side of the transport
equation. For example, in 2D components with diffusion, convection, and
out-of-plane flux present, the mass transfer of species i is defined by the mass
conservation equation

c i
------- +   J i + u  c i = R i + S opf i , (7-1)
t

where Sopf,i is the out-of-plane source for species i

J 0 i J 0 u i + J 0 d i
- = --------------------------------------
S opf i = --------- .
dz dz

For external convection on the upside and the downside of the domain, the
out-of-plane flux is

304 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 J 0 i = k c u i  c b u i – c i  + k c d i  c b d i – c i 

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain. The prescribed flux, J0, can
include any arbitrary user-specified expressions. It can be a constant or a function of a
dependent variable or independent variables.

UPSIDE INWARD FLUX

For 1D components, enter the cross-sectional perimeter Pc to get the out-of-plane flux

J 0 i = P c J 0 z i .

The default value of Pc is the circumference. Either keep the default value, for a circular
cross-section shape, or edit the value to get a user-defined shape of the out-of-plane
cross-section.

The available flux type options are General inward flux and External convection. Select
the Species check box for the species for which to specify the flux, and enter a value or
expression for the inward flux in the corresponding field. Use a minus sign when
specifying a flux directed out of the system. To use another boundary condition for a
specific species, click to clear the check box for that species.

Set Flux type to External convection to prescribe a flux to or from an exterior domain
(not modeled) assumed to include convection. The exterior can for example include a
forced convection to control the temperature or to increase the mass transport. In this
case the prescribed mass flux corresponds to

J0 = kc  cb – c 

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain.

DOWNSIDE INWARD FLUX

The available options are General inward flux and External convection. The settings are
the same as for the Upside Inward Flux section.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 305

 FURTHER READING
For an example of using the Out-of-Plane Flux node, see this application example:

Mass Transfer from a Thin Domain: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Tutorials/thin_domain

Fracture
Use this node to model mass transport along thin fractures in porous media. The node
assumes that the transport in the tangential direction along the fracture is dominant as
a result of lower flow resistance.

The Fracture feature has two default subfeatures — the Fluid (Fracture) subfeature
where convection and diffusion are specified and the Fracture Material subfeature
where the porosity p is defined.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

FRACTURE PROPERTIES
Specify a value for the Fracture thickness dfr.

For the Fracture boundary condition, there are a number of Attributes available which
can be accessed either via the Physics Ribbon toolbar (for Windows) or by
right-clicking on the Fracture node. These attributes are identical to the Boundary,
Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures
Interface described, for example, in the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module
User’s Guide.

Fluid (Fracture)
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the mobile fluid solvent filling the pores
of a fracture.

It uses the same input options as the Fluid subfeature under the Porous Medium
feature. There are further details about the settings.

306 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. By default, the Temperature model
input is set to Common model input, and the temperature is controlled from Default
Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a locally defined Model Input. If a Heat
Transfer interface is included in the component, it controls the temperature Common
model input. Alternatively, the temperature field can be selected from another physics
interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a Heat
Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht) option
is available for T.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. Select an option from the Velocity field list to specify the convective velocity
along the fracture. For a consistent model, use a Fracture feature in a Darcy’s Law
interface to compute the fluid flow velocity in the fracture.

For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in the table
shown

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent fluid.

The Diffusion settings are similar to those for the diffusion coefficients in
the Fluid node under Porous Medium.

Fracture Material
Specify the Porosity, p (dimensionless) of the porous matrix. This is by default taken
From material. Select From pellet bed densities to compute the porosity from the (dry
bulk) Bed density b and the (single phase) Pellet density pe through the relation

b
 p = 1 – -------
-
 pe

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the porosity.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 307

 Theory for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species Interface provides a predefined modeling
environment for studying the evolution of chemical species transported by diffusion
and convection. The physics interface assumes that all species present are dilute; that
is, that their concentration is low compared to a solvent fluid or solid. As a rule of
thumb, a mixture containing several species can be considered dilute when the
concentration of the solvent is more than 90 mol%. Due to the dilution, mixture
properties such as density and viscosity can be assumed to correspond to those of the
solvent.

When studying mixtures that are not dilute, the mixture and transport properties
depend on the composition, and a different physics interface is recommended. See The
Transport of Concentrated Species Interface in the for more information.

Fick’s law governs the diffusion of the solutes, dilute mixtures, or solutions, while the
phenomenon of ionic migration is sometimes referred to as electrokinetic flow. The
Transport of Diluted Species interface supports the simulations of chemical species
transport by convection, migration, and diffusion in 1D, 2D, and 3D as well as for
axisymmetric components in 1D and 2D.

In this section:

• Adding Transport Through • Mass Balance Equation

Migration • Mass Sources for Species Transport
• Convective Term Formulation • Solving a Diffusion Equation Only
• Crosswind Diffusion • Supporting Electrolytes
• Danckwerts Inflow Boundary • References
Condition
• Equilibrium Reaction Theory

Note: Some features explained in this section require certain add-on modules. For
details see [Link]

308 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The section also includes the theory for :

• Adsorption • Mass Balance Equation for

• Convection in Porous Media Transport of Diluted Species in
Porous Media
• Diffusion in Porous Media
• Mass Transport in Fractures
• Dispersion
• Reactions

Mass Balance Equation

The default node attributed to the Transport of Diluted Species interface models
chemical species transport through diffusion and convection and solves the mass
conservation equation for one or more chemical species i:

c i
------- +   J i + u  c i = R i (7-2)
t

Equation 7-2 in its form above includes the transport mechanisms diffusion and
convection. If Migration in Electric Field is activated (only available in some add-on
products), the migration mechanism will be added to the equation as well. See more
details in the section Adding Transport Through Migration.

• ci is the concentration of the species (SI unit: mol/m3)

• Di denotes the diffusion coefficient (SI unit: m2/s)
• Ri is a reaction rate expression for the species (SI unit: mol/(m3·s))
• u is the mass averaged velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• Ji is the mass flux diffusive flux vector (SI unit: mol/(m2·s))

The mass flux relative to the mass averaged velocity, Ji (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)), is
associated with the mass balance equation above and used in boundary conditions and
flux computations. The Transport of Diluted Species interface always includes mass
transport due to molecular diffusion. In this case the mass flux Ji defines the diffusive
flux vector

J i = – D c i (7-3)

An input field for the diffusion coefficient is available.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 309

 When Migration in Electric Fields is activated, the migration term is also added to
the diffusive flux vector as shown in the section Adding Transport Through Migration.

The third term on the left side of Equation 7-2 describes the convective transport due
to a velocity field u. This field can be expressed analytically or obtained from coupling
the physics interface to one that solves for fluid flow, such as Laminar Flow. Note that
all fluid flow interfaces solve for the mass averaged velocity.

On the right-hand side of the mass balance equation (Equation 7-2), Ri represents a
source or sink term, typically due to a chemical reaction or desorption on a porous
matrix. To specify Ri, another node must be added to the Transport of Diluted Species
interface — the Reaction node for example, which includes an input field for specifying
a reaction expression using the variable names of all participating species.

Equilibrium Reaction Theory

The feature Equilibrium Reaction is described in this section. A chemical equilibrium
reaction system is defined by the stoichiometry of the reaction and the relation
between the chemical activities of the chemical species participating in the reaction (the
equilibrium condition).

The kinetics of the reaction is so fast that the equilibrium condition is fulfilled at all
times in all space coordinates.

The equilibrium condition is commonly based on the stoichiometric coefficients,

i (dimensionless), of the reaction; the species activities of the reacting species
ai (dimensionless); and an equilibrium constant, Keq (1) according to:


 ai i
i  products
K eq = ----------------------------------
–
 ai i
i  reactants

where the species activities are defined as

ci
a i =  c i -------
c a0

where ca0 (SI unit: mol/m3) is the standard molarity, and c,i (dimensionless) an
activity coefficient.

310 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Defining the stoichiometric coefficients positive for products and negative for
reactants, the above equilibrium condition can also be written:

i
K eq =  ai
i

The Equilibrium Reaction node solves for a reaction rate so that the equilibrium
condition is always fulfilled in the domain. It is available for the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module; Battery Design Module; Corrosion Module; Electrochemistry
Module; Electrodeposition Module; and Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer Module.

c,i is set to unity when the Equilibrium constant is selected in the Settings
window. For nonunity activity coefficients, a user defined equilibrium
condition can be used.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND INFLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Contradictory constraints arise if the boundary conditions for concentrations or
activities are set so that the domain equilibrium condition is not fulfilled. Special
treatment is therefore needed at Inflow boundaries, where the concentrations are set
for all species in the mass transport interfaces.

