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Science Notes F2

The document discusses genetic engineering, emphasizing its role in biotechnology to create genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications in medicine, agriculture, forensic science, and energy generation. It also covers the concept of adaptation in organisms, the characteristics of ecosystems, and the relationships among organisms, including competition and symbiosis. Additionally, it explains the processes of pollination, fertilization, seed dispersal, and the nature of matter, including dissolution and the components of air.

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4 views69 pages

Science Notes F2

The document discusses genetic engineering, emphasizing its role in biotechnology to create genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications in medicine, agriculture, forensic science, and energy generation. It also covers the concept of adaptation in organisms, the characteristics of ecosystems, and the relationships among organisms, including competition and symbiosis. Additionally, it explains the processes of pollination, fertilization, seed dispersal, and the nature of matter, including dissolution and the components of air.

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katsopalfani
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Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
MODULE. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY Genetic engineering is 2 method of biotechnology that involves manipulation and combination of organisms’ genes to produce organisms with particular characteristics. Genes are part of a chromosome that carries information for specific characteristics. They control characteristic s that we inherit from our parents (genetic characteristics), hence are sometimes referred to as units of inheritance. Below is structure showing a gene: ‘The technology of gen In genetic engineering scientists take specific gene from one organism and put it into the DNA of another organism. In this way, they take the desired characteristics from one species and put it into another species. T! result in organisms called genetically modified organisms, or GMOs. Below are, the steps followed in manipulating genes: ‘* Identifying genes with characteristics needed. ‘+ Removing the needed genes from the organism ‘* Transferring the gene to another organism that grows fast e.g. bacteria or yeast ‘©The gene is transferred into an organisms whose characteristics are being changed Benefits of Genetic engineering are very significant to area such as medicine, agriculture, forensic science and energy generation. Medicine Human insulin genes are, transferred to bacteria, to enable them to produce insulin used for treating sugar diabetes. Growth hormone can also be produced is a similar way and be used to treat children who do not grow. Agriculture Genes are, transferred to plants and animals to make them bigger and resistant to pests, diseases, drought and frost. Some genetically modified foods include rice, potatoes, melons and tomatoes. Forensic science Genetic material can be, used in solving crimes, paternity tests or genetic fingerprinting to identify bodies of unidentified people involved in a Energy generation Some plants such as oilseed or rapeseed are, grown for their oil, which is, used for cooking. It can also be converted into a bio-fuels and used in vehicle engines or generate energy. Their yield can be, improved by the use of genetic modi Potential benefits of genetic engineering ‘* Creation of human beings and other organisms (clones) from DNA. ‘© Curing diseases that are in incurable such as cancer. Limitations of genetic engineering ‘+ Harmless organism maybe changed into harmful ones. ‘* GM crops may kill organisms they are, not intended to. ‘* Genetic engineering is very expensive. Ethical and moral issues on genetic engineering ‘+ Some people see genetically modified food and organisms as being unnatural. ‘* Some people view using organisms in laboratory for research as being cruel to them. MODULE 2: PLANTS, ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT ‘UNIT 2.1-LIVING MATTER ADAPTATION Adaptation refers to the change in organisms that makes them suited to a particular environment. There are three types of adaptations, namely structural, behavioral and physical. Structural adaptation involves the body of an organism developing in certain shape to help suit its survival. Physical adaptation involve developing certain features to help their survival whereas behavioral involve reacting in a certain way to a stimuli in order to survive. a Plants may be adapted to live and grow in wet and dry conditions. The most common adaptation of plants in Botswana is usually to live and grow in dry conditions. Adaptation to dry conditions ‘They develop long tap roots to absorb water deep underground e.g, baobab Develop large fleshy stem to store as much water as possible e.g. cactus They have thorny leaves to reduce water loss by transpiration e.g. cactus They also shade leaves in dry season (winter) to reduce water loss by transpiration. Adaptation to wet conditions They develop smalll or short roots to absorb small amount of water e.g. water lily They have large leaves to increases water loss by transpiration eg. water lily Animals maybe adapted to survive predators, dry conditions, cold conditions, competition for food and to be able to catch preys. Below is how some animals are adapted to their environment: A chameleon can camouflage itself to hide from predators. A camel defecate dry faeces and urinate small amount of urine to help them live in dry conditions. Polar bears have thick fur and thick layer of fat to help them live in very cold temperatures. Giraffes have a long neck to avoid competition for food. Achameleon has a tongue that can stretch to catch its prey from a distance. Human activities that impact negatively