Costal Processes and Pressures

Costal Processes

Weathering: The disintegration or decay of rocks in their original place or close to the earth’s surface.

Mechanical Weathering: The break up of rocks without a chemical change which can form scree.
- Freeze-Thaw: Water collected in a hole expands and contracts due to temperature which
breaks up the rock.
- Exfoliation: Flacking of the outer surface of rocks mainly caused by cycle of hot and cold
temperatures.
Chemical Weathering: Weathering that involves a chemical change taking place.
- Solution: Dissolving of rocks and minerals by rainwater.
- Carbonation: Acid rain corroding calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk).
Biological Weathering: Weathering caused by living organisms such as tree roots or burrowing
animals.

Mass Movement: The removal of cliff-face material due to gravity in the form of rock falls, slumping and
landslides.

Erosion

Hydraulic Action: The force of waves smashing into cliffs and causing trapped air to be forced into holes on
the cliff and break the rock.
Abrasion: Pebbles grinding on the cliff face or a rock platform which produce smooth rounded pebbles.
Solution: The dissolving of rock such as limestone and chalk by sea water.
Attrition: Cliff fragments hit against each other and cause them to become smaller in size.
Longshore Drift: The transport of sediment along a stretch of coastline caused by waves approaching the
beach at the angle of the prevailing wind followed by the swash perpendicular to the beach.

Transportation

Solution: Dissolved chemicals in the water often derived from chalk or limestone.
Suspension: Particles being carried / suspended in the water.
Traction: Large pebbles rolling along the seabed.
Saltation: A bouncing motion of particles which are too heavy to be suspended.

Swash: The movement of water up the beach which causes deposition.

Backwash: The movement of water perpendicular to the beach under the influence of gravity, causing ero-
sion.
Constructive Wave: A wave where the swash is stronger than the backwash. They also have a low gradient,
long wavelength, low hight and a low frequency. They cause deposition.
Destructive Wave: A wave where the backwash is stronger than the swash - they also have a steep gradi-
ent, short wavelength, high hight and a high frequency - they cause erosion.
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Deposition: The release of sediment because of a lack of energy - usually happens in bays due to the lack of
energy in the water which causes beaches to form.
Costal Landforms

Headlands and Bays: The formation as a result of a coastline being composed of more resistant (sandstone)
and less resistant (clay) material causing the more resistant rock to be eroded slower than the less resistant
rock. This creates headlands (more resistant) and bays (less resistant).
Wave Refraction: When a wave approaches an irregular coastline (mixture of headlands and bays), the
wave reaches shallower water earlier in some sections than others. The shallow water causes the waves to
slow down and the waves front on the deeper water speeds up. This will eventually cause the waves to
break parallel to the beach causing wave energy to be focused on the flanks of headlands.
Wave-Cut Platform: Between the high and low tide mark, the wave will cause a notch to form in the cliff
face and over a long period of time, the cliff will collapse due to gravity and the debris will be deposited.
This causes a slope to build up and the cliff to retreat.
Caves, Arches and Stacks: Faults in the cliff form caves which break through to form arches. The arch will
inevitably collapse and leave a stack. The stack collapses and leaves a stump.

Beaches: Wave refraction occurs which slows down the waves and causes deposition to happen. Pebble
beaches will form when the waves have higher energy and therefore carry larger particles.
Spit: Spits form where the coastline changes direction or where a mouth occurs. Longshore drift causes de-
position and therefore extension of the spit into the sea. The spit may curve if the wave changes direction
due to the wind. On the landward side of the spit, salt marshes or mudflats form.
Bars: When a spit continues to grow across a bay closing it off and creating a freshwater lake or lagoon.

Rising Sea Levels

Thermal Expansion: It is the main cause of rising sea level which is the result of global warming heating and
expanding sea water therefore raising the sea level.
Tectonic Activity: Constructive plate boundaries cause new mountains to grow and displace the water up-
wards.
Melting of Ice: Due to global warming, ice caps, glaciers and ice sheets are melting which causes the sea
level to rise. The melt water also causes ice sheets, such as those in Greenland and Antarctica, to become
lubricated and they move towards the sea quicker.

Case Study - East Anglia

- Valuable agricultural land (the Fens) will be at a constant risk of flooding.