One way of avoiding competing constraints on an inflow boundary is to add an

additional reaction coordinate degree of freedom, solved for to create a set of modified
inflow concentrations that fulfill the domain equilibrium condition. The reaction
coordinate gives rise to a concentration shift, which is the offset to the inflow
concentrations provided by the user. The shift for each species obeys the stoichiometry
of the reaction and the equilibrium expression. The modified inflow concentrations are
then used in the boundary conditions for the domain mass transport equations. The
resulting modified inflow concentrations can be seen as the stationary solution for a
batch reactor with the user inflow concentrations as initial concentrations. In addition,
the domain reaction rate degree of freedom of the equilibrium reaction is constrained
to zero on all Inflow boundaries.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND CONCENTRATION BOUNDARY

CONDITIONS
No special treatment is made with regards to input concentration values of the
Concentration boundary node. Using this feature, you can explicitly set one or a set of
concentrations, and the equilibrium condition acts on the rest of the concentrations.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 311

 However, there is no solution to the problem if more concentrations than the number
of species minus the number of equilibrium reactions are set using this feature.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

Spurious oscillations may occur in a time-dependent problem if the initial conditions
do not fulfill the equilibrium condition. Since equilibrium reactions are assumed to be
infinitely fast, the solution is to initialize the problem using an additional study step,
solving for a stationary problem with all nonequilibrium reaction rates set to zero.
Manual scaling of the reaction rate dependent variables is needed in this study step.

Convective Term Formulation

The default node attributed to assumes chemical species transport through diffusion
and convection (depending on the modules licensed, a check box to activate migration
is available) and implements the mass balance equation in Equation 7-2.

There are two ways to present a mass balance where chemical species transport occurs
through diffusion and convection. These are the nonconservative and conservative
formulations of the convective term:

nonconservative: ----c- + u  c =   J i + R (7-4)

t

c
conservative: ----- +    cu  =   J i + R (7-5)
t

and each is treated slightly differently by the solver algorithms. In these equations
Ji (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)) is the diffusive flux vector, R (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) is a
production or consumption rate expression, and u (SI unit: m/s) is the solvent velocity
field. The diffusion process can be anisotropic, in which case D is a tensor.

If the conservative formulation is expanded using the chain rule, then one of the terms
from the convection part, c·u, would equal zero for an incompressible fluid and
would result in the nonconservative formulation above. This is in fact the default
formulation in this physics interface. To switch between the two formulations, click the
Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

312 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Solving a Diffusion Equation Only
Remove the convection term from Equation 7-4 and Equation 7-5 by clearing the
Convection check box in the Transport Mechanisms section for . The equation then
becomes

----c- =   J + R
t i

Mass Sources for Species Transport

Note: The features below are only available in a limited set of add-on products. For a
detailed overview of which features are available in each product, visit
[Link]

There are two types of mass sources in the Transport of Diluted Species interface: point
sources and line sources.

POINT SOURCE
A point source is theoretically formed by assuming a mass injection/ejection, Qꞏ c (SI
unit: mol/(m3·s)), in a small volume V and then letting the size of the volume tend
to zero while keeping the total mass flux constant. Given a point source strength, qꞏ p,c
(SI unit: mol/s), this can be expressed as

ꞏ
lim
V  0  Qc = qꞏ p,c (7-6)
V

An alternative way to form a point source is to assume that mass is injected/extracted

through the surface of a small object. Letting the object surface area tend to zero while
keeping the mass flux constant results in the same point source. For this alternative
approach, effects resulting from the physical object’s volume need to be neglected.

The weak contribution

qꞏ p,c test  c 

is added at a point in the geometry. As can be seen from Equation 7-6, Qꞏ c must tend
to plus or minus infinity as V tends to zero. This means that in theory the
concentration also tends to plus or minus infinity.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 313

 Observe that “point” refers to the physical representation of the source. A point source
can therefore only be added to points in 3D components and to points on the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry components. Other geometrical points in 2D
components represent physical lines.

The finite element representation of Equation 7-6 corresponds to a finite

concentration at a point with the effect of the point source spread out over a region
around the point. The size of the region depends on the mesh and on the strength of
the source. A finer mesh gives a smaller affected region but also a more extreme
concentration value. It is important not to mesh too finely around a point source since
this can result in unphysical concentration values. It can also have a negative effect on
the condition number for the equation system.

LINE SOURCE
A line source can theoretically be formed by assuming a source of strength Qꞏ l,c (SI
unit: mol/(m3·s)), located within a tube with cross section S and then letting S tend
to zero while keeping the total mass flux per unit length constant. Given a line source
strength, qꞏ l,c (SI unit: mol/(m·s)), this can be expressed as

lim
S  0  Qꞏ l,c = qꞏ l,c (7-7)
S

As in the point source case, an alternative approach is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. This results in the same mass
source, but requires that effects resulting from the physical object’s volume are
neglected.

The weak contribution

qꞏ l,c test  c 

is added on lines in 3D or at points in 2D (which represent cut-through views of lines).

Line sources can also be added on the axisymmetry line in 2D axisymmetry
components. It cannot, however, be added on geometrical lines in 2D since those
represent physical planes.

As with a point source, it is important not to mesh too finely around the line source.

For feature node information, see Line Mass Source and Point Mass
Source.

314 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Adding Transport Through Migration

Note: Migration is only available in a limited set of add-on products. For a detailed
overview of which features are available in each product, visit
[Link]

In addition to transport due to convection and diffusion, the Transport of Diluted

Species interface supports ionic species transport by migration. This is done by
selecting the Migration in Electric Field check box under the Transport Mechanisms
section for the physics interface. The mass balance then becomes:

c i
+    – D i c i – z i u m i F c i V + c i u  = R i (7-8)
t

where

• ci (SI unit: mol/ m3) denotes the concentration of species i

• Di (SI unit: m2/s) is the diffusion coefficient of species i
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the fluid velocity
• F (SI unit: A·s/mol) refers to Faraday’s constant
• V (SI unit: V) denotes the electric potential
• zi (dimensionless) is the charge number of the ionic species, and
• um,i (SI unit: mol·s/kg) is its ionic mobility

In this case the diffusive flux vector is

J i = – D i c i – z i u m i Fc i V

The velocity, u, can be a computed fluid velocity field from a Fluid Flow interface or
a specified function of the spatial variables x, y, and z. The potential can be provided
by an expression or by coupling the system of equations to a current balance, such as
the Electrostatics interface. Sometimes it is assumed to be a supporting electrolyte
present, which simplifies the transport equations. In that case, the modeled charged
species concentration is very low compared to other ions dissolved in the solution.
Thus, the species concentration does not influence the solution’s conductivity and the
net charge within the fluid.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 315

 The Nernst–Einstein relation can in many cases be used for relating the species
mobility to the species diffusivity according to

D
u m i = --------i
RT

where R (SI unit: J/(mol·K)) is the molar gas constant and T (SI unit: K) is the
temperature.

Note: In the Nernst–Planck Equations interface, the ionic species contribute to the
charge transfer in the solution. It includes an electroneutrality condition and also
computes the electric potential field in the electrolyte. For more information, see
Theory for the Nernst–Planck Equations Interface. This interface is included in the
Chemical Reaction Engineering Module.

Supporting Electrolytes
In electrolyte solutions, a salt can be added to provide a high electrolyte conductivity
and decrease the ohmic losses in a cell. These solutions are often called supporting
electrolytes, buffer solutions, or carrier electrolytes. The added species, a negative and
a positive ion pair, predominates over all other species. Therefore, the supporting
electrolyte species can be assumed to dominate the current transport in the solution.
In addition, the predominant supporting ions are usually selected so that they do not
react at the electrode surfaces since the high conductivity should be kept through the
process, that is, they should not be electroactive species. This also means that the
concentration gradients of the predominant species in a supporting electrolyte are
usually negligible.

Modeling and solving for a supporting electrolyte in the Electrostatics or Secondary

Current Distribution interfaces will give a potential distribution that drives the
migration in the Transport of Diluted Species Interface.

The current density vector is proportional to the sum of all species fluxes as expressed
by Faraday’s law:

i = F  zi Ni
i

316 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The electroneutrality condition ensures that there is always a zero net charge at any
position in a dilute solution. Intuitively, this means that it is impossible to create a
current by manually pumping positive ions in one direction and negative ions in the
other. Therefore, the convective term is canceled out to yield the following expression
for the electrolyte current density, where j denotes the supporting species:

 –zj um j F cj 
2
i = F (7-9)
j

Equation 7-9 is simply Ohm’s law for ionic current transport and can be simplified to

i = –   (7-10)

where  is the conductivity of the supporting electrolyte. A current balance gives the
current and potential density in the cell

i = 0

which, in combination with Equation 7-10, yields:

   –    = 0 (7-11)

Equation 7-11 can be easily solved using the Electrostatics or Secondary Current
Distribution interface and, when coupled to the Transport in Diluted Species interface,
the potential distribution shows up in the migration term.

Crosswind Diffusion
Transport of diluted species applications can often result in models with a very high
cell Péclet number — that is, systems where convection or migration dominates over
diffusion. Streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion are of paramount importance
to obtain physically reasonable results. The Transport of Diluted Species interface
provides two crosswind diffusion options using different formulations. Observe that
crosswind diffusion makes the equation system nonlinear even if the transport
equation is linear.

DO CARMO AND GALEÃO

This is the formulation described in Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual. The method reduces over- and undershoots to a
minimum, even for anisotropic meshes.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 317

 In some cases, the resulting nonlinear equation system can be difficult to converge.
This can happen when the cell Péclet number is very high and the model contains
many thin layers, such as contact discontinuities. You then have three options:

• Refine the mesh, especially in regions with thin layers.