on plants and animal adaptations Some human activities change the environment greatly and quickly. This usually makes it unbearable and usually makes organisms not adapted to the new environment die before they could adapt. Below are some of the human activities that have a negative impact on plants and animal adaptation. ‘+ Overgrazing and deforestation lives the ground bare and dry. ‘+ Building of dams flood large areas ‘* Burning of fossil fuels and bush fires lead to global warming(Increase in world temperatures) Predicting effects of human activities on adaptation Looking at the current human activities especially those leading to climatic change, scientists predicts that the following will happen to living organisms found on earth: ‘* Earth will be so hot that all animals not adapted to living in hot conditions will die. + Polar ice caps will melt which may kill organisms adapted to hunting on ice. ‘+ Sea levels will rise causing floods in low-lying areas and kill organisms not adapted to living in water. ‘* Pollution will cause migration or death to some organisms CHARATERISTICS OF ECOSYS’ IS An ecosystem refers to all living and non-living things in a habitat. It can also be, referred to as a community of living things and the way they interact with their environment. An ecosystem is, made up of a, community, populations, habitat and the environment. A community, refers to all living things found in a habitat while a population is the total number of given species found in a habitat. A habitat means an area where organisms live e.g. pond, trees and hills. Relationshi —_ Organisms in an ecosystem do not live in isolation; they interact and depend on each other in one-way or another. The relations include competition, predator-prey and symbiosis relationships. Competition This refers to whereby organisms compete with one another for food, water, space and sunlight. Predator-prey relationship This is a situation whereby one organism is the hunter (predator) while the other one is the hunted (prey).e.g. lion and a zebra Sumnbiosi This is whereby two species live together in an intimate relationship which may entails one living in, on or every close to another. The relation can be grouped into; mutualism, commensalisms or mutualism. Mutualism This is whereby, organisms of different species live side by side and both benefits from the relationship e.g. cattle and cattle egret. Commensalisms This is whereby, organisms live side-by-side and only one benefit but the other is not hurt or made to suffer by the relationship eg. cattle and cattle egret. Parasitism This is whereby, organisms, live closer together and only one benefit while the other one is hurt or made to suffer by the relationship eg. ticks and cattle. Homework 1. Research and come up with other pairs of organisms that have the following types of relationships. a. Symbiosis b. Commensalisms ‘Mutualism d. Parasitism EEEDING RELATIONSHIPS We learnt that organisms relate with one another in different ways. These include for food. Food supply affects the population size in different ways. Increase in food supply usually leads to increase in population size while decrease in food supply usually leads to decrease in population size. Predation and overgrazing also have an effect on the size of population. The diagram below shows effect of food supply, predation and overgrazing on population size: size of popu Energy flow in living things ‘The energy used by living things during respiration originally comes from the sun. Plants leaves trap it during photosynthesis. For this reason, plants are referred to as, producers because they produce their own energy from the sun. Other organisms like animals do not produce their own energy. They get energy from eating plants. ‘These are consumers. Consumers can be, grouped into three other groups, namely, primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers. Primary consumers ‘These organisms feed on plants only. They are herbivores. Primary consumers get their energy from plants e.g. goats, cows and zebras. Secondary consumers These feed mainly on herbivores (primary consumers). They are carnivores. They get their energy from primary consumers eg. cheetah, leopard and eagle. ‘Tertiary consumers These feed on secondary consumers. They are carnivores that can eat other carnivores. They get their energy from secondary consumers eg, hyena, vulture and crow. The flow of energy from one organism to another can also be shown using diagrams. These include food chains, food webs and food pyramid. Food chain This uses arrows to show how a given organism passes energy to other organisms. It starts with producers, followed by primary consumers then secondary consumers and ends with tertiary consumers. Below is an example of a food chain: Grass——+ Goat——+ Lion ——+ Vulture Food web This is a network of food chains. It shows how energy flow among the many organisms found in a habitat. Below is the diagram of an example of a food web: This shows the amount of energy passed from one feeding level to another. It is also, used to show the number of organisms eaten at each tropic (feeding) level. A food pyramid can be, referred to as stable or unstable. Below are examples of the two types of, food pyramids: @ apyramid of numbers b apyramid of numbers ts coer |] — grass cabbage plants A stable food pyramid An unstable food pyramid 6 es f i Concentration of pollutants often increases as the pollutant is, moved from, one tropic level to another. Tertiary consumers are often the most affected. Increase in concentration of pollutants in bodies of organisms as they, (pollutants) move across food chains are, called, bioaccumulation or biomagnifications. Homework 1. From the food chain above, which organism will have the highest amount of concentration of a poisonous substances prayed to kill locusts? 