- The Norfolk Broads are a major tourist destination providing £5 million to the economy which would be
destroyed as a result of flooding.
- Sea level rise increases the rate of erosion putting costal settlements at risk. Sea defences will have to be
improved which is very costly.
- Storm surges have caused significant loss of life and these events may occur more frequently.
- Low-lying mud flats and salt marshes in Essex are under threat of complete submerging. Due to managed
retreat, 22% of Essex’s salt marshes and mud flats may be lost by 2050.

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- The Thames Barrier protects £80 billion worth of homes and it will have to be replaced in the next few
decades.

Cliff Collapse

Case Study - Barton-on-Sea, Hampshire

- Housing is under threat because of it is 20m away from the cliff and is expected to be lost in 2 to 3
decades.

- The rocks are weak sands and clays which offer little resistance to the sea.
- The arrangement of the rocks (permeable sand on top of impermeable clay) causes weight to build up
and the cliff to collapse.
- The coastline faces the direct force of the prevailing south-westerly winds, which have a long fetch and
an erosion rate of 2m/ year.
- Several small streams flow into the permeable sand, also increasing the pressure on the cliff.
- Buildings on the cliff add more pressure onto the cliff as well as disturbing the natural drainage process.

Costal Management

Shoreline Management Plan: An integrated costal management plan for a stretch of coastline in England
and Wales.
Hard Engineering: Building artificial structures in order to control natural processes usually for the defence
of property.
Soft Engineering: A sustainable approach to managing the coast without the use of artificial structures.
Managed Retreat: Allowing low-lying areas to flood or invaluable land to collapse rather than using engi-
neering.

Hard Engineering

Sea Walls: Concrete barrier to stop waves from coming onto the land. It is curved to reflect them and it be-
tween 3 and 5 meters high. It is effective at stopping the sea but it is expensive and unnatural.
Groynes: Timber or rock structures to stop longshore drift. Relatively cheap and increases beach size (for
tourism) but they are unnatural and cause beaches down the coastline to be eroded quicker.
Rock Armour: Large piles of boulders dumped at the foot of cliffs. They absorb the energy of the waves and
are relatively cheap and easy to maintain but they have high transportation costs, do not fit with local geol-
ogy and are obtrusive.

Soft Engineering

Beach Nourishment: The addition of sand or shingle in order to increase the size of the beach. It is rela-
tively cheap, blends in with the existing beach and increases tourist potential but it needs constant replen-
ishing unless there are additional structures.

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Dune Regeneration: Sand dunes buffer costal erosion well and Marram grass can be planted to reduce
aerial erosion. Fencing may be used to reduce trampling and destruction of dunes. Maintains a natural en-
vironment that is popular to people and wildlife and is relatively cheap but can be damaged by storms and
it is time consuming to plant Marram grass and employ fencing.
Marsh Creation: An example of managed retreat by letting low-lying areas to be flooded to create a natural
barrier to the sea. It is cheap and provides a vast ecosystem but land is lost a landowners can demand com-
pensation.
Case Study - Minehead, Somerset
- Prominent tourist destination due Butlin’s resort which is visited by thousands of tourists per year.
- During the 90’s, current defences were deemed inadequate and if nothing was added, damage was esti-
mated at £21 million.
- Work started in 1997 and finished in 2001, which costed £12.3 million.

- 0.6m high curved sea wall to reflect the waves made partially of local red sandstone.
- Rock armour at the base of the sea wall to absorb some of the force of the waves.
- Beach nourishment raised the hight of the beach by 2m along with providing an excellent sandy beach
for tourists.
- Four rock groynes to stop longshore drift from moving land away from the beach.

Salt Marshes

Formation: It starts as an accumulation of mud and silt in a low energy environment (eg. in the lee of a
spit). The low energy environment causes deposition and the mud and silt to pile up, eventually breaking
the surface and forming a mud-flat. Halophytic plants such as cordgrass begin to colonise the area and due
to their long strong roots, they are not swept away and trap more sediment. As the mud continues to rise,
the cordgrass is less underwater and along with the rain, the environment becomes less hostile. The fertility
of the soil increases and the salinity decreases causing more plants to colonise the environment leading to
wildlife.

