Unit – II : - D.C.

Motor Drives

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A. Single-phase and three-phase fully controlled converter drives and performance
of converter fed separately excited DC Motor for speed control operations, 12 pulse
converter drives.
B. Chopper controlled drives for separately excited and series DC Motor operations.
Closed-loop speed control of DC motor below and above base speed for starting,
speed control and braking.

Reference
1. Fundamentals of Electrical Drives: G.K. Dubey (Narosa Publications)
2. Electric Drives Concepts and Applications: V. Subrahmaniyam

 Basics of DC Motor
 Concept of Back emf (Eb)
 Types of DC Motors
 Characteristics of DC Motors
(a) DC Shunt Motor
(b) DC Series Motor
 Modes of Operations – Braking (Numerical)
(a) Dynamic braking
(b) Plugging / Rheostatic braking
(c) Regenerative braking
 Speed Control of DC Motors (Numerical)
(a) Armature Voltage Control (Va)
(b) Armature Resistance Control (Ia)
(c) Field / Flux Control (φ)
 Voltage Controlled Drives
(a) 1 phase fully controlled drive
(b) 3 phase fully controlled drive
(c) Chopper controlled drive
(d) 12 pulse converter / duel converter drive
 Closed loop control of DC Drives

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2.1 Basics of D.C. Motor

Working principle of D.C. Motor:

When any current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field then it experiences a
force or torque.
The force exerted on conductor is given by
𝐹 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝐼 ∗ 𝐿 − − − 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛

B = flux density wb/m2

I = current in Amp
L = length of conductor in meter

The direction of force (CW / CCW) is decided by Fleming’s left hand rule.
It states that hold the three fingers of left hand namely thumb, forth finger and middle
finger perpendicular to each other and if the middle finger indicates the direction of current (I),
forth finger indicates direction of flux (φ) then the thumb indicates direction of force (F).
Current direction:

Flux direction:

Force (Torque): Clockwise / Anticlockwise

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Concept of Back EMF (Eb):
According to faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, when any rotating conductor
cuts the magnetic field, some emf (voltage) is induced across it. In case of DC motor when
conductor rotates in magnetic field (flux) then it cuts the magnetic field and some emf is induced
in it. This emf is in the opposite direction to that of supply voltage. So it is called as back emf (Eb).
The direction of back emf is determined by Lenz’s law. It states that the direction of emf
induced in conductor is in the exactly opposite direction to the cause due to which it is produced.
Here the cause / reason is supply voltage (V) so back emf is in the opposite direction to that of
supply voltage (V).

Back emf is induced in the armature of DC Motor and it is equivalent to generated emf of DC
Generator (EG).

∅∗𝑍∗𝑁∗𝑃
𝐸𝑏 = 𝐸𝑔 = — 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
60 ∗ 𝐴

φ = flux per pole

Z = total number of conductors
N = speed in rpm
P = number of poles
A = number of parallel paths (A=P / A=2)

If Ra = armature resistance in Ω

𝑽 = 𝑬 𝒃 + 𝑰 𝒂 ∗ 𝑹𝒂

Basic Equations of DC Motors

𝟏. 𝑬𝒃 = 𝒌𝒃 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝑵

(𝑽 − 𝑬𝒃 )
𝟐. 𝑰𝒂 =
𝑹𝒂

𝟑. 𝑻 = 𝒌𝒕 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝑰𝒂

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Types of DC Motors
DC machines has mainly two parts (1) Armature (2) Field
(1) Armature:
It is centre part of DC machine which carries conductors (windings). It is always rotating
in nature.
(2) Field:
It is outer part of DC machine used to provide flux in the air gap. It is always fixed in nature.

Depending upon how field winding is connected to armature, DC Motors can be classified
as
(1) DC Shunt Motor: Field is connected in parallel with armature.
(2) DC Series Motor: Field is connected in series with armature.
(3) DC Compound Motor: Both shunt and series windings are present.
(4) Separately excited DC Motor: Field is not connected to armature but separately excited by
dc supply.

Characteristics of DC Motors

A characteristic is the performance / behaviour of machine under different circumstances

(conditions). Typically, it is the relationship between input and output parameters. For a DC
motor armature current (Ia) is input and speed (N) and torque (T) are outputs.

There are three characteristics

(1) Torque (T) vs Armature Current (Ia)
(2) Speed (N) vs Armature Current (Ia)
(3) Speed (N) vs Torque (T)

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Motor properties

(1) DC Shunt Motor

For shunt motor Rsh is very large

Field current (Ish) is small and constant
Flux (φ) is constant.