2. From the food web, what would, happen to the population of the following if the number of lions was to increase? a. Grass b. vultures 3. From the two pyramids, explain why the other food pyramid is, referred to as unstable. A flower is the reproductive organ for flowering plants. It is made up of, two main parts. The male part called, stamen and the female part called the pistil or carpel. The stamen is made up of, the filament and the anther while the pistil is made up of the stigma, style, ovary and ovules. Below is the structure of a flower: REPRODUCTIVE PART: LOWER Functions of parts of a flower Parts Functions ‘Anther _ | Produces the male sex cells Filament | Supports the anther Stigma _ | Receives pollen Style Directs and guide pollen towards ovules Ovary _| Produces female sex cells Petals | Attracts insects Sepals | Protect the flower while in the bud stage Stalk | Attaches and holds the flower to the flower Homework ‘* Draw a well-labeled diagram of the female part ofa flower. POLLINATION ‘This is the transference of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. There are two types of pollination, self-pollination and cross-pollination. Self-pollination happens within the same plant whereas cross-pollination happens in different plants of the same species. There diagrams below shows the two forms of pollination: “Le ‘These are things that helps carry pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. There are two agents of pollination. These are wind and insects. Flowers that are insect pollinated differ from those that are wind pollinated. The table below shows some differences between insect and wind pollinated flowers: Parts ofaflower | Wind pollinated Insect pollinated ‘Small Big Petals Dull coloured Brightly coloured Nonectarorscent | Have a scent and nectar Longand feathery | Are straight and stiff Stigma Hangs out the flower _| Inside petals Hang loosely outside | Stiff, firmly attached and Anther and | the petals. closed in petals. filament FERTILIZATION This refers to the process through which the male sex cells fuses with the female sex cells. This happens after a successful pollination. The diagrams below shows the steps involved in fertilization: Pollen grain grows pollen Pollen grain on ‘tube down the style suitable stigma wo J fy @ é @ Pen epee After fertilization, a zygote is produced which grows into an embryo. The embryo is contained ina seed. A seed is formed from ovules. The seed is also contained ina fruit that formed from, the ovary. The other parts of a flower die and dry off. Below is a diagram of a seed. Plumule Cotyledon Radicle Homework 1. After fertilization, which part grows and develop into a. Aseed? b. An ovum? 2. During germination, which part of a seed develop into; a. Ashoot? b. Aroot? ‘SEED DISPERSAL This is the process through which seeds are scattered away from their parent plant. This is important as prevents competition from water, sunlight and mineral salts. Seeds are, dispersed through; water, animals, wind and self. Animal dispersal Seed that are, animal dis yersed often have the following characteristics to help them to be, carried away by animals. ee The look fleshy, taste and are edible. © Usually have hooks. Wind dispersal Seed that are, dispersed by wind often away or a combination of the following characteristics so that they can be, easily carried away by wind. © They are very light in weight. ‘* Have wing-like structures «Have parachute-like shape Seed that are usually self-dispersed have the following characteristics so that they can shoot away seeds. © Contained in pods ‘© The pods have a spring-like mechanism through which they throw away seeds. Homework 1. For each method of dispersal below, draw any other example of seed that is a. Animal dispersed. b. Wind dispersed. ©. Self dispersed. UNIT 3.1-THE NATURE OF MATTER DISSOLUTION OF MATTER Dissolution refers to the process of dissolving a solute in a solvent to form a solution. A solute is a soluble substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a solution. A solvent is a liquid in which a solute dissolves to form a solution. A solution is a mixture in which a solute has dissolved in a solvent. Substances that that dissolve are, said to be, soluble while those that do not dissolve are, said to be, insoluble. ‘Why water is sometimes referred to asa universal solvent Water is sometimes referred to as a universal solvent because almost all known solutes dissolve in it. Itis also because it dissolves more solutes than any other known solvents. TYPE: LUTION! Concentration ofsolutions Concentration refers to the measure of how much solute is present in a given amount of a solution. Solutions with a lot of solute in it are, said to be concentrated while those with less solute in them are, said to be, dilute. The concentration of solutions is, calculated as follows: 1. Concentration per volume of solvent Conc. = amount of solute(g) + Amount of solvent (cm?) 2. Percentage concentration Conc. = {amount of solute + (amount of solute + solvent)} x 100% 4 ‘Saturation of solutions solutions that can still dissolve more of a solute in them at a particular temperature is said to be unsaturated while those that can no longer dissolve any solute in it ata particular temperature is said to be saturated. Solutions that contain more solute in them than they can normally hold at a particular temperature are, said to be supersaturated. Application of saturated and supersaturated solution © Drink concentrates © Purifying solids * Carbonated drinks Homework 1. A student prepared a salt solution of concentration 2.09/cm* from a salt solution of concentration 1.0g/cm* by adding more salt. @ Describe another method that the student can use to prepare the same solution of concentration 2.0g/cm? from a salt solution of concentration 1.0g/cm*. b, Another student prepared a salt solution using 80cm* of water and 20g of table salt, Calculate the i. Concentration per volume of solvent ii, Percentage concentration UNIT 3.3-COMPONENTS OF AIR Air is a mixture of