Case Study - Keyhaven Marshes, Hampshire

- The Keyhaven Marshes are formed in the lee of Hurst Castle Spit and it supports a rich ecosystem due to
its great diversity of habitats.

- The salt marsh is retreating at 6m /year which along with rising sea levels is shrinking the size of the
marsh.
- When Hurst Castle spit is breached during storms, sand and shingle is piled upon the salt marsh along
with the fragile ecosystem being exposed to the full force of the waves.
- Tourism is increasing in the area and along with mariners mooring their boats in the marsh, more dam-
age is happening in the area due to trampling, parking and pollution.
- The marsh is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and a Nature Reserve due to its biodiversity.

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Tectonic Activity and Hazards

Plate Margins

Plate: A section of the earth’s crust, which floats on the mantle and moves because of convection currents.
Continental Plate: The less dense, older sections of the earth’s crust.
Oceanic Plate: The more dense, newer sections of the earth’s crust.
Plate Margin: The boundary where two plates meet.

Destructive Plate Margin: When a continental and oceanic plate meet, the denser oceanic plate will be
subducted under the continental plate. Earthquakes occur because of the tension building up between the
two plates as the oceanic plate becomes subducted. The continental plate also rises and the melting
oceanic plate causes volcanoes to form above the margin.

Constructive Plate Margin: When two oceanic plates move apart, magma rises through the newly formed
fissure to cause volcanoes to build up on the boundary.

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Conservative Plate Margin: When two plates, of any combination, slide past each other causing a build up
of tension, which is released through an earthquake.

Tectonic Landforms

Fold Mountains: They form on collision and destructive plate boundaries when two plates either collide di-
rectly into each other or when one is subducted under another.
Ocean Trench: At a destructive plate boundary, when one plate is subducted, the downward motion of the
plate causes a trench to form at the plate margin.

Shield Volcanoes: A volcano with gentle slopes of solidified lava, which erupt frequently but with non-vio-
lent eruptions because of basic lava. These volcanoes are usually found on constructive boundaries or hot
spots.
Composite Volcanoes: A volcano with steep slopes of ash, which erupts infrequently with violent eruptions
because of acidic lava. These volcanoes are usually found on destructive plate boundaries.

Opportunities of Tectonic Landscapes

Case Study - The Andes

Farming: Terrace farming on the slopes of the Andes decreases the amount of water loss and reduces the
downward movement of soil. The fertile slopes of volcanoes also provide greater yields for farmers.

Mining: The Andes contain a wide variety of metals containing tin, nickel, silver and gold. This provides
great benefits to the economy; for example over half of Peruvian exports are from mining and hundreds of
thousands of jobs are created as a result of them.

Hydroelectric Power: The steep and narrow slopes are easy to dam and there is a large supply of water due
to relief and meltwater. This is an ideal, cheap and renewable source of energy.

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Tourism: There are numerous tourist attractions such as high peaks, volcanoes, glaciers, lakes and remains
of early settlements. The Inca Trail is one of the 23 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, which incorporates both
natural and cultural beauty.

Types of Volcanic Activity

Distribution of Volcanoes: The majority of volcanoes occur at either constructive or destructive plate
boundaries. Lava rises through the gap created by two plates being pulled apart in constructive plates and
in destructive plates, crust is heated by friction and it burns its way to the surface forming a volcano. The
rest of volcanoes occur at hot spots where plumes of lava rise forming volcanoes away from plate bound-
aries.
Hot Springs: Cool water seeps into cracks in the rock and falls into the crust. This water is heated by rock,
which is in close contact with lava, and then rises to the surface forming a pool of water.
Geyser: Cool water seeps into cracks in the rock and falls into the crust. This water is heated and collects in
a group of tunnels and reservoirs deep in the crust. Steam bubbles collect in these pools increasing the
pressure, but it will slowly begin to rise to the surface. The pressure rapidly drops causing a massive expan-
sion of water, which explodes out of the channel in a superheated fountain.

Case Study - Eyjafallajökull, Iceland

In March 2010, Eyjafallajökull began erupting with relatively non-violent eruptions which posed no threat
to the local community. However, on the 14th of April, the volcano began erupting vast quantities of ash
into the atmosphere, which began spreading.