• Use a nonlinear solver with a constant damping factor less than one.
• Switch to the Codina crosswind formulation.

CODINA
The Codina formulation is described in Ref. 1. It adds diffusion strictly in the direction
orthogonal to the streamline direction. Compared to the do Carmo and Galeão
formulation, the Codina formulation adds less diffusion but is not as efficient at
reducing over- and undershoots. It also does not work as well for anisotropic meshes.
The advantage is that the resulting nonlinear system is easier to converge and that
underresolved gradients are less smeared out.

Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition

Constraining the composition to fixed values at an inlet to a reactor may sometimes
result in issues with unreasonably high reaction rates or singularities at the inlet
boundary. These problems may many times be mitigated by using a flux boundary
condition instead, based on the upstream concentrations and the fluid velocity at the
boundary. In chemical engineering, this type of flux boundary condition is also known
as a Danckwerts condition.

Use the Danckwerts condition to specify inlet conditions for domains where high
reaction rates are anticipated in the vicinity to the inlet (Ref. 2).

Given an upstream concentration ci,0, the Danckwerts inflow boundary condition

prescribed the total flux as

n   J i + uc i  = n   uc i 0  (7-12)

318 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media

VARIABLY SATURATED POROUS MEDIA

The following equations for the molar concentrations, ci, describe the transport of
solutes in a variably saturated porous medium for the most general case, when the pore
space is primarily filled with liquid but also contain pockets or immobile gas:

 
 c  +   c P i  +  ( g c G i) + u  c i =
t l i t t (7-13)
    D D i + D e i  c i  + R i + S i

On the left-hand side of Equation 7-13, the first three terms correspond to the
accumulation of species within the liquid, solid, and gas phases, while the last term
describes the convection due to the velocity field u (SI unit: m/s).

In Equation 7-13 ci denotes the concentration of species i in the liquid (SI unit:
mol/m3), cP, i the amount adsorbed to solid particles (moles per unit dry weight of
the solid), and cG, i the concentration of species i in the gas phase.

The equation balances the mass transport throughout the porous medium using the
porosity p, the liquid volume fraction l; the dry bulk density,  = (1  s)s, and the
solid phase density s.

For saturated porous media, the liquid volume fraction l is equal to the porosity p,
but for unsaturated porous media, they are related by the saturation s as l = psThe
resulting gas volume fraction in the case of an unsaturated porous medium is

 g =  p –  l =  1 – s  p

On the right-hand side of Equation 7-13, the first term introduces the spreading of
species due to mechanical mixing resulting from the porous media (dispersion), as well
as from diffusion and volatilization to the gas phase. The dispersion tensor is denoted
DD (SI unit: m2/s) and the effective diffusion by De (SI unit: m2/s).

The last two terms on the right-hand side of Equation 7-13 describe production or
consumption of the species; Ri is a reaction rate expression which can account for
reactions in the liquid, solid, or gas phase, and Si is an arbitrary source term, for
example due to a fluid flow source or sink.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 319

 Adsorption
The time evolution of the adsorption, the solute transport to or from the solid phase,
is defined by assuming that the amount of solute adsorbed to the solid, cP,i, is a
function of the concentration in the fluid ci. This implies that the solute concentration
in the liquid and solid phase are in instant equilibrium. The adsorption term can be
expanded to give

c 
  c  =  c P i c i – c   p = K P,i i – c P i  s p (7-14)
t P i  ci  t P i s  t t t

where KP,i  cP,ici is the adsorption isotherm.

Volatilization
Volatilization is the process where a solute species in the liquid is transported to the
gas phase due to vaporization. Assuming that the amount of solute in the gas phase,
cG,i, is a linear function of the liquid phase concentration, the volatilization term is
defined as

c G i c i  g c i  g
 =  + k c =  g k G i + k G i c i (7-15)
c
 t g G i
g  ci  t G  i i t t t

where kG,i  cG,ici is the linear volatilization.

SATURATED POROUS MEDIA

In the case of transport in a saturated porous medium,l = p, and the governing
equations are

 
 c  +   c P i  + u  c i =     D D i + D e i  c i  + R i + S i (7-16)
t p i t

Convection in Porous Media

Convection (also called advection) describes the movement of a species, such as a
pollutant, with the bulk fluid velocity. The velocity field u corresponds to a superficial
volume average over a unit volume of the porous medium, including both pores and
matrix. This velocity is sometimes called Darcy velocity, and defined as volume flow

320 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

rates per unit cross section of the medium. This definition makes the velocity field
continuous across the boundaries between porous regions and regions with free flow.

The velocity field to be used in the Model Inputs section on the physics
interface can, for example, be prescribed using the velocity field from a
Darcy’s Law or a Brinkman Equations interface.

The average linear fluid velocities ua, provides an estimate of the fluid velocity within
the pores:

u-
u a = ---- Saturated
p
u-
u a = --- Unsaturated
l

where p is the porosity and l = sp the liquid volume fraction, and s the saturation,
a dimensionless number between 0 and 1.

Figure 7-2: A block of a porous medium consisting of solids and the pore space between the
solid grains. The average linear velocity describes how fast the fluid moves within the pores.
The Darcy velocity attributes this flow over the entire fluid-solid face.

CONVECTIVE TERM FORMULATION

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media interface includes two formulations
of the convective term. The conservative formulation of the species equations in
Equation 7-13 is written as:

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 321

  
 c  +   c P i  +  ( g c G i) +   uc i =
t l i t t (7-17)
    D D  i + D e  i  c i  + R i + S i

If the conservative formulation is expanded using the chain rule, then one of the terms
from the convection part, ci·u, would equal zero for an incompressible fluid and
would result in the nonconservative formulation described in Equation 7-13.

When using the nonconservative formulation, which is the default, the fluid is assumed
incompressible and divergence free:  u = . The nonconservative formulation
improves the stability of systems coupled to a momentum equation (fluid flow
equation).

To switch between the two formulations, click the Show button ( ) and
select Advanced Physics Options. In the section Advanced Settings select
either Nonconservative form (the default) or Conservative form. The
conservative formulation should be used for compressible flow.

Diffusion in Porous Media

The effective diffusion in porous media, De, depends on the structure of the porous
material and the phases involved. Dependent on whether the transport of diluted
species occurs in free flow or in saturated or unsaturated porous media, the effective
diffusivity is defined as:

De = DF Free Flow
p
D e = ----- D L Saturated Porous Media
L
l
D e = ----- D L Unsaturated Porous Media
L
l g
D e = ----- D L + ------ k G D G Unsaturated with Volatilization
L G

Here DF, DL, and DG are the single-phase diffusion coefficients for the species diluted
in a fluid, a pure liquid, and a gas phase, respectively (SI unit: m2/s), and F, L, and
G are the corresponding tortuosity factors (dimensionless).

The tortuosity factor accounts for the reduced diffusivity due to the fact that the solid
grains impede Brownian motion. The interface provides predefined expressions to

322 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

compute the tortuosity factors in partially saturated porous media according to the
Millington and Quirk model (Ref. 3):

–7  3 2 –7  3 2
L = l p , G = g p

and Bruggeman model

–5  2 2 –5  2 2
L = l p , G = g p

For saturated porous media l = p. The fluid tortuosity for the Millington and Quirk
model is

–1  3
L = p

and for the Bruggeman model the tortuosity is defined as

–1  2
L = p

User defined expressions for the tortuosity factor can also be applied.

Dispersion
The contribution of dispersion to the mixing of species typically overshadows the
contribution from molecular diffusion, except when the fluid velocity is very low.

The spreading of mass, as a fluid travel through a porous medium is caused by several
contributing effects. Local variations in fluid velocity lead to mechanical mixing
referred to as dispersion occurs because the fluid in the pore space flows around solid
particles, so the velocity field varies within pore channels. The spreading in the
direction parallel to the flow, or longitudinal dispersivity, typically exceeds the
transverse dispersivity from up to an order of magnitude. Being driven by the
concentration gradient alone, molecular diffusion rate is low relative to the mechanical
dispersion, except at very low fluid velocities.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 323

 Figure 7-3: Spreading of fluid around solid particles in a porous medium.

The dispersion is controlled through the dispersion tensor DD. The tensor
components can either be given by user-defined values or expressions or derived from
the directional dispersivities.

Using the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities in 2D, the dispersivity tensor
components are (Ref. 5):

2 2
ui uj
D Dii =  L ------ +  T ------
u u

ui uj
D Dij = D Dji =   L –  T  -----------
u

In these equations, DDii (SI unit: m2/s) are the principal components of the
dispersivity tensor, and DDji and DDji are the cross terms. The parameters L and T
(SI unit: m) specify the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities; and ui (SI unit: m/s)
stands for the velocity field components.