gases. Dry air is, made up of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases. If air is not dry it will also contain water vapours. The table below shows the percentages of gases that make up air: 15 Gas Percentage Nitrogen 78% Oxygen 21% Carbon dioxide | 0.03 Other gases [0.97 CARBON DIOXIDE Carbon dioxide makes up 0.03% of gases found in the atmosphere. It plays a very important role in our environment, bodies and in industry. It is therefore important to know how it can be, produced. Producing carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide can be, produced by a reaction between an acid and a carbonate. Carbonates are chemicals such as, calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. The set up below shows how carbon dioxide is, produced in the laboratory: the stopper into this tube and ) st up the delivery tube, own. | es ~ ‘The word equation below shows the general equation for the production of carbon dioxide in the laboratory. Acid + Carbonate ————%salt + Carbon ‘Testing for carbon dioxide ‘To test for carbon dioxide it is bubbled through limewater. It turns limewater from clear to milky or cloudy. Properties of oni It does not support burning Itis slightly soluble in water. It turns limewater from clear to or cloudy. It is denser than air. Itis colourless, odourless and tasteless Uses of carbon dioxide © To make carbonated or fizzy drinks ‘* _Infire extinguishers to put off fire * As dryice to keep things frozen ¢ For baking to make dough rise Homework 1. State why itis possible to, prepare and collect carbon dioxide as shown in the set- up for preparation of the gas. 2. Why carbon dioxide is used in fire extinguishers? 3. Name any life process that uses carbon dioxide. IXYGEN Oxygen makes about 21% of gases that makes up our atmosphere. It plays a very important role in bodies of living organisms. Though plants produce most of it naturally during photosynthesis, it can also be, produced in the laboratory. The diagram below shows a set up used to prepare for oxygen: 7 [ste Below is the word equation for the reaction Hydrogen peroxide ———* Oxygen + Water Testfor oxygen Oxygen is, tested using a glowing splint test. It causes a glowing splint to relight or reignite Properties of oxygen ¢ Itsupports burning ‘* Itis slightly soluble in water + Itis colourless, odourless and tasteless Uses of oxygen ‘* For medical purposes to help patients who can’t breathe ‘* Itis, mixed with acetylene to melt or cut steel. © To support divers and mountain climber’s lives at the altitudes they can't breathe Homework Why it is important to keep potted plants in hospitals during day light and remove them during the night? UNIT 3.4- CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS INSULATION Insulation in buildings refers to building a house in such a way that it prevents heat loss or gain within them. In buildings insulation depend on; the type of materials used for roofing, the presence of ceiling and thickness of walls. The set- 18 up below is of an activity used to investigate the suitability of building materials for insulation: ‘AThatched roof B Corrugated metal C Corrugated metal —_B Corrugated metal root root and ceiling roof and double walls « « = Observations ‘© The house without ceiling recorded higher temperatures than the house with ceiling. ‘© The house with a single wall recorded higher temperatures than the house with double walls. ‘* Houses roofed with corrugated iron recorded higher temperatures than house with thatched roof. Conclusion Material that are, suitable for insulation in a building, include, the use of thatch for roofing, double walls and the presence of ceiling. CONTROLLING HEAT RADIATION IN BUILDINGS. Heat loss or gain can be, further improved in a house by the position of windows, roof overhang, and the colour of houses. These control or determine the amount of heat radiation from the sun that enters or leaves the house. Effect of window positioning The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of window position on heat radiation in and out of a building. ‘Window facing the sn ‘Window not facing the sun Observation ‘The house with windows facing the sun recorded higher temperatures than the one with windows facing away from the sun. Conclusion Houses with windows facing the sun allows heat radiation from the sun into the house hence, will be very hotter in summer while those with windows away from the sun allows less heat to enter them hence will be cooler in summer. Effect of roof overhang The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of roof overhang on heat radiation into and out ofa building. classroom, as shown below. = Small overhang Big overhang with window facing the sun with window facing the sun Observations ‘The house model with a longer roof overhang recorded higher temperatures than the one without a roof overhang. Conclusion 20 Roof over hangs prevents heat radiation from the sun from entering a house hence houses with longer roof overhang will be cooler in summer than the ones with shorter roof overhang. House colour ‘The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of house colour on heat radiation into and out of a building. Observation ‘The house models with black colour and grey colour recorded higher temperatures while the one with white colours recorded lower temperatures. Conclusion Dull (black) colours allow too much heat to enter the house whereas bright (white) colours do not allow too much heat to enter the house. This is because, dull colours are good absorbers of heat while bright colours are bad absorbers of heat (reflect heat) hence houses with black or dull colour will be warmer in summer and cooler in winter compared to those with bright colours. Homework 1. With reasons, state the suitable colour for houses in Botswana. 