Primary Effects: Large quantities of ash were erupted into the atmosphere causing an obstruction of all
sunlight and local breathing difficulties. Agricultural land was coated in ash, which killed plants and de-
stroyed agricultural land. Homes, roads and utilities were significantly damaged. Local water supplies were
contaminated by volcanic ash and gases.

Secondary Effects: The glacier above the volcano melted from the heat causing widespread flooding in the
local area. Ash spread across Europe causing hundreds of thousands of flights to be canceled creating wide-
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spread disruption. Freight was not delivered causing trade to drop along with the destruction of perishable
goods. Airline and insurance companies suffered large loses because of refunding.

Immediate Responses: Thousands of people were evacuated from the immediate vicinity of the volcano.
Masks were issued to people to prevent choking from ash. Embankments were deliberately breached to
ensure that expensive roads and bridges were not destroyed. A month after the eruption, most European
flights were grounded due to the ash.

Long Term Responses: The ash which coated farm land caused it to become more fertile, increasing farm-
ing yields. After a temporary drop, Icelandic tourism increased substantially providing more jobs and grow-
ing the economy. There was research into the effects of ash on aircraft to prepare for future eruptions.

Monitoring and Prediction of Volcanoes:

- An increase in seismic activity suggests that lava is melting rock and is rising to the surface.
- Tiltmeters, lasers and GPS can all measure ground deformation, a sign of a swelling lava chamber.
- Cameras can observe activity inside the crater of the volcano to monitor smaller eruptions.
- An increase in gases being emitted from the volcano indicates an impending eruption as it rises with the
lava.

Supervolcanoes

- A supervolcano are mega colossal volcano which erupt at least 1,000km3 of material.
- They contain a massive lava chamber beneath and they have a caldera, which is a depression in the land-
scape that formed when the surface collapsed into the lava chamber following an eruption.
- There are many geothermal features such as geysers and hot springs across the caldera.
- They erupt very infrequently (between half and one million years), but when they do, they have disas-
trous consequences. An eruption of Yellowstone would cause the destruction of up to 10,000km 2 of land;
there would be an approximated 100,000 deaths from primary effects; a minimum of 15cm of ash for a
1000km radius; climate change; pyroclastic surges.

Earthquakes

Focus: The point in the earth’s crust where the earthquake begins.
Epicentre: The point directly above the focus.
Richter Scale: A scale which measures the magnitude of an earthquake.
Mercalli Scale: A scale which measures the effects of an earthquake.
Shock Waves: Seismic waves, generated by the earthquake, which pass through the earth’s crust.

Locations of Earthquakes: Pressure builds up at the subduction zone in destructive plate boundaries where
the two plates generate friction as one subducts the other. At constructive boundaries there are weak
earthquakes as lava rises into a fissure generated by plates moving apart. Friction is generated and stored
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at a conservative plate boundary because two plates move in opposite directions that causes powerful
earthquakes.

Case Study - Kobe, Japan 1995

In January 1995, an earthquake occurred at the destructive plate boundary between the Eurasian and the
Philippine Plates. The earthquake was a 7.2 on the Richter Scale and lasted for 20 seconds.

Primary Effects: 6,500 people were killed, 40,000 were injured and 300,000 people were made homeless.
Gas, water and electricity pipes were ruptured leaving 2 million houses without electricity and 1 million
houses without water. Roads and railways were destroyed and elevated highways collapsed.

Secondary Effects: Gas and electricity pipes breaking caused fires to spread throughout the city, destroying
buildings (especially traditional wooden ones). Total damage was $220 billion.

Immediate Responses: Emergency services and hospitals struggled to deal by the overwhelming amount of
injuries from the severity of the earthquake.

Long Term Responses: The railways were 80% operational in a month and the roads were operational in 5
months. Housing laws were changed to prevent houses from collapsing so easily by spacing them out more
and regulating the sturdiness of the building material. High buildings had to have flexible steel in order to
absorb shock easier and bridges had rubber shock absorbers to stop them from collapsing.

Case Study - Haiti 2010

At midday on the 12th of January 2010, Haiti was struck by an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the richter
scale. The epicentre was 15km SW of Port-au-Prince on the conservative plate boundary between the
North American and the Caribbean Plate.