(2) DC Series Motor

Field winding is in series with armature. So armature will

carry same current to that of field.
Ia = Ise

(3) Separately Excited DC Motor

Field winding is separately

connected to DC source. So its filed
current is constant so as flux.
Flux (φ) is constant.

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Nature of Characteristics
(1) DC Shunt Motor
(a) T – Ia characteristics
𝑇 = 𝑘𝑡 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝐼𝑎
For shunt motor flux (φ) is constant.
𝑇 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼𝑎

So T – Ia characteristics for a shunt motor is a straight line passing through the origin as shown.

DC shunt motor is not useful for high starting torque applications.

It produces medium starting torque.

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(b) N – Ia characteristics
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝑁

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

For shunt motor flux (φ) is constant.

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑘1 ∗ 𝑁
Back emf (Eb) is directly proportional to speed (N).
As the load on the motor increases, armature current (Ia) also increases. So armature voltage
drop (Ia*Ra) increase. As supply voltage (V) is generally constant, back emf (Eb) starts decreasing.
Hence speed (N) starts decreasing.

Since armature resistance is very small

(<1 Ω) so armature voltage drop is also very small
and can be neglected. So typically DC shunt motor
speed remains constant for different load
conditions and can be used for constant speed
applications.

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(c) N – T characteristics
Since torque is proportional to armature current (Ia), N – T characteristics is similar to
N – Ia characteristics.

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(2) DC Series Motor
(a) T – Ia characteristics

𝑇 = 𝑘𝑡 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝐼𝑎
For series motor Ia = Ise and flux (φ) is proportional to Ise.

𝑇 = 𝑘1 ∗ (𝐼𝑎 )2

So T – Ia characteristics for DC series motor is a parabola up-to saturation point. Letter for higher
currents (Ia) magnetic saturation takes place so flux (φ) remains constant and characteristics
becomes a straight line.

This characteristic shows that DC series motor is most suitable

for applications where high starting torque is required.
Example: Traction, hoist etc

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(b) N – Ia characteristics

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝑁

𝐸𝑏 (𝑣 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 )
𝑁 = 𝑘1 ∗ ( ) = 𝑘1 ∗ ( )
∅ ∅

But for DC series motor Ia = Ise and flux (Φ) is produced by series field winding current (Ise)
𝑣
𝑁 = 𝑘1 ∗ ((𝐼 ) − 𝑅𝑎 )
𝑎

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It indicates that speed (N) and armature current (Ia) are inversely proportional.

For DC series motor, at no load (Ia = 0) the speed is dangerously

high which may damage the motor. So DC series motor is always
started with some load on the shaft.

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(c) N – T characteristics
𝑣
𝑁 = 𝑘1 ∗ (( ) − 𝑅𝑎 )
𝐼𝑎

𝑇 = 𝑘𝑡 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝐼𝑎

But for DC series motor Ia = Ise and flux (Φ) is produced by series field winding current (Ise)
𝑇 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼𝑎2

𝑘2
𝐼𝑎 = ()
√𝑇
𝑘2 ∗ 𝑣
𝑁 = 𝑘1 ∗ (( ) − 𝑅𝑎 )
√𝑇

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Speed Control of DC Motors:

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝑁

𝐸𝑏 (𝑣 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 )
𝑁 = 𝑘1 ∗ ( ) = 𝑘1 ∗ ( )
∅ ∅
Speed of DC motor (N) depends on armature voltage (v), armature voltage drop (Ia*Ra) and flux
(Φ). Accordingly, there are three speed control methods
(1) Armature voltage control method (v)
(2) Armature resistance control method (Ia)
(3) Flux or field control method (If)

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(1) Armature voltage control method:
The speed equation indicates that the speed of DC motor is directly proportional to the
armature voltage (v). But this method is applicable only for the speed control below the rated
value as armature voltage can’t be allowed to exceed its rated value.
We know,

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑣 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ ∅

As voltage (v) reduces back emf (Eb) also reduces. Since back emf is proportional to speed,
speed falls. As voltage reduces further, speed decreases as shown in characteristics.
Variable armature voltage control can be obtained by following methods.
(a) When the supply is ac
(i) Ward – Leonard method
(ii) Transformer with taps and uncontrolled rectifier bridge
(iii) Controlled rectifiers
(b) When the supply is DC
(i) Chopper control

(2) Armature resistance control method (Ia):

In this method, a high value resistance is connected in series with armature as shown.

As armature resistance is increased, current (Ia) drops down. So armature voltage drop
(Ia*Ra) increases. Since supply voltage (v) is constant, back emf (Eb) reduces.

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑣 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

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As back emf reduces speed (N) also decreases as shown in characteristics.