In order to facilitate modeling of stratified porous media in 3D, the tensor formulation
by Burnett and Frind (Ref. 4) can be used. Consider a transverse isotropic media,
where the strata are piled up in the z direction, the dispersivity tensor components are:

324 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 2 2 2
u v w
D Lxx =  1 ------ +  2 ------ +  3 -------
u u u
2 2 2
v u w
D Lyy =  1 ------ +  2 ------ +  3 -------
u u u
2 2 2
w u v
D Lzz =  1 ------- +  3 ------ +  3 ------
u u u (7-18)
uv
D Lxy = D Lyx =   1 –  2  -------
u
uw
D Lxz = D Lzx =   1 –  3  --------
u
vw
D Lyz = D Lzy =   1 –  3  --------
u

In Equation 7-18 the fluid velocities u, v, and w correspond to the components of the
velocity field u in the x, y, and z directions, respectively, and 1 (SI unit: m) is the
longitudinal dispersivity. If z is the vertical axis, 2 and 3 are the dispersivities in the
transverse horizontal and transverse vertical directions, respectively (SI unit: m).
Setting 2 = 3 gives the expressions for isotropic media shown in Bear (Ref. 5 and
Ref. 6).

Adsorption
As species travel through a porous medium they typically attach to (adsorb), and
detach (desorb) from the solid phase, which slows chemical transport through the
porous medium. Adsorption and desorption respectively reduces or increases species
concentrations in the fluid. The adsorption properties vary between chemicals, so a
plume containing multiple species can separate into components (Ref. 7). The
Adsorption feature includes four predefined and one user defined relationships to
predict the solid concentrations, cPi from the concentration in the liquid phase, ci:

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 325

 KL c
c P = c Pmax -------------------- Langmuir
1 + KL c
c N
c P = K F  -------- Freundlich
 c ref
bT c (7-19)
c P = c Pmax ---------------------------------------------- Toth
N 1  NT
 1 +  bT c  T 
KB c0 c
c P = -------------------------------------------------------------
- BET
 c S – c   1 +  K B – 1  -----
c
cS

The above equations contains the following parameters:

• Freundlich (Ref. 8)
- Freundlich constant KF (SI unit:·mol/kg), Freundlich exponent NF
(dimensionless), and reference concentration cref (SI unit: mol/m3).
• Langmuir (Ref. 9)
- Langmuir constant KL (SI unit: m3/mol), and adsorption maximum cPmax
(SI unit: mol/kg).
• Toth (Ref. 10)
- Toth constant bT (SI unit: m3/mol), Toth exponent NT (dimensionless), and
adsorption maximum cPmax (SI unit: mol/kg).
• BET (Brunauer–Emmett–Teller, Ref. 11)

- BET constant KB (dimensionless), the monolayer adsorption capacity c0

(SI unit: mol/kg) and the saturation concentration, cS (SI unit: mol/m3).
These predefined expressions are adsorption isotherms that describe the amount of
species sorbed to the solid. Applying the isotherms, as defined in the Adsorption
section above, assumes that adsorption is at equilibrium locally. This implies that the
species phase transfer, between the fluid and the solid phase (within the porous
medium), is much faster than the transport within the fluid phase.

Using a Species Source feature, arbitrary expressions can be entered to define, for
example, nonequilibrium and temperature-dependent adsorption laws, in the manner
of Fetter (Ref. 12), or Bear and Verruijt (Ref. 13).

The retardation factor, RF, describes how adsorption slows the solute velocity, uc,
relative to the average linear velocity of the fluid, ua, as in

326 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

  b c P u
RF = 1 + ----- -------- = ----a-
 c uc

If the contaminant moves at the average linear velocity of the fluid for RF = 1. For
RF > 1, the contaminant velocity is lower than the fluid velocity owing to residence
time on solids.

Reactions
Chemical reactions of all types influence species transport in porous media. Examples
include biodegradation, radioactive decay, transformation to tracked products,
temperature- and pressure-dependent functions, exothermic reactions, and
endothermic reactions. The reactions represent change in species concentration per
unit volume porous medium per time. Reaction terms are used on the right-hand side
of the governing equation to represent these processes. For reactions in a fluid phase,
multiply the expression by the fluid volume fraction . Similarly, solid phase reaction
expressions include the bulk density, b, and gas phase reactions include the gas
volume fraction, av.

The following expressions define some common types of reactions:

ln 2
R Li = –  --------- c i Radioactive decay — liquid
 Li
ln 2 c Pi
R Pi = –  b ---------  ---------- c i Radioactive decay — solid
 Pi  c i 
c Gi
R Gi = – --------- a v  ----------- c i Radioactive decay — gas
ln 2
 Gi c
R Lk =  Li c i Creation from parent c Li — liquid
c Pi
R Pk =  b  Pi  ---------- c i Creation from sorbed parent c Pi — solid
 c i 
c Gi
R Gk = – a v  ----------- c i Reaction — gas
c

where  is the chemical half life, is a reaction rate, and the subscripts L, P, and G
denote liquid, solid, and gas phases, respectively. In the equations, the reactions either
depend on liquid concentration ci or solid phase concentrations cPi obtained using the
sorption derivative with ci or gas phase concentration cGi depending on the gas volume
fraction, the volatilization, and the liquid concentration.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 327

 Reaction rates can vary with results from other equations in your model, such as
temperature. For example, enter the Arrhenius rate law given in Ref. 14:

Ea  T – TR 
 T =  R exp ------------------------------ (7-20)
R u TT R

In Equation 7-20, T denotes the current absolute temperature, TR denotes the

reference absolute temperature, Ea is the activation energy, and Ru is the universal gas
constant.

Mass Transport in Fractures

When thin fractures occur in porous media, fluid flow tends to move faster along the
fracture than in the surrounding media. The transport of chemical species therefore
also occur also faster in the direction of the fractures.

The fluid flow in a fracture can be modeled using Darcy’s law formulated in a thin
sheet of porous medium (a fracture):


u = ---  t p


Here u is the tangential Darcy velocity,  is the fracture permeability, the fluid’s
dynamic viscosity, and tp is the tangential gradient of the fluid pressure.

The equation to solve for mass transport of species ci in a thin fracture, embedded in
a porous media, is derived from Equation 7-13. The resulting equation is:

 b c P i  p c i
d fr  ------------------ + ------------- +  t   D e i  t c i  + u   t c i = d fr R i + d fr S i + n 0 (7-21)
t t

Here dfr is the fracture thickness, cP, i the amount of species adsorbed to (or desorbed
from) the porous matrix (moles per unit dry weight of the solid), p is the fracture
porosity, and De is the effective diffusivity. The first two terms on the right hand side
represent source terms from reactions, and n0 corresponds to out-of plane flux from
the adjacent porous domain.

In order to arrive at the tangential differential equation, the gradient is split into the
contributions normal and tangential to the fracture:

c i =  n c i +  t c i

328 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The normal gradient is defined in the direction normal to the boundary representing
the fracture and the tangential gradient is defined along the boundary. Assuming that
the variations in the normal (thin) direction of the fracture are negligible compared to
those in the tangential direction, the gradient is simplified as:

c i =  t c i

Using , the transport along fracture boundaries alone is solved for. In this case the
transport in the surrounding porous media neglected and the out-of plane flux n0
vanishes.

See Fracture for more information about the boundary feature solving
Equation 7-21. See for more information about the physics interface
solving the equation on boundaries only.

References
1. R. Codina, “A discontinuity-capturing crosswind-dissipation for the finite element
solution of the convection-diffusion equation”, Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 110, pp. 325–342, 1993.

2. P.V. Danckwerts, “Continuous flow systems: Distribution of residence times”,

Chem. Eng. Sci., vol. 2, no. 1, 1953.

3. R.J. Millington and J.M. Quirk, “Permeability of Porous Solids”, Trans. Faraday
Soc., vol. 57, pp. 1200–1207, 1961.

4. R.D. Burnett and E.O. Frind, “An Alternating Direction Galerkin Technique for
Simulation of Groundwater Contaminant Transport in Three Dimensions: 2.
Dimensionality Effects”, Water Resour. Res., vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 695–705, 1987.

5. J. Bear, Hydraulics of Groundwater, McGraw Hill, 1979.

6. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

7. D.M. Mackay, D.L. Freyberg, P.V. Roberts, and J.A. Cherry, “A Natural Gradient
Experiment on Solute Transport in a Sand Aquifer: 1. Approach and Overview of
Plume Movement”, Water Resour. Res., vol. 22, no. 13, pp. 2017–2030, 1986.

8. H.M.F. Freundlich, “Über die Adsorption in Lösungen” (in German), Z. Phys.

Chem., vol 57, pp. 385–470, 1906

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 329

 9. I. Langmuir, “The Constitution and Fundamental Properties of Solids and Liquids,
Part I Solids”, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 38, pp. 2221–2295, 1916.

10. J. Toth, “State equation of the solid gas interface layer”, Acta Chem. Acad. Hung.
vol. 69, pp. 311–317, 1971.

11. S. Brunauer, P.H. Emmett, E. Teller, “Adsorption of gases in multimolecular

layers”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 60 (2), pp. 309–319, 1938.

12. C.W. Fetter, Contaminant Hydrogeology, Prentice Hall, 1999.

13. J. Bear and A. Verruijt, Modeling Groundwater Flow and Pollution, D. Reidel
Publishing, 1994.

14. I. Langmuir, “Chemical Reactions at Low Temperatures”, J. Amer. Chem. Soc.,

vol. 37, 1915.

15. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 2, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1991.

16. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 1, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1991.

17. D.E Rosner, Transport Processes in Chemically Reacting Flow Systems, ISBN-13:
978-1483130262, Butterworth–Heinemann, 1986.

18. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007.

330 | CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 8

Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow

Interfaces
There are several physics interfaces included in the Polymer Flow Module to
model heat transfer and nonisothermal flow. These physics interfaces are found
under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) as well as those under the Fluid
Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch ( ).

The basic functionality for simulating heat transfer in homogeneous media is

described in The Heat Transfer Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

In this chapter:

• Modeling Heat Transfer in the Polymer Flow Module

• Boundary Features in the Heat Transfer Interfaces
• The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Viscoelastic Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Viscoelastic Flow

331
 Modeling Heat Transfer in the
Polymer Flow Module
Heat transfer is an important phenomenon in many industrial processes. Typical
examples are polymer extrusion, injection molding, and mixing of non-Newtonian
fluids. Due to the strong temperature dependence of the constitutive parameters, it is
necessary to include thermal variations in nonisothermal flow of non-Newtonian
fluids. In flows through narrow passages, considerable heat is generated in the flowing
fluid by viscous dissipation.

Other typical examples of industrial heat transfer are heating and cooling operations.
Fluid plays a major role in transporting heat and a detailed description of the flow field
is necessary to accurately describe such processes. The temperature, in turn, affects the
fluid properties and can alter the flow field. Natural convection is an example of this.

Specifying Material Properties for Non-Newtonian Materials

For many complex fluids, the apparent viscosity has a strong dependence on the
temperature. The Polymer Flow Module helps you specify the material properties
easily.

For inelastic non-Newtonian fluids, two alternatives are available. The first option is to
specify the material using the non-Newtonian material property groups (see Fluid
Flow Material Properties: Inelastic Non-Newtonian Material Model in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual). Alternatively, it is possible to use built-in
functionality to account for temperature variations using predefined thermal functions
(see Fluid Properties for more details). The later option is also available for viscoelastic
fluids.

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

The Heat Transfer branch ( ) has a number of physics interfaces that can be used to
model energy transport. One or more of these can be added; either by themselves or
together with other physics interfaces, typically flow physics interfaces.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow ( ) interface, Viscoelastic Flow interface ( )

(located under the Fluid Flow branch) and Conjugate Heat Transfer ( ) ( located under
the Heat Transfer branch) multiphysics interfaces automatically couple the flow and

332 | CHAPTER 8: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

heat equations and they also provide other functionality, that is not readily available
when adding the interfaces separately.

• Theory for the Heat Transfer Module in the Heat Transfer Module
User’s Guide

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

Often, you are simulating applications that couple heat transfer in the flow to another
type of phenomenon described by another physics interface. This can, for example,
include chemical reactions and mass transport, as covered by the physics interfaces in
the Chemical Species Transport branch.

In addition, if you also have the Heat Transfer Module, it includes more detailed
descriptions and tools for simulating energy transport, such as surface-to-surface and
participating media radiation.

MODELING HEAT TRANSFER IN THE POLYMER FLOW MODULE | 333

 Boundary Features in the Heat
Transfer Interfaces
Additionally to the basic boundary conditions for the Heat Transfer in Fluids and Heat
Transfer in Solids and Fluids interfaces that are described in The Heat Transfer Interfaces
in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, the Polymer Flow Module provides
boundary conditions that are tailored to model inflow and open boundary conditions
for fluid flows.

At the inlet boundary of a fluid domain, the Inflow boundary condition defines a heat
flux that accounts for the energy that would normally be brought by the fluid flow if
the channel upstream to the inlet were modeled.

The Open Boundary condition is used to model the boundary between a fluid domain
and the rest of the same fluid domain that is not represented in the geometry. At the
open boundary both inflow and outflow conditions are supported.

Inflow
Use this node to model inflow of heat through a virtual domain, at inlet boundaries of
nonsolid domains. The upstream temperature Tustr and upstream absolute pressure
pustr are known at the outer boundary of the virtual domain. The inflow condition is
often similar to a temperature condition. However, using this condition, the upstream
temperature is not strictly enforced at the inlet. The higher the flow rate, the smallest
the difference between the inlet temperature and the upstream temperature. In case of
heat sources or temperature constraints close to the inlet boundary, the inflow
condition induces a temperature profile that approaches the temperature profile that
would be obtained by computing the solution in the virtual domain upstream the inlet.

This boundary condition estimates the heat flux through the inlet boundary from a
Danckwerts condition on the enthalpy:

– n  q = Hu  n (8-1)

where H is the sensible enthalpy. See Theory for the Inflow Boundary Condition in
the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide for details.

334 | CHAPTER 8: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

UPSTREAM PROPERTIES
The Upstream temperature Tustr should be specified. For User defined, enter a value or
expression. Else, select any available input (like Ambient temperature defined in an
Ambient Properties node under Definitions).

Select the Specify upstream absolute pressure check box to set a different value than the
absolute inlet pressure for the Upstream absolute pressure pustr, and account for work
done by pressure forces in the expression of the enthalpy. For User defined, enter a value
or expression. Else, select an Ambient absolute pressure defined in an Ambient Properties
node under Definitions.

Open Boundary
Use this condition to define a boundary as the limit between a fluid domain of the
geometry and the rest of the same fluid domain that is not represented in the
geometry. At the open boundary both inflow and outflow conditions are supported.

For an outgoing fluid flow across the boundary, it applies a zero conductive flux
condition:

– n  q = 0 nu0 (8-2)

For an incoming flow of velocity field u across the boundary, it accounts by default for
the heat flux induced by the flow rate through a Danckwerts condition on the
enthalpy:

– n  q = Hu  n nu0 (8-3)

where H is the sensible enthalpy. See Theory for the Inflow Boundary Condition in
the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide for details.

Alternatively the open boundary condition can set a constraint on the temperature for
an incoming flow

T = T ustr nu0 (8-4)

Both conditions are based on the knowledge of the upstream temperature at the outer
boundary of the virtual domain, but the first one should be preferred to account for
the feedback of the model heat sources and temperature constraints on the inlet
temperature profile.

BOUNDARY FEATURES IN THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 335

 UPSTREAM PROPERTIES
Enter the Upstream temperature Tustr outside the open boundary. For User defined,
enter a value or expression. Else, select any available input (like an Ambient temperature
defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions).

INFLOW CONDITION
Unfold this section to change the inflow condition:

• The Flux (Danckwerts) condition (default) prescribes the flux defined from the
upstream temperature and the fluid velocity at the boundary. Using this condition
the temperature condition is not strictly enforced at the inlet. Instead a flux is set on
this boundary. The higher the flow rate, the smallest difference between the inlet
temperature and upstream temperature.
• The Discontinuous Galerkin constraints option enforces the upstream temperature on
the boundary

336 | CHAPTER 8: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar
Flow and Viscoelastic Flow Interfaces
In this section:

• Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces

• The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Viscoelastic Flow Interfaces

Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces

The Nonisothermal Flow interfaces combine the heat equation with flow equations in a
Fluid domain. The advantage of using the multiphysics interfaces is that predefined
couplings are available in both directions. In particular, the physics interfaces use the
same definition of the density, which can therefore be a function of both pressure and
temperature. Solving this coupled system of equations usually requires numerical
stabilization accounting for the couplings, which the predefined multiphysics
interfaces also set up.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Viscoelastic Flow

Interfaces
The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces that combine the
heat equation with laminar flow in a fluid domain are described in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual. The Polymer Flow module has additional
functionality to couple the viscoelastic flow and heat transfer.

When the Viscoelastic Flow multiphysics interface ( ) is added from the Fluid
Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, the Heat
Transfer in Fluids and the Viscoelastic Flow interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In
addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the multiphysics
coupling feature Nonisothermal Flow.

ENERGY BALANCE
If the coupled interface is Laminar Flow, the Include viscous dissipation check box is
selected by default to account for the heat source corresponding to viscous heating.
Because it may induce an extra computational cost it should be only selected in
application where such effect is expected. If no information on this is available,

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW AND VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACES | 337
 selecting the option ensures that the energy balance for the heat and the flow equation
is respected.

If the coupled interface is Viscoelastic Flow, the Include irreversible losses check box is
available. The check box is selected by default to account for the heat source
corresponding to the heating due to irreversible losses.

The Polymer Flow module has additional functionality to simplify the solution of the
natural convection problems. The Boussinesq approximation can be used to include
buoyancy effects, without having to solve the compressible formulation of the
Navier-Stokes equation. The approximation is accurate when density variations are
small, that reduces the nonlinearity of the problem. The Boussinesq approximation
assumes that variations in density have no effect on the flow field, except that they give
rise to buoyancy forces.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Boussinesq Approximation
When the Compressibility setting in the fluid flow interface is set to Incompressible,
select the Boussinesq approximation check box in order to use material data evaluated
at the reference temperature and reference pressure. If gravity is included in the
physics, the buoyancy contribution in the momentum equation is linearized with
respect to temperature.