Primary Effects: Over 2 million people were affected by the earthquake: 1.5 m were made homeless,
230,000 were killed and 180,000 homes were destroyed. 19 million cubic meters of rubble were produced
from the earthquake due to poorly built structures. 5,000 schools were destroyed meaning that many chil-

9
dren remained illiterate. Vital services such as water, sanitation and communication were either severely
damaged or destroyed.

Secondary Effects: As hundreds of thousands of people remained in camps, many homeless died from
cholera while they lived in poor conditions. The total repairs cost US$11.5 billion and it took 5-10 years to
finish repairing.

Immediate Responses: The homeless were accommodated in over 1,100 camps, which had limited sanita-
tion, water and food. Rescue teams with sniffer dogs and heat sensitive equipment searched for survivors
in the bible.

Long Term Responses: Aid was sent through the UN, the US, and the UK in the form of water, food, medical
supplies, emergency shelters and security to maintain law and order. Three-quarters of damaged buildings
were inspected and repaired. 200,000 received cash or food for working to clear rubble and to repair infra-
structure. The World Bank pledged US$100m for reconstruction and recovery program.

Increased Effects on Haiti: Haiti is a poor country were the majority of the population earn under US$2 per
day. Over 80% of the residents of Port-au-Prince lived in poorly constructed, high density buildings which
collapsed easily during the earthquake. The earthquake had a shallow focus and it was only 15km away
from the densely populated capital. Infrastructure was immediately damaged meaning that emergency ser-
vices could not react and aid could not be received. The lack of a stable government meant that rescue ef-
forts were uncoordinated and usually ineffective.

Tsunamis

Tsunami: A special type of wave where an event, often an earthquake, displaces a large volume of water
above it.

Case Study - Tohoku Tsunami, Japan 2011

Causes:
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- Occurred at the destructive plate plate boundary where the Pacific plate was being subducted under the
North American plate.
- As a result there was a 5-10m sudden uplift of rock on the sea bed which caused such a powerful
tsunami.

Effects:
- Over 20,000 deaths because of the power of the tsunami which reached 10km inland.
- 500 km2 of costal planes were flooded, farmland, settlements and communications were destroyed.
- Ruptured gas pipes lead to fires which lasted for days following the tsunami.
- Explosions occurred at the Fukushima nuclear power plant since flood waters overrun its defences and
its cooling systems failed.
- Heavy snow, landslides, debris and over 1000 aftershocks hampered rescue efforts.
- Confidence in the Japanese economy diminished as the damages would grow their debt by billions of
dollars.

Responses:
- Over 100,000 Japanese soldiers were deployed in search and rescue operations along with supply distri-
bution.
- Specialist search and rescue teams were flown in from overseas.
- An exclusion zone was set up around the nuclear power plant and people were evacuated.
- Longer-term reconstruction projects for homes, infrastructure and communications is under way and
tsunami defences are being improved.

Contemporary Issues in Tourism

Growth in Tourism

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1 - Socioeconomic Factors: Since the 1950s, people have become wealthier and therefore able to afford
tourism. Most families have two working parents, due to women’s rights, and therefore more income.
Leisure time has increased since more time is offered off work. Increased life expectancy and improvement
in welfare has resulted in more elderly tourists.

2 - Technological Improvements: Flights have become cheaper because of improved aircraft, which are
more fuel efficient and therefore flights have become cheaper. Increased investment in infrastructure such
as transport have allowed for more tourism. It is also easier to buy airline tickets through the internet for
less money. Technology has increased accessibility to foreign destinations. Cheap package holidays to the
Mediterranean have increased travel, because of the decrease in price.

Attractions of Tourism

Cities: Cities offer culture (museums, galleries, architecture), shopping and restaurants.
Mountainous Landscape: Spectacular scenery, winter sports (skiing, snowboarding, hiking).
Costal Landscape: Scenery, climate, water sports (swimming, sailing)

Economic Importance of Tourism

- Provides jobs to local population.

- Contribute to economy (more in poorer countries, less in richer countries due to economic balance).
- Specifically, tourists provide money to locals through services such as hotels, restaurants, shops.
- More jobs are created because of tourist spending and more small businesses start up to cope with
tourist demand.
- Often tax imposed on tourists which provides extra revenue (especially in poorer countries).