Addition of resistance in the armature will reduce the speed of motor. So this method is used to
obtain the speed of the below its rated value. This method is rarely used to control the speed as
huge power is wasted in additional resistance.
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(3) Flux or field control method:
In this method, a high value resistance is connected in series with field winding as shown.

Due to additional field resistance, field current (Ish) reduces, which reduces flux (Φ). As
we know speed is inversely proportional to flux (provided back emf is constant), with reduction
in flux, speed increases.
𝐸𝑏
𝑁 =𝑘∗( )
∅
Thus field control method is used to provide the speed above its rated value. Torque
speed characteristic for field control method is as shown…

In case of series motor, filed control can also be obtained by varying number of turns in field
winding.

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Modes of Operation:
An electrical drive operates in three modes
(1) Steady state
(2) Acceleration including starting ------ Transient Operation
(3) Deceleration including stopping (braking) ---- Transient Operation

(1) Steady state operation:

It takes place when the motor torque becomes equal to the load torque.

𝑻𝑴 = 𝑻𝑳 ----- Condition for steady state operation

To operate the drive in steady state, it is required to adjust the motor parameters such
that motor speed –torque curve is adjusted to load curve.
When the drive is operating in quadrant I and III, the load torque opposes the motion /
speed (ωm). So motor operates in motoring mode (forward / reverse motoring). In such mode
motor parameters (speed) can be adjusted to achieve steady state operation.
But when the drive is operating in quadrant II and IV, the load torque assist the motion /
speed (ωm). So motor operates in braking mode (forward / reverse braking). In such case steady
state operation can be obtained by producing a torque opposite to the motion called as braking
torque.

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(2) Acceleration including starting:
Acceleration means increase in speed. It is transient mode of operation. To operate the
drive in acceleration mode, motor torque (TM) should be greater than load torque (TL). (TM > TL)
Motor torque can be increased by increasing motor current. But the current should not increase
beyond certain limit due to safety reason for motor and power modulator.
The time required to change the speed from zero to maximum is called accelerating time.
It depends on inertia (J) of motor – load system and the amount by which motor torque exceeds
the load torque.
In applications where the acceleration required is for longer duration, current should not
be allowed to exceed its rated value. When the acceleration time period is short then the current
higher than the rated value can be allowed. When the starting takes place at no load or light load,
the method of low starting torque can be employed. When the motor has to start with load then
method of high starting torque can be used. In some application it is required to start the motor
smoothly without jerk. In this case torque can be increased steplessly from its zero value. It is
called soft starting.
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(3) Deceleration including stopping:
Deceleration means decrease in speed. It is also transient mode of operation. To operate
the drive in deceleration mode, motor torque (TM) should be less than load torque (TL). (TM < TL)
It depends on the amount of load torque.
If load torque is of substantial magnitude, then motor torque can be reduced to zero to
obtain sufficient deceleration. When the load torque is not of large magnitude, then reducing
motor torque does not provide enough deceleration. In such cases additional torque (braking
torque) need to be provide to stop the motor.
Braking torque can be obtained by (a) mechanical braking (b) electrical braking
(1) Mechanical braking:
It is applied through mechanical brake shoe mounted on the shaft of the motor. It has
following limitations
(a) Due to direct contact of shoe to the shaft it produces wear and tear and sparking so frequent
maintenance is required.
(b) It has low life. (Replacement of shoe is required)
(c) Also large amount of power is wasted in terms of heat during braking.
All these drawbacks of mechanical braking are overcome by use of electrical barking in
which no mechanical contacts are required. But mechanical braking is required when it is
required to stop the motor suddenly.
(2) Electrical braking:
In case of electrical braking, the motor works as a generator developing a negative torque
which opposes the motion (quadrant II). There are three types of electrical braking
(a) Dynamic or rheostatic braking
(b) Plugging or reverse voltage braking
(c) Regenerative braking
Typically, electrical braking is smooth, contactless and more efficient than mechanical
braking. But it requires additional components (circuits) to provide brake torque to the motor.
So it is complex in nature and costly.

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(a) Dynamic braking (rheostatic braking)
In this type of braking, armature of the DC shunt motor is disconnected from the source
and connected across braking resistance RB. For DC series motor, series field winding connections
are reversed and then the armature is disconnected from the source.
In dynamic braking, a motor act as a generator and energy produced is dissipated in
braking resistance RB.