Density
Select an option from the Specify density list: From heat transfer interface (the default);
From fluid flow interface; Custom, linearized density; or Custom:

• For From heat transfer interface: define the Density  in the Thermodynamics, Fluid
section of the Fluid node, in the Heat Transfer coupled interface. Depending on the
Fluid type option in this node, the density may bet taken from material, set directly,
or computed by using the ideal gas law. The same value is automatically set in the
Fluid Properties section of the Fluid Properties node, in the Fluid Flow coupled
interface.
• For From fluid flow interface: define the Density  in the Fluid Properties section of
the Fluid Properties node, in the Fluid Flow coupled interface. The same value is
automatically set in the Thermodynamics, Fluid section of the Fluid node, in the
Heat Transfer coupled interface.
• For Custom, linearized density, enter the Reference density ref (SI unit: kg/m3) and
the Coefficient of thermal expansion p(SI unit:1/K), or select From material, or

338 | CHAPTER 8: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 select a variable in the list if available. Regardless how the properties are defined they
should be constant. If material properties are not constant you should consider
using any of the other options to define the density. Also, if Custom, linearized
density is used for incompressible flow, the density  is evaluated to ref. In this case
p is not used unless Boussinesq approximation is selected. The same value is
automatically set in the Fluid Properties section of the Fluid Properties node, in the
Fluid Flow coupled interface, and in the Thermodynamics, Fluid section of the Fluid
node, in the Heat Transfer coupled interface.
• For Custom, enter a Density  (SI unit: kg/m3), or select a density in the list if
available. The same value is automatically set in the Fluid Properties section of the
Fluid Properties node, in the Fluid Flow coupled interface, and in the
Thermodynamics, Fluid section of the Fluid node, in the Heat Transfer coupled
interface.

The density definition in the Nonisothermal Flow node ensures that the same definition
of the density is used in the fluid flow and heat transfer interfaces. When Include gravity
is selected and the Compressibility is set to Incompressible flow in the fluid interface
properties, the gravity forces are defined using the coefficient of thermal expansion.
Along with the fact that the material properties are evaluated for a constant
temperature and pressure, this gravity force definition corresponds to the Boussinesq
approximation. Unless the density is defined as Custom, linearized density the
coefficient of thermal expansion is evaluated from the fluid density.

The Viscoelastic Flow interface only supports incompressible flow.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW AND VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACES | 339
 Theory for the Nonisothermal
V i s c o e la s ti c F l ow
The theory for the Viscoelastic Flow interface is described in this section:

• Nonisothermal Viscoelastic Flow Theory

• References for the Nonisothermal Viscoelastic Flow Interfaces

Nonisothermal Viscoelastic Flow Theory

In many industrial application involving the polymer processing, the flow conditions
are nonisothermal. The material properties of viscoelastic fluids, such as viscosity and
relaxation time show significant temperature dependence. Therefore, the viscoelastic
stress depends on the temperature distribution. Another important aspect to consider
is the internal heat production.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Viscoelastic Flow interface contains the equation for the flow
of viscoelastic fluid:

  u = 0 (8-5)

u
 ------- +   u   u =    – pI +   + F (8-6)
t

where

•  is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• F is the body force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
•  is the extra stress tensor (SI unit: Pa).

The extra stress tensor is defined as a sum of a viscous and a viscoelastic contribution as

 = 2 s S + T e (8-7)

where s is the solvent viscosity, S is the strain-rate tensor, and Te is the elastic stress
tensor that can be represented as a sum of the individual modes. The system of

340 | CHAPTER 8: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

equations Equation 8-5-Equation 8-6 needs to be supplemented by the constitutive
model for the viscoelastic stress.

Nonisothermal Flow, Viscoelastic Flow also adds the heat equation which for a viscoelastic
fluid is given by

C p  T
------- +  u   T = –    q  + :S + Q (8-8)
t

where

• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))

• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)
•  is the extra stress tensor (SI unit: Pa) given by (Equation 8-7)
• S is the strain-rate tensor (SI unit: 1/s)
• Q contains heat sources other than viscous heating (SI unit: W/m3)

Generally speaking, for viscoelastic flows, the internal heat production term consists of
an irreversible dissipation part and a reversible part (Ref. 1). The reversible part of the
internal heat production is neglected in the Equation 8-8. The irreversible part is given
by

:S (8-9)

For inelastic constitutive models, the irreversible losses are equal to the viscous
dissipation.

References for the Nonisothermal Viscoelastic Flow Interfaces

1. G.W.M. Peters and F.P.T. Baaijens, “Modelling of non-isothermal viscoelastic
flows,” J. Nonnewton. Fluid. Mech., vol. 68, pp. 205–224, 1997.

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL VISCOELASTIC FLOW | 341

342 | CHAPTER 8: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES
 9

Chemorheology and Curing Kinetics

This chapter describes the Curing Reaction interface ( ) which is found under
the Heat Transfer>Curing branch ( ) and the Curing Reaction Heating ( )
multiphysics coupling.

343
 The Curing Reaction Interface
In this section:

• The Curing Reaction Interface

• Domain, Boundary, and Global Nodes for the Curing Reaction Interface
• Curing Reaction Heating

Theory for the Curing Reaction Interface

The Curing Reaction Interface

The Curing Reaction (creq) interface ( ) is found under the Heat Transfer>Curing
branch ( ) when adding physics interfaces. This interface is intended for modeling
the curing of polymers during the heat treatment.

When the Curing Reaction interface is added, three default nodes are added to the
Model Builder: a Curing Kinetics node, an Initial Values node, and a No Flux node. Then,
from the Physics toolbar, you can add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions. You can also right-click Curing Reaction to select physics features
from the context menu.

The interface supports simulation of curing reaction in 1D, 2D, and 3D as well as for
axisymmetric components in 2D. The dependent variable is the conversion, cr.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is creq.

344 | CHAPTER 9: CHEMORHEOLOGY AND CURING KINETICS

HEAT TRANSFER
Polymer curing is a temperature dependent process. Select the temperature field to use
from the Temperature list.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Pseudo Time Stepping

The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form option adds pseudo time
derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used in order to speed
up convergence. When selected, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For
the default Automatic option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy condition) is determined by a PID regulator. For more information, see Pseudo
Time Stepping.

DISCRETIZATION
The Curing Reaction interface uses Discontinuous Lagrange functions with Constant
element order.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable is the conversion, cr. If required, the name of the dependent
variable can be edited.

• Domain, Boundary, and Global Nodes for the Curing Reaction

Interface
• Theory for the Curing Reaction Interface

Domain, Boundary, and Global Nodes for the Curing Reaction

Interface
The Curing Interface has these domain, boundary, pair, and global nodes (listed in
alphabetical order), which are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows

THE CURING REACTION INTERFACE | 345

 users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context
menu (all users).

• Chemorheology • Initial Values

• Conversion • Open Boundary
• Curing Kinetics • Symmetry
• No Flux

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the component that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only.

Curing Kinetics
The Curing Kinetics node defines equation to analyze the evolution of the conversion
degree during curing reactions. Define the rate expressions as required.

CONVECTION
To specify the velocity field, select the source of the Velocity field. For User defined,
enter values or expressions for the velocity components in the input fields. This input
option is always available. You can also select the velocity field solved for by a Fluid
Flow interface added to the model component. These physics interfaces are available
for selection in the Velocity field list.

CURING KINETICS
Use this section to specify the curing reaction rate expression.

Kinetic model
The following kinetic models are available: n-th order, Sestak–Berggren, and Kamal—
Sourour.

The following parameters are required for the n-th order model:

• Polynomial order nr. The default is 1.

• Frequency factor [Link] default is 1 1/s.
• Activation energy Q0. The default is 0 J/mol.

346 | CHAPTER 9: CHEMORHEOLOGY AND CURING KINETICS

The following parameters are required for the Sestak–Berggren model:

• Polynomial order nr. The default is 1.

• Polynomial order mr. The default is 0.
• Frequency factor [Link] default is 1 1/s.
• Activation energy Q0. The default is 0 J/mol.

The following parameters are required for the Kamal–Sourour model:

• Polynomial order nr. The default is 1.

• Polynomial order mr. The default is 0.
• Frequency factor k01. The default is 1 1/s.
• Activation energy Q01. The default is 0 J/mol.
• Frequency factor k02. The default is 1 1/s.
• Activation energy Q02. The default is 0 J/mol.

Reaction rate limiter

A diffusion factor fd is introduced to account for the reaction rate decrease as the
conversion reaches the critical value. Select a Reaction rate limiter model: None,
Diffusion factor, and Modified diffusion factor.

• When the default, None is kept, the reaction limiter fd is set to 1.

• For Diffusion factor enter values for these properties:
- Critical conversion c r c . The default is 1.
- Diffusion constant Cd. The default is 500.
• For Modified diffusion factor enter values for these properties:
- Conversion limiter c r f . The default is 1.
- Diffusion constant Cf. The default is 0.

VOLUME FRACTION
Use this section to specify the Volume fraction of the cured fluid, Vf. The default is 1.