2. Describe why it is wise for houses in Botswana to have windows high towards north and south instead of high towards east and west. 2 Pregnancy refers to a period after fertilization when a woman has a baby growing in her womb. Pregnancy last for 9 months or 40 weeks. Fertilization refers to the process by which the male sex cell (sperms) fuses with the female sex cells (ova). The result of fertilization is, called a zygote. It then grows and develops into a morula, blastocyst, embryo and then foetus. Below are diagrams showing the developmental stages of an embryo: 2ygote Moria Blastocyst = Signs ofpreenancy Production of the hormone Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) © Missed period ‘* Morning sickness * Swollen belly Homework * Describe how the clinical test for pregnancy works, Extr: mbryonic membran Immediately after fertilisation the zygote moves to the uterus where it attaches itself in walls of the uterus. This is called implantation. Once implantation is complete, the embryo develops within the walls of the uterus. The developments include the development of the placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic sac and the amniotic fluid. Below is the diagram showing an embryo developing within the uterus: 22 Placenta \ " Classification of forces Forces maybe classified as contact and non-contact forces. Contact forces occurs when objects are physically touching each other eg. tension force, ional and impact force. Non-contact or action-at-a distance forces result when objects are not in physical contact they act at a distant e.g. gravitational, magnetic and electrostatic. Homework 1. With examples, describe the following forces a. Magnetic b. Elastic Electrostatic d. Gravitational EFFECTS OF FORCES: When force is, applied or exerted on an object it, produces a result. The effects depend on the type of the force and the object on which it acts. The following are effect of forces: ‘* Itchanges shape or size of an object © Itcan increase speed or decrease speed of a moving object ‘ Itcan change the direction of objects Homework 1. Give an example of each of the following effects of forces on objects @. Changing shape of objects b. Changing size of objects 29 c. Changing speed of an object d. Changing direction of an object importance of gravitational force to life on earth ‘¢ It pulls objects towards the earth (makes object thrown into space fall back to earth) ‘*Itkeeps people or objects from falling off into space. ‘* Itkeeps the earth and all planets in their orbit around the sun ERICTIONAL FORCE Frictional force is a force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact. Frictional force in solids depends on the weight of the object and the nature of touching surfaces. Frictional force in fluids Fluids refer to gases and liquids. This is, because they flow. Frictional force in fluids is, affected by the nature of the fluid and surface area or shape of the object moving through the fluid. The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effect of the nature of a fluid on friction. 30 ‘The ball fell to the bottom quicker on the measuring cylinder with water and last on the one with liquid soap. Conclusion Liquids with high viscosity (thicker) have more frictional force than those with less viscosity (thin). ‘The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effect of shape of an object on friction in fluids. “ distant and near objects: Ne) cles contracted to form a thicker th shorter foca ength to Cary maces relared ca Fens with anger focal lng parallel incoming rays cus rays from near objets 49 Eye defect Problem Cause Correction Short sighted (myopia) Cannot see far | Images are focused in away objects | front of the retina: Corrected with concave spectacle clearly. i clearly. lens: ime ive lens Long sighted [Cannot see | Images are focused | Convex spectade (hypermetropia) | near objects | behind the retina: | lens: ‘Astigmatism Cannot focus Cylindrical Tenses on horizontal are used and vertical lines at the same time. Homework Find any other two eye defects and state their causes and treatment where necessary. Eve diseases EFFECTS OF HEAT Heat is the type of energy from ‘hot’ objects. Burning objects, frictional force, sun, electricity and chemical reactions are some of the sources of heat. Heat has two important effects on matter. These are expansion and contraction, Expansion and contraction in solids The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of heat on solids. Observation ‘The ball easily fits into the ring before being, heated and after being, cooled. It does not fit into the ring after being, heated. Conclusion Solids expand when heated and contract when cooled. Expansion and contraction in liquids The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of heat on liquids. Observation ‘The level of the liquid rose when, heated and went down when, cooled. Conclusion Liquids also expand when heated and contract when cooled. Expansion and contraction in gases ‘The set-up below is of an activity to demonstrate effects of heat on gases. Figure 5.45 The expansion Observation ‘The balloons increased in size when the air in the conical flask was heated and decreased in size when the air was, cooled. ynclusion Gases also expand when heated and contract when cooled. NB: Note that expansion and contraction are highest in gases followed by liquids and is lowest in solids. Problems of expansion and contraction in everyday life The problems of expansion and contraction are mostly encountered in the following. fields; railway, pipes or plumbing, glasses and electric or telephone cables. The table shows the problems and their solutions. Problem area Problem Solution Railway line | Buckles rails which derail | Gaps are left between the rails to allow for trains expansion Plumbing Itmakes pipes that carries | Loops are, made to give them room for hot water or oil to burst | expand and contract. Cables Tt makes cables to snap in| When laid in winter they are, slightly winter or hang to low in | tightened to give them room for expansion summer and