Current equation (for shunt motor)

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ

𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ

𝑅𝐵
𝐼𝑠ℎ = 𝐼𝑎 ∗ ( )
𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝑠ℎ

For dynamic braking applied voltage to motor (V) is zero. V = 0

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝑁

(𝑣 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 ) = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝑁

−𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝑁

The above equation indicates that during dynamic braking the armature current is
negative, so power flows from load (motor) to source. Hence it produces forward braking torque.
(Quadrant II – with speed is positive and torque is negative)

Characteristic during dynamic braking:

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 (b) Plugging (reverse voltage braking)
In this type of braking, reverse voltage is applied to armature. For DC shunt motor when
the applied DC voltage is reversed, then it assist the back emf (Eb) forcing armature current (Ia)
to flow in reverse direction. So the required braking torque is produced. During plugging high
value of resistance is connected in series with armature to limit the braking current.
For DC series motor only armature terminals are reversed so armature current (Ia) is also
reversed and necessary braking torque can be obtained.
Mathematical equation

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑣 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

During plugging voltage is reversed

𝐸𝑏 = −𝑣 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

𝐸𝑏 + 𝑣 = −𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

The above equation indicates that during plugging, the armature current is reversed due to which
power flows from motor to source. So forward braking is obtained.

The speed torque characteristics during plugging are as shown.

In plugging, when breaking is applied, speed drops down to zero but torque can’t be zero
as shown. This is due to applied voltage in reverse direction continued to maintain flux. So even
for speed is zero, torque can’t be zero. In such case if motor carries some load then it may
continue to rotate in reverse direction. Such situation is typically occurs in cranes or hoists. To
avoid reverse rotation of motor, it should be disconnected from the supply with the help of
centrifugal switch when the motor speed approaches to zero.

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(c) Regenerative braking
In motor, motoring action takes place when applied voltage (v) is greater than back emf
(Eb). In motoring mode power flows from source to load (motor). But when back emf (Eb)
becomes greater than supply voltage (v) then power flows in reverse direction i.e. from load
(motor) to source called as regenerative braking.

We know that back emf (Eb) is directly proportional to speed (N). So if speed of the motor
increases then back emf also increases and regenerative braking can be achieved.

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ ∅

𝐸𝑏
𝑁 =𝑘∗( )
∅
For DC shunt motor as speed of the motor increases, back emf also increases with
increase in current (for a fixed value of voltage). Since flux is approximately constant regenerative
braking can be achieved easily. But for DC series motor, as speed of the motor increases, its
armature current (field current) decreases. So condition for regenerative braking can’t be
achieved. Hence regenerative braking is not possible in case of DC series motor.
The speed torque characteristics for DC shunt motor during regenerative braking is as
shown.

In actual system, when the motor operates in regenerative braking mode terminal voltage
rises. Also power flows from motor to source. So it is required to connect additional load to
absorb regenerated power. Sometimes capacitor can also be connected along with load. The
additional power can also be dissipated in resistance. Regenerative braking is known as
composite braking because it is combination of regenerative braking and dynamic braking.

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When the dc source is battery, then regenerated energy can be stored in it.
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Voltage Controlled Drives
When the applied dc voltage is controlled then it is called as voltage controlled drives.
Typically thyristor based converters are used for voltage controlled drives.

For voltage controlled drives, input may be single phase or three phase AC as shown.
Thyristor based converter converts fixed AC into variable DC. By controlling firing angle (α) of
SCR, the DC voltage (v) applied to armature can be controlled. Depending on supply voltage
controlled drives can be classified as
(a) 1 phase half controlled drive. (semiconverter)
(b) 1 phase fully controlled drive.
(c) 3 phase half controlled drive. (semiconverter)
(d) 3 phase fully controlled drive.

1 phase half controlled drive for saperately excited motor.

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  1 phase fully controlled drive for separately excited motor

Let’s consider 1 phase fully controlled converter is connected to armature of DC motor.

Working:
When terminal a is positive wrt terminal b then T1 and T2 must be triggered and when
terminal a is negative wrt terminal b then T3 and T4 must be triggered. Each thyristor is conducted
for 900. In both the cases the current flowing through the motor (Ia) is in the same direction. Free
wheeling diode (FWD) across the armature is used to circulate the energy stored in armature
during negative voltage period of each output wave.
Ideally trigger pulse to any thyristor is provided when applied AC voltage becomes greater
than back emf. (Vs > Eb). But practically some time delay is required to give trigger pulse (typically
5 to 100)

Waveform:
Waveforms for input voltage (Vs), gate pulses, output voltage (Va), and current is as
shown.

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Analysis:
1. Input is AC
Vs = Vm*sin ωt
2. When Vs > Eb then trigger pulse is applied (practically applied after some delay)
3. The output DC voltage of converter is pulsating in nature as shown with negative portion is
FWD operation. Its average value can be calculated as

1 𝜋+𝛼
𝑉𝑎 