Impact of Tourism in the UK

- Tourism contributes £114 billion (2008) to the British economy.

- There are 27.7 million overseas visitors, who spent £13 billion.
- Restaurants and hotels earn £20 billion and £16 billion respectively.
- The London Eye is the most visited attraction with 3.7 million visitors yearly.

External Factors Affecting Tourism

- Terrorist events such as 9/11 and London bombings increased security drastically and reduce tourism be-
cause of fear of travel.
- Economic crises reduces disposable income and exchange rates making travel more expensive.
- Unstable or totalitarian government may cause fear and a reluctance to travel to such a country.

The Butler Model

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 The life-cycle of any tourist resort approximately follows this
model.

Exploration: Small numbers of visitors are attracted by particular features. Locals have not developed
tourist services and are not involved.
Involvement: Local population see economic opportunity and as a result local services begin to form.
Development: Investment from larger companies begin as they see potential for growth. Number of
tourists rise dramatically as organised services begin to form. The number of local jobs rises.
Consolidation: Tourism is a major part of the local economy and the market is nearing saturation point as
capacity is maximised.
Stagnation: The resort becomes less fashionable and numbers of visitors begin to plateau. Businesses begin
to fail.
Decline: Visitors prefer other resorts and numbers decline with income coming from day trippers and
weekenders.
Rejuvenation: Attempts are made through investment to modernise the resort and change its image to at-
tract more/different people.

National Parks

National Park: An area where development in limited and planning controlled. The landscape is regarded
as unusual and valuable and therefore worth looking after.
Honeypot Site: Somewhere that attracts a large number of tourists who, due to their numbers, place pres-
sure on the environment and people.

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Case Study - Lake District

Growth as a Tourism Destination:

- Beautiful and unique scenery and landscape (hills, rivers, valleys) because of glaciation attract tourists .
- There is an abundance of wildlife in the untouched, natural environment.
- Many outdoor activities are available for tourists (eg. climbing, walking, water sports).
- There is also cultural heritage (Dove Cottage - Home of William Wordsworth, Hill Top - Home of Beatrix
Potter).

Impact of Tourism:
1. The vast majority of tourists visit by car and due to the limited parking and roads, there is frequent con-
gestion.
2. Honeypot sites attract huge numbers of people and this places pressure on the environment and peo-
ple. For example, footpath erosion, littering, pollution, damage to wildlife.
3. 20% of housing are second homes or holiday accommodation, which means that homes not occupied
all year causing degradation and property prices are very high due to external demand.
4. Water activities such as jet skiing, lake cruises and ferries cause coastline erosion, pollution and possi-
ble damage to wildlife.

Tourism Management Strategies:

1 - Traffic
- More modern, larger roads have been built around the national park to reduce congestion and protect
wildlife.
- Smaller roads have been built to alleviate congestion in towns whilst protecting nature.
- Development and encouragement of alternative transport (buses, cycling, walking).
- Restriction on heavy lorry movement through small roads.

2 - Honeypot Management
- ‘The Upland Path Restoration Project’ has repaired 145 paths which had been significantly eroded.
- Roadsides fenced off to prevent damage to surrounding land.
- Carpark surfaces have been reinforced to prevent ground damage.
- Bins are frequently provided and signs direct people to use them.

4 - Environmental Damage
- Speed limits for certain lakes (eg. 18kph Windermere).
- Water sports are prohibited in some parts of lakes.

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Mass Tourism

Mass Tourism: Tourism on a large scale to one country or region. It is linked to the development and con-
solidation stages of the Butler Model.

Advantages of Mass Tourism

- Tourism bring reliable, well paying jobs (construction, services)

- Investment in local infrastructure to accommodate tourists.
- Economic benefits through taxation, spending, employment.

Disadvantages of Mass Tourism

- Tourism may be seasonal.

- Industry dominated by companies selling package holidays, so limited local benefits.
- Construction can damage environment and cause pollution.
- Few employees are well paid and perform low skilled jobs.
- Cheap holidays and large numbers of people cause problems (crime, drinking)

Case Study - Jamaica

Positive Effects:
- 1.9 million visitors per year.
- 22% of population employed in tourism.
- 24% of GDP.
- £24 departure tax.
- Multiplier effect

Negative Effects:
- Foreign staff may be employed over locals.
- Traffic on unmodernised streets.
- Damage to coral reefs.
- Mangrove swaps cleared away to make room for buildings - loss of habitat.