when laid in summer some sag is, allowed to allow for contraction. Glasses It makes glass break or | Thinner glasses are, made to prevent crack. cracking or breaking. ‘Uses of expansion and contraction ‘Thermometers Expansion and contraction of mercury inside a thermometer makes mercury move up and down the column of the thermometer. The extent of the expansion or contraction corresponds with temperature. Bimetallic strip This is, made up of two strips of different metals that are, joined together. One of the metals is, brass while the other is usually, iron. These metals expand at different rates when heated. Brass expands more than iron. This makes the strip to bend towards iron. The diagrams below show a bimetallic strip when before heating and after heating ‘Thermostat This device control temperature of some electrical appliances. It is, made up of a bimetallic strip. The diagrams below show a hot thermostat and cold one. Eire alarms This device also uses a bimetallic strip. When temperature within the house increases, itmakes the bimetallic strip to bend and switch on the bell, which alerts people. Below is a diagram illustrating the set-up in a, fire alarm: Homework 1. Find out four examples of devices that use a thermostat. 54 METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER Heat always moves from a hotter place to a cooler one. This is called, heat transfer. There are three methods of heat of heat transfer. These are conduction, convection and radiation. CONDUCTION This is the way heat moves mainly through solids. It is, passed by hot particles to cooler ones. Conduction takes place at different rates in different solids. Materials that conduct heat quickly are, said to be conductors and those that do not heat well are, said to be insulators or poor conductors of heat. The diagram below is of a set-up to investigate the rate at which different solids conducts heat. Figure 5.50 lovestigoting the conducting abity of dierent sods Observation ‘The pin fell first from the aluminum rod, then copper, steel and took longer to fall from the glass rod. ynclusion Different materials conduct heat at different rates. Aluminum is the best conductor followed by copper and then steel while glass is a poor conductor of heat. It can also be, noted that metals are good conductors of heat while non-metals are poor conductors. Homework The set-up below is of a set-up used to investigate the conductivity of water. Use it to answer questions that follow. 4. State expected observation from the experiment. What conclusion can be, drawn from the observations? Explain why heating elements of electric kettles and geezers are, usually placed at the bottom of them not at the top. CONVECTION This refers to the movement of heat through fluids. That is the movement of heat through liquids and gasses. If a fluid is heated, hot particles become less dense and move to the top of the liquid while cold ones with high-density sinks to the bottom. ‘This creates convectional currents, which carries heat around the fluid. The diagrams below show convectional currents in liquids and in gases. smouldering tag smote or canboard Het T Ligh cane This is the movement of heat through an empty space. Unlike conduction and convection the there are no particles involve in movement of heat through radiation. Heat from the sun reaches us through radiation. Radi described in terms of heat absorption and emission. 56 Absorption of heat ‘This refers to, the rate at which heat is taken into an object. Different surfaces absorb heat at different rates. The set-up below is of an activity to investigate absorption of heat by different surfaces. dull back heater Observation ‘The can with black colour recorded higher temperatures while the one that is silver bight sliver in colour, recorded lower temperatures. Conclusion Black surfaces or dull coloured surfaces are good absorbers of heat whereas silvery or light coloured surfaces are poor absorbers of heat. This is because lightly coloured or silvery coloured surfaces reflected heat outwards. Emission ofheat This refers to the release of heat to the surrounding. The set-up below is of an activity to investigate emission of heat by different surfaces. 37 Observations ‘The side with a black or dull surface feels warmer than the one with white or bright colour even though the hands were, placed at the same distance from the cans. Conclusion Black or dull coloured surfaces are good emitters of heat whereas white or bright coloured surfaces are poor emitters of heat. This is because white or bright coloured surfaces reflected heat inwards. Homework 1. Which colour of a cup will keep tea hotter for a long time (white or black)? Explain your answer. 2. Whyis, the backside of an electric heater usually painted silvery? Application of method: transfer Avacuum flask It is used to make hot liquids hot and cold ones cold for a long time. It does this by preventing heat loss or gain by conduction, convection and or radiation. Below is the diagram of a vacuum flask. teh wn need tn mig wc © The silvery surfaces reduce heat loss or gain by radiation. «The vacuum prevents heat gain or loss by conduction and convection. ‘* Aplastic cork reduces heat gain or loss by conduction and convection. Acar engine i fem This helps cool the car engine and prevent it from ‘knocking’ or damaged due to overheating. The cooling system also uses conduction, convection and radiation to cool the engine. Below is the diagram of a car engine: ‘The cylinders conduct heat to water. ‘© Heat from water, move by convection to the radiator. ‘© The radiator (black in colour) radiates heat to the surrounding. Homework 1. Draw the diagram of the solar water heating system, state its functions and describe features that help it carry out its functions. Natural phenomena caused by conduction, convection and radiation + Wind/breeze * Volcano © Water cycle TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN ANIMALS