No Flux
This node is the default boundary condition on exterior boundaries. It should be used
on boundaries across which there is no conversion flux.

THE CURING REACTION INTERFACE | 347

 Conversion
The Conversion node is used to specify the conversion at an exterior domain boundary.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node is used to specify the initial conversion.

Open Boundary
Use this node to set up conversion transport across the boundaries, where both
convective inflow and outflow can occur. On the parts of the boundary where fluid
flows into the domain, an exterior conversion is prescribed. The direction of the flow
across the boundary is typically calculated by a fluid flow interface and is provided as
an input in the Curing Kinetics node.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node can be used to represent boundaries where the conversion is
symmetric, which implies no conversion transport across the boundary.

Chemorheology
Use the Chemorheology node to model changes in the polymer viscosity using the
chemoviscosity model that relates the viscosity to the degree of cure (conversion) and
temperature.

TRANSPORT PROPERTIES

Viscosity factor
Select Castro–Macosko or Percolation model to calculate the viscosity factor c.

The following parameters are required for the Castro–Macosko model:

• Gel point c r g . The default is 1.

• Model constant c1. The default is 0.
• Model constant c2. The default is 0.

348 | CHAPTER 9: CHEMORHEOLOGY AND CURING KINETICS

The following parameters are required for the Percolation model:

• Gel point c r g . The default is 1.

• Percolation exponent p. The default is 0.

Compute effective transport properties

From the Chemorheology node, it is possible to generate the viscosity for the cured
material. Select Compute effective transport properties check box to select the viscosity
model that describes the temperature, shear rate, and cure dependencies.

When Compute effective transport properties check box is selected, the following
predefined viscosity models are available: Newtonian, Power law, and Cross.

The parameters for the selected model can either be specified by a Fluid material, or by
a User defined expression

The following parameters are required for the Newtonian:

• Dynamic viscosity 

The following parameters are required for the Power law:

• Fluid consistency coefficient m

• Flow behavior index n
ꞏ
• Lower shear rate limit  min
ꞏ
• Reference shear rate  ref

For the Cross model, the following parameters are required:

• Zero shear rate viscosity 0

• Infinite shear rate viscosity inf
• Power index n
• Critical stress tr

Thermal Function
The polymer viscosity has a strong dependency on the temperature. Thus, the apparent
viscosity is modified using factor T. The thermal effects are activated with five options:
None, Arrhenius, Williams–Landel–Ferry (WLF), Exponential, and User defined.

• When the default, None, is kept, the shift function T is set to unity and the viscosity
is not modified.

THE CURING REACTION INTERFACE | 349

 • For Arrhenius enter values or expressions for these properties:
- Reference temperature T0
- Activation energy Q
• For Williams–Landel–Ferry enter values or expressions for these properties:
- Calibration temperature TWLF
- WLF constant 1 C1WLF
- WLF constant 2 C2WLF
• For Exponential enter values or expressions for these properties:
- Reference temperature T0
- Temperature sensitivity b
• For User defined enter the expressions for T

Material Generation
Create/Update Cured Material ( ) option can be selected when Compute effective
transport properties check box is selected. When you click it, a new material will be
created under Materials. It contains the material parameters required for selected
viscosity model. The name of this material is Cured Material.

For this type of Materials to work correctly, it is important that you do

not edit the generated nodes manually. By clicking the Create/Update
Cured Material button again, you can reset the generated node.

See also

• Non-Newtonian Flow
• Materials in the Materials chapter in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

Curing Reaction Heating

The curing reaction is exothermic. The Curing Reaction Heating multiphysics
coupling ( ) adds the source term Q c (SI unit: W/m3) to account for reaction
r
heating in the heat equation:

350 | CHAPTER 9: CHEMORHEOLOGY AND CURING KINETICS

 C p T
------- + C p u  T +   q = Q c (9-1)
t r

The reaction heating is

Q c = H c R c
r r r

where R c is the reaction rate, H c is the reaction heat.

r r

Modeling Heat Transfer in the Polymer Flow Module

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter. The default Name
is crh1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select All domains (the default)
or select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific domains.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Curing Reaction or Heat Transfer interfaces lists.

REACTION HEAT SOURCE

Enter a reaction heat H cr (SI unit: J/kg).

THE CURING REACTION INTERFACE | 351

 Theory for the Curing Reaction
Interface
The theory for the Curing Reaction interface is described in this section:

• Kinetics Models
• Pseudo Time Stepping
• Chemorheological Models
• Reference for the Curing Reaction Interface

Kinetics Models
Curing is a process of forming the crosslinks that join polymer chains together. The
term curing refers to the crosslinking of thermosetting resins, for example an
unsaturated polyester and epoxy resin.

The evolution of the degree of cure or conversion cr is described by the convection

equation with a source term:

c r
+ u  c r = R c
t r

where R c is the reaction rate.

r

One of the simplest models is the nth-order reaction

nr
Rc = kr  1 – cr 
r

where nr is the polynomial order and kr is a temperature-dependent reaction rate

constant that follows an Arrhenius equation

k r = k 0 exp  – --------
Q
 RT

where Q is the activation energy and k0 is the frequency factor.

The Sestak–Berggren autocatalytic model describes a reaction that is slow initially,

increases in rate as the reaction proceeds, before slowing down again as the reactants
are depleted

352 | CHAPTER 9: CHEMORHEOLOGY AND CURING KINETICS

 m nr
Rc = kr cr r  1 – cr 
r

where mr is the polynomial order.

Kamal–Sourour is a combination of the nth order and Sestak–Berggren models

m nr
Rc =  k1 + k2 cr r   1 – cr 
r

where k1 and k2 are temperature-dependent reaction rate constants

Q 1 2
k 1 2 = k 0 exp  – -----------
-
1 2 RT 

where Q1,2 are the activation energies and k 0 the frequency factors.
1 2
The curing reaction stops before the complete conversion is achieve. The diffusion
factor is introduced in curing model to take into account the drastic decrease of the
rate of crosslinking due to vitrification. The reaction rate is limited by multiplying R c
r
by the diffusion factor

1
f d = -------------------------------------------------------
-
1 + exp  C d  c r – c r  
c

or by the modified diffusion factor

2
f d = -------------------------------------------
cr – cr
1 + exp -----------------f
Cf

where c r , c r , Cf, and Cd are the model parameters.

f c

Pseudo Time Stepping

In order to improve the solution robustness, pseudo time stepping can be used for the
Curing Reaction interface when solving a stationary model. Using pseudo time
stepping, a fictitious time derivative term:

c r – nojac  c r 
----------------------------------
t̃

is added to the left-hand side of the curing reaction equation. Here t̃ is the pseudo
time step. Since c r – nojac  c r  is always zero, this term does not affect the final

THEORY FOR THE CURING REACTION INTERFACE | 353

 solution. It does, however, affect the discrete equation system and effectively
transforms a nonlinear iteration into a time step of size t̃ .

• See also Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Chemorheological Models
Polymer melts are usually non-Newtonian fluids. For the inelastic non-Newtonian
models, it is possible to define an apparent viscosity from a generalized Newtonian
relationship between the deviatoric stress tensor and the strain-rate tensor

ꞏ
K = 2 app    S

ꞏ
where  = 2S:S is the shear rate.

For the thermosets, the apparent viscosity depends both on the temperature and the
degree of cure. The viscosity of the polymer decreases with the temperature. On the
other hand, the raising temperature will increase the reaction rate, thus leading to
increase in the conversion and viscosity

ꞏ ꞏ
 app  T c r   =  c  c r  app  T c r0  

The Castro–Macosko model is often used to describe the changes of the apparent
viscosity with degree of conversion

c rg  c 1 + c 2 c r
 c =  -----------------
- (9-2)
c rg – c r

where c rg is the conversion at which the viscosity of the melt grows drastically and c1
and c2 are the model parameters.

Another often used model is a percolation model is

c –p1
 c =  1 – ------r- (9-3)
c rg

where p is the percolation exponent.

Power law and Cross non-Newtonian inelastic models are available in the Curing
Reaction interface to specify the shear-rate dependence.

354 | CHAPTER 9: CHEMORHEOLOGY AND CURING KINETICS

POWER LAW
The Power law model prescribes

 max  ꞏ  ꞏ min 
n–1
 app = m  ------------------------------
ꞏ - (9-4)
  ref 

ꞏ
where m, n are scalars that can be set to arbitrary values and  ref denotes a reference
ꞏ
shear rate where  min is a lower limit for the evaluation of the shear rate magnitude.
The temperature and conversion dependent Power law viscosity becomes

 max  ꞏ  ꞏ min 
n–1
 app = m c  T  ------------------------------
ꞏ - (9-5)
  ref 

CROSS MODEL
Combining the Cross model for shear-rate dependence and thermal effects gives

T 0 – 
 app =  c   + -----------------------------------------
- (9-6)
ꞏ 1–n
  T  0 
1 +  ----------------
  tr 

where tr is the critical stress, 0 is the zero shear rate viscosity,  is the infinite
shear-rate viscosity, and n is a dimensionless parameter.