Tourism Management Strategies:

- Many nature reserves across the island (eg. Negril Marine Park).
- Strict regulation of snorkelling/diving boats to limit damage to coral reef.
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- Strict planning permission restrictions to mitigate environmental damage.
- Growth of community tourism to encourage tourists to use local services and stay in local area.

Extreme Tourism

Extreme Environments: Locations with difficult environments where tourism has only recently occurred
due to people wanting to visit a different and unique environment.

Case Study - Antarctica

Attractions:
- Unique wildlife such as penguins, seals, whales.
- Unique landscape such as glaciers, mountains, volcanoes, icebergs.
- Activities such as skiing, kayaking, walking, climbing, scuba diving.

Positive Impacts of Tourism:

- Raises awareness for protection of Antarctica (tourists contributed to 1986 whaling ban).
- Provides some funding for scientific research (Port Lockroy).

Negative Impacts of Tourism:

- Tourists can disturb fragile ecosystem and wildlife (Penguins leaving nests).
- Oil and fuel spills are devastating for marine life (Explorer accident 2007).

Tourism Management Strategies:

- Antarctic Treaty (1959) ensures no territorial claims, free research and demilitarisation.
- Some areas are completely off limits to tourists.
- IAATO (International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators) enforces 500 people per ship, 100 people
per landing site.
- Port Lockroy educates tourists and reinvests money into research.

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Ecotourism

Ecotourism: Environmentally friendly tourism that aims to safeguard natural environments and wildlife.

Case Study - Galapagos

Environmental Benefits:
- Ecotourism raises awareness for the environmental troubles of the island.
- The Galapagos Conservation Trust receives £25 per tourist.
- It protects the island from damaging activities because ecotourism provides income.

Economic / Local Benefits:

- Small companies have been established to run local boat trips around the islands.
- Tourists stay in lodges and guest houses which are run by locals.
- Tourists use local produce such as eating local food and using services.
- Local run specialist tour guides educate the public and provide income.

Sustainable Development:
- Many lodges are run on renewable energy and own water supply.
- One of the first UNECO world heritage sites.
- The Charles Darwin Foundation, which undertakes scientific research to minimise the effects of humans
on the island such as invasive species.
- International Galapagos Tour Operators Association promotes tourism in tandem with biosecurity, inva-
sive species control, illegal fishing regulation and ecosystem education.

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Contemporary Population Issues

Population Growth

Exponential Growth: A pattern where the growth rate constantly increases (often shown as a ‘J curve’).
Zero Growth: A population where the birth rate is equal to the death rate.
Natural Increase: A population where the birth rate is greater than the death rate.
Natural Decrease: A population where the birth rate is less than the death rate.

The Demographic Transition Model

DTM: A model explaining birth and death

rates in the world across time.

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Stage 1:
- High fluctuating.
- High death rate because of little medicine therefore low life expectancy.
- High birth rate because there are no means of birth control, high infant mortality rate.

Stage 2:
- High population growth.
- Decreasing death rate because of improvements in medicine and hygiene, which increase the life ex-
pectancy.
- Birth rate remains high because of factors above and children are an asset to work and take care of par-
ents due to lack of welfare system.

Stage 3:
- Decreasing natural increase.
- Death rate continues to fall but at a lesser rate.
- Birth rate decreases because children become liabilities instead of assets since they can no longer work
until a later age and education become costly.

Stage 4:
- Low fluctuating.
- Death rate remains low due to factors above, but stabilises.
- Birth rate remains low but fluctuates in relation to prosperity since children are economic liabilities.

Stage 5:
- Low natural decrease.
- Death rate increases because of elderly populations beginning to die in the same generation.
- Birth rate decreases because of the improvement in the status of women who may choose to postpone
children due to career or because of widespread economic decline.

Sustainable Growth and Population Management

Sustainable Population Growth: Growth and development is at a rate which does not harm the success of
future generations.