This deals with ways in which organisms control their temperature or keeps their body temperature constant. These include production of a thick layer of fat, thick layer of fur, hibernation and evaporative cooling. Insulation effect of fatin animals Fats is a very poor conductor of heat, hence a very good insulator of heat. Living organisms produce heat from within the body. Fat then prevent this heat from escaping from the body to the surrounding. This helps keep the organism warm in winter. * Develop a thick layer of fat to prevent heat loss from the body eg. seal and penguin © Develop a thick layer of fur which traps air pockets around the body and prevent heat loss from the body e.g. polar bear and arctic wolf ‘© Hibernate. That is goes into a deep sleep eg. frogs and snakes ‘* Evaporative cooling, thatis sweating, bathing or panting eg. people, elephants and dogs Homework 1. Find out and describe how birds are adapted to keeping warm in winter. 2. Other than evaporative cooling, how else are people adapted to keeping cool and warm? MODULE 6: HEALTH AND SAFETY UNIT 6.5- HYGIENIC SURROUNDING VENTILATION Ventilation refers to the movement of air into and out of a building. Poor ventilation is a serious health hazard and can cause some airborne diseases and illnesses. The house is also often hot and stuffy. The diagram below shows ventilation in a traditional and modern house. sy) |] (fer Bt Je Homework 1. State any, one common injury in everyday life and state how, they can be prevented. 2. Name any one, safety device and state its uses. 3. State any one, effects of poor ventilation. SANITATION This deals with the removal proper disposal of sewage and other domestic refuse. Improper disposal of these wastes is also a health hazard. It can attract vectors of disease causing organisms and spread diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, bilharzias, polio, typhoid and dysentery and pollutes water. Hygienic ways of disposing sewage Sewage refers to wastewater, faeces and urine. The best way to deal with itis, through the building and using of toilets, sewage pipelines and wastewater treatment plants. There are three main types of toilets. These are pit latrines, chemical toilets and water closets (lash toilets). ‘i _— icref Domestic refuse refers to solid household waste such as papers, plastics, bottles and leftovers. Some ways of disposing domestic refuse include: ‘Refuse collection * Recycling and reusing * Compost heaps © Burnii iB 61 MODULE 7: THE HUMAN BODY UNIT 7.3-COMMUNICATION IN ANIMALS. ‘THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ‘The nervous system is, made up of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is, made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is, made up of the nerves (neurons), sense organs, sensory receptors and effector organs. A Function of the nervous system is to control and coordinate parts of the body so that they work together at the right time, Below is the diagram showing the nervous system: Sensor Functions of parts of the nervous system ‘* Sensory organs contain receptors, which detect or receive the stimuli. ‘* Sensory neurons carries impulses from the sense organs to the CNS ‘* The relay neuron passes impulses from the sensory neurons to the motor neuron ‘* The motor neurons carries impulses from the CNS to the effector organs « Brain and the spinal cord interprets impulses from the sense organs ‘* Effector organs help the body the body act or respond to the stimuli. Voluntary and involuntary actions ‘The way the bodies respond to the stimuli or massages differs, and responses resulting from them are, classified as voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary actions are, controlled by ones’ will. They are, interpreted and controlled by the brain e.g. walking, talking and dancing. Involuntary actions are, not controlled by one's will. They may, not be controlled by one’s will e.g, heartbeat, blinking and breathing. 62 7 — ‘These are quick involuntary actions, which are a response to possible danger. They are, interpreted at the spinal cord e.g. knee jerk and pupil reflex. Learned reflex action ‘These are reflex actions that are, acquired from past experiences. They are, also not controlled by ones’ will eg. salivating when hearing of your favourite food or getting an erection when seeing an attractive person. Homework 1. describe a path followed by impulses in a. voluntary actions b. involuntary actions HORM iS ‘These are chemical substances produced by endocrine glands to control functions of specific organs. They are, transported to their specific targets by blood. Below is the diagram of the endocrine system. 63 ‘The table below shows hormones, their source and functions. Hormone Gland or source When is i Functions secreted Insulin Pancreas ‘When blood sugar | It controls the level isabove normal _ | of blood sugar. Adrenaline ‘Adrenalglands [When frightened [Tt prepares the body for action (Aight of fight). Glycogen Pancreas When blood sugar | Control the level of is below level blood sugar. Growth hormone | Pituitaryglands | Throughoutlife | Stimulates growth Thyroxin Thyroid glands | Throughoutlife | Control metabolic rate Homework 1. Find out sources, functions and when the testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen are, produced. Record your findings as in the table below. Medical conditions caused by hormonal imbalances Diabetes ‘This is a medical condition caused by lack of insulin in the body. Lack of insulin lead less sugar being, removed from blood. It leads to sugar being, detected from blood and urine. Low blood sugar This is, caused by too much insulin produced in the body leading to too much sugar being changed to, glycogen (fat). Less blood sugar often make people tired and feel hungry. Goitre ‘This is a disease caused by lack of iodine, which also helps in the production of thyroxin, It make people's neck gland swell. MODULE 8: ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETISM UNIT 8.1- ELECTRICAL ENERGY CIRCUITS An electric circuit is a path followed by an electric current through interconnected devices to achieve a certain electric effect. Circuit diagrams are usually used; to represent the path followed by an electric current. The components of a circuit are, represented by symbols. Below are symbols of common components of electrical circuits: ‘Component Name Symbol Cell Bulb Resistor ‘Ammeter Voltmeter Fuse Ee OS —t- —O- —©-— ee ‘There are two types of circuits. These are Series circuit and parallel circuit. The two depend on the arrangement of components ina circuit. The diagrams below show these. —4 , | Es ® @, Aseriescireni™ A parallel circuit Ina Series circuit, components are, arranged in such a way that there is only one path for current to follow while in a parallel circuit they are, arranged in such a way that there can be more than one path for current to follow. 65 ELECTRIC |IRRENT. ‘An electric current is the flow of electrons. It is measured in ampere (A) using an instrument called an ammeter. The ammeter is, connected in series with the components. Current flows from the positive to the negative of the source. For current to flow there must be a complete circuit or closed circuit. Current ina Series Circuit Current flowing in a series circuit is the same at every point (A=A.=A.) Hence the bulbs burning with the same brightness regardless of the difference in the resistances of the bulbs. If more bulbs are added in series with other components, their brightness decreases. Bulbs in series also burns with less brightness compared to those in parallel with the same components because the resistance in a series circuit is more than of a parallel circuit with the same components. If one bulb in a series circuit is removed or blows out the whole circuit is broken and all the lamps goes off. Bulbs in a Christmas tree are, normally connected in series. co" ®) Le-o-e NB note how the ammeter is, connected in relation to the circuit components. rrent in a Parallel Circuit In a parallel circuit, current splits and follows different path, but its total value remains the same. That is A = A: + As If the bulbs are of different resistance, their brightness will be different. The one with less resistance will be brighter. If they are of the same resistance, they will burn with the same brightness, but brighter than, those in a series circuit with the same number of components. Adding extra bulbs parallel to the circuit does not affect the brightness of the bulbs. The failing of one bulb also does not affect the other bulbs. Bulbs in houses are usually, connected in parallel. The total current entering a junction in a circuit is equal to the total current leaving it 66 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE Potential difference is the force that drives electrons through a circuit. It is, also referred to as voltage or electro-motive force. It is measured in volts (V) using an instrument called a voltmeter. A voltmeter is, connected parallel to a component. Voltage in a Series Circuit Ina series circuit, the voltage across components adds up to the total voltage from the source. Thus Vr = Vi + V2. Voltage ina Parallel Circuit Ina parallel circuit the voltage across components are equal to the voltage produced by the source. V 67 MODULE 9: THE SOLAR. STEM UNIT 9.1- EARTH SYSTEMS. STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH Earth is spherical and consists of three main layers. The main layers are the core, mantle and the crust. Below is the diagram showing layers of the earth: ‘The crust It is the outer most layer of the earth. Itis made up mainly of s rocks and consists of two layers. These are the continental crust which is made up of silica and aluminum and the oceanic crust which is made up of ‘The mantle ‘This is below the crust. It is semi solid due to high pressure and high temperature. It ‘a and magnesium. consists of iron and magnesium. Thecore The core is the innermost part of earth. It consists of the inner core and outer core. The outer core is a liquid that is made up mainly of iron and nickel. The inner core is. a solid mainly due to extreme pressure. It is made up of iron. Earthquakes This is the shaking of ground caused by the sudden movements of tectonic plates in the earth’s crust and upper mantle, It is, caused by a sudden release of energy in earth's crust that creates vibrations called seismic waves. The area under the ground where the earthquake originates is the focus (hypocenter) whereas the area directly above it on the surface of the ground is, known as the epicenter. The diagram below shows the focus and epicenter: ricemer fea ‘The magnitude of earthquakes is, measured in seismometer and is, recorded on a seismograph. The Richter magnitude scale is a quantity used to quantify the magnitude of the earthquake. ‘Tsunamis This is a huge wave of water that begins when the sea floor is violently, shaken by earthquakes, volcanic eruption and other underwater explosions and landslides. This huge amount of amount of energy is, carried in the seismic waves as it travels. Volcan 5 This is whereby hot molten rocks (magma) from the mantle breaks through the earth's crust. The magma shoots up through the volcanic pipe. When the magna reaches the surface, itis, called lava. The diagram below shows a volcanic eruption: Earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, floods and draughts are, called natural disasters. ‘The following are some effects of these natural disasters. «Earthquakes can make buildings collapse and kill people * Volcanoes can cause hot lava spread and burn people, their farms and livestock. «Tsunamis and floods can wash away houses, people and destroy farmlands. © Droughts can cause, crops fail, and livestock die which brings hanger and famine and consequently death to people. 69

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