THERMAL EFFECTS
Several models are available to describe the temperature dependence.

Arrhenius
One commonly used thermal function is defined by the Arrhenius equation:

 T = exp ----  ---- – ------

Q 1 1
R T T0

where Q denotes the activation energy, R is the universal gas constant, and T and T0
are the temperature and reference temperature, respectively.

Williams-Landel-Ferry
Williams-Landel-Ferry model is defined as

THEORY FOR THE CURING REACTION INTERFACE | 355

 – C 1WLF  T – T WLF 
log   T  = -------------------------------------------------
- (9-7)
C 2WLF + T – T WLF

where C1WLF and C2WLF are model constants, and TWLF is the reference
temperature.

Exponential
Exponential model is defined as

 T = exp  – b  T – T 0   (9-8)

where b denotes a temperature sensitivity, and T0 is the reference temperature.

Viscosity factor calculated using Equation 9-2 or Equation 9-3 can be used together
with the non-Newtonian inelastic models included in the fluid flow interfaces. The
models are defined in the fluid flow interfaces and provide a complete model for the
apparent viscosity that is temperature and shear-rate dependent.

• Non-Newtonian Flow

Reference for the Curing Reaction Interface

1. A. Yousefi, P.G. Lafleur, and R. Gauvin, “Kinetic studies of thermoset cure
reactions: A review,” Polymer Composites, vol. 18, no. 2, 1997.

356 | CHAPTER 9: CHEMORHEOLOGY AND CURING KINETICS

 10

Parameter Estimation

Modeling of flow non-Newtonian fluids using rheological models involves an

estimation of number of material parameters from the experiments. The material
model parameter values can be calibrated to experimental data using nonlinear
least-squares Parameter Estimation techniques. The Parameter Estimation
functionality is available under Optimization in the Physics toolbar.

Three optimization solvers are available with the Polymer Flow Module in the
Parameter Estimation study step: the derivative-free BOBYQA solver, the
gradient-based IPOPT and Levenberg–Marquardt.

For further information about the Parameter Estimation functionality and the
optimization solvers, see

• Parameter Estimation and Global Least-Squares Objective in the Optimization

Module User’s Guide.
• The Parameter Estimation Study in the Optimization Module User’s Guide.

357
358 | CHAPTER 10: PARAMETER ESTIMATION
I n d e x
A absolute pressure 47, 154, 164, 172, 215 documentation 21
adsorption 300 domain nodes
Application Libraries window 22 Brinkman equations 209
application library examples free and porous media flow 219
convection and diffusion 277 level set 77, 234
laminar flow 45 phase field 240
migration in electric field 277 rmspf interfaces 86
rmspf interfaces 85 ternary phase field 246
transport of diluted species 270 transport of diluted species 272

B boundary nodes E electrode-electrolyte interface coupling

Brinkman equations 209 (node)
free and porous media flow 219 transport of diluted species 292
level set 77, 234 emailing COMSOL 23
phase field 240 Equilibrium Reaction
rmspf interfaces 86 theory for 310
ternary phase field 246 equilibrium reaction (node) 289
transport of diluted species 272 external fluid interface (node) 178
boundary stress (node) 65
F Faraday’s law 316
Brinkman equations 226
flow continuity (node) 71
Brinkman equations interface 206
fluid flow
theory 226
Brinkman equations theory 226
C Cahn–Hilliard equation 256, 262 two-phase flow moving mesh theory
CFL number 195
pseudo time stepping, and 85 fluid properties (node)
settings 44, 209 incompressible potential flow 77
chemical potential variable 260 fluid-fluid interface (node) 177
common settings 20 flux discontinuity (node) 284
contact angle (node) 88, 180 transport of diluted species 284
continuity (node) 237, 244 free and porous media flow interface 217
incompressible potential flow 81 theory 229
convection 320 Freundlich exponent 326
convective terms, diluted species 312 frozen rotor 139
creeping flow 176 fully developed flow 59
creeping flow (spf) interface 38
G general stress (boundary stress condi-
D Darcy velocity 320 tion) 65

INDEX| 359
 geometry frames 196 theory 182, 251
Ginzburg–Landau equation 257 level set model (node) 234
gravity 74 line mass source (node)
fluid flow 73
H Hygroscopic Swelling 303
species transport 287
I inflow (node) 281
line source
initial values (node)
species transport 314
Brinkman equations 214
local
free and porous media flow 224
CFL number 44, 209
level set 78, 236, 242
local CFL number 85
phase field 248
M mass based concentrations (node) 278
single-phase, laminar flow 52
mass conservation, level set equations
spf interfaces 52
187
transport of diluted species 278
mass source (node)
initializing functions 254, 259
Brinkman equations 213
inlet (node) 57
material frames 196
single-phase flow 57
mathematics, moving interfaces
ternary phase field 248–249
level set 232–233
interface normal variable 255, 260
phase field 239, 245
interior wall (node)
theory 251, 256, 262
incompressible potential flow 81
mesh frames 196
spf interfaces 68
mixture properties (node) 246
interior wetted wall (node) 244
moving interfaces 256, 262
internet resources 20
MPH-files 22
intrinsic volume averages 226
multiphase flow
K knowledge base, COMSOL 23
moving mesh theory 195
L laminar flow interface 39 multiphase flow theory 182, 251, 256, 262
laminar three-phase flow, phase field in-
N Navier–Stokes equations 182
terface 170
Nernst–Einstein relation 276, 295, 299,
laminar two-phase flow
316
moving mesh interface 175
no flow (node)
laminar two-phase flow, level set (tpf) in-
level set 237
terface 152, 162
no flux (node) 280
Langmuir constant 326
no slip, interior wall boundary condition
leaking wall, wall boundary condition 54,
68
225
no slip, wall boundary condition 53, 225
level set functions, initializing 254, 259
no viscous stress (open boundary) 64
level set interface 232–233
nodes, common settings 20

360 | I N D E X
 nonconservative formulations 187, 312 Brinkman equations 209
normal stress, normal flow (boundary free and porous media flow 219
stress condition) 65 rmspf interfaces 86
transport of diluted species 272
O Ohm’s law 317
point source
open boundary (node)
species transport 313
incompressible potential flow 78
porous electrode coupling (node) 291
level set 237
porous media and subsurface flow
single-phase flow 64
Brinkman equations interface 206
spf interfaces 64
free and porous media flow interface
transport of diluted species 288
217
outflow (node)
theory, Brinkman equations 226
transport of diluted species 282
theory, free and porous media flow
outlet (node) 60
229
single-phase flow 60
porous media transport properties
spf interfaces 60
(node) 293, 296
ternary phase field 248
Porous Medium (node)
P pair nodes
Brinkman equations 210, 221
Brinkman equations 209
potential point constraint (node)
free and porous media flow 219
incompressible potential flow 79
level set 77, 234
pressure point constraint (node) 72
phase field 240
pseudo time stepping
rmspf interfaces 86
settings 44, 209
ternary phase field 246
R Reacting Volume 279
transport of diluted species 272
reaction coefficients (node) 292
partially saturated porous media (node)
reactions (node)
296
transport of diluted species 279
periodic condition (node)
retardation factor 326
transport of diluted species 285
rotating machinery (rmspf) interfaces
periodic flow condition (node) 66
theory 137
incompressible potential flow 79
rotating machinery, laminar flow (rmspf)
phase field interface 239
interface 84
theory 182, 256, 262
phase field model (node) 241 S selecting
physics interfaces, common settings 20 heat transfer interfaces 332
point mass source (node) single-phase flow interfaces 32
fluid flow 73 single-phase flow interface
species transport 288 laminar flow 39
point nodes sliding wall 56

INDEX| 361
 slip, interior wall boundary condition 68 tortuosity factors 322
slip, wall boundary condition 54, 225 traction boundary conditions 65
spatial frames 196 transport of diluted species in porous
standard settings 20 media interface 270
Stokes equations 38 theory 309
Stokes flow 38, 176 transport of diluted species interface 266
stratified porous media 324 theory 308
superficial volume average, porous me- two-phase flow
dia 226 moving mesh, theory 195
superficial volume averages, porous me-
V variables
dia 320
level set interface 255
Supporting Electrolytes 316
phase field interface 260
surface equilibrium reaction (node) 291
velocity (node)
surface tension force variable 260
incompressible potential flow 78
symmetry (node) 63
volume averages 226
incompressible potential flow 79
volume force (node) 52
spf interfaces 63
free and porous media flow 223
transport of diluted species 284
spf interfaces 52
T technical support, COMSOL 23
W wall (node)
ternary phase field interface 245
free and porous media flow 224
theory
incompressible potential flow 78
Brinkman equations 226
single-phase flow 53
free and porous media flow 229
websites, COMSOL 23
level set 251
wetted wall (boundary condition) 157
phase field 256, 262
wetted wall (node) 243, 249
rmspf interfaces 137
tpf interfaces 182
transport of diluted species in porous
media interface 309
transport of diluted species interface
308
two-phase flow moving mesh 195
thickness
fracture 306
thin barrier (node)
level set 237
thin diffusion barrier (node) 289
Thin Impermeable Barrier 289

362 | I N D E X