Case Study - China

Original Policy (1979):

- A couple could not marry until their late twenties.
- A couple could only have one successful pregnancies.
- They must be sterilised after the first child or abort all other pregnancies.
- They would receive a 5% to 10% increase in their salary for following this.

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- They would have priority housing, pensions and family benefits which included free education.
- Minority groups were excluded for fear that it would be unsustainable.
- In rural areas, where labour is needed, if the first child was a girl they were allowed to have a second.

Penalties:
- A 10% cut in their salary.
- A large fine which usually placed households in bankruptcy.
- The family would receive no education or healthcare benefits for anyone in the family.
- Second children born abroad are not penalised but cannot become Chinese citizens.

Problems:
- Some women were forced to have abortions as late as in the ninth month of pregnancy.
- Women were placed under pressure from their families, workmates and their own conscience.
- Local and central government had power over people’s personal lives.
- Sons were preferred over daughters so many daughters were killed, aborted or sent to orphanages.
- As people have become wealthier they have chosen to simply pay the fines and have more children.

Benefits:
- A famine, due to a lack of food for the growing population, was avoided.
- Population growth has slowed down sufficiently for people to have access to jobs and food.
- It is estimates that it has avoided 400 million births.
- Increased technology and exploitation of resources has increased the standard of living.
- New industries have lifted millions out of poverty.
Case Study - Gambia

Ageing Population

Disadvantages:
- There is a greater demand for healthcare.
- The dependancy ratio is higher so more workers support elderly.
- Life expectancy is rising and this has lead to longer lasting benefits and pensions.

Advantages:
- Many retired people still do voluntary work.
- They contribute to the economy since they have a lot of spare time for recreation, travel and leisure.

Case Study - France

Challenges:
- In 2009, France had a birth rate of 12.3 whereas the average global birth rate was 19.95.
- This lead to an ageing population and therefore a high dependency ratio.
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Solution:
- Three years of paid parental leave which can be used by both mothers and fathers.
- Full time schooling starts from the age of three and is funded by the government.
- Day care for children younger than three is subsidised by the government.
- The more children a women has, the earlier she can retire on a pension.

Migration

Migration: The movement of people from one permanent home to another, with the intention of staying at
least a year.

Pull Factors:
- Economic prosperity.
- Increased chance of employment with higher wages.
- Security and peace.
- Freedom from oppression.
- Appealing climate or environment.
- Welfare state system.

Push Factors:
- Economic hardship.
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- Low employment with low wages.
- War or terrorism.
- Totalitarianism, oppression.
- Low development in welfare or medicine.

Case Study - Polish Migration to the UK

Causes:
- Britain put no limits on migration when the A8 countries join the EU.
- There was already a Polish population in the UK following the Second World War.
- Flights through budget airlines became very cheap making travel much easier.
- The UK had a shortage in lower skilled labour.
- Polish workers are able to earn five times as much in the UK as they can in Poland.

Impacts on Poland:
- There were too many workers in Poland due to rapid population growth in the 80s and these unem-
ployed people travelled to the UK, lowering Polish unemployment.
- Emigration raised wages for Polish workers.
- More than half of Polish workers living overseas sent money home to their families (approximately €41
billion has been sent back).
- Poland’s divorce rate doubled in seven years because of young people leaving their country.
- Half of businesses in Poland said that they lacked workers because of the efflux of young workers.

Impacts on the UK:

- Many Polish workers took jobs that were considered undesirable by the British population such as build-
ing, seasonal agricultural work etc.
- In 2006, 97% of Polish immigrants were woking full time, paying taxes and national insurance contribu-
tions.
- 20% of Polish immigrants came to the UK to earn money seasonally and they do not usually stay during
times of unemployment, therefore there is a minimal burden on the welfare state system.
- They usually work for lower wages than British people making it difficult for unskilled locals to find work.
- Education and housing both came under pressure because of the influx of families with children.
- There was overcrowding in houses with up to 15 people in some houses along with landlords exploiting
them.

Case Study - Syrian Refugee Crises

Causes:
- In the 2011, the Arab Spring caused long lasting instability and a lack of security.
- The rise of ISIS has lead to fear and persecution in the Middle East.
- Europe is geographically close to these countries.
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- Europe is much more prosperous than these countries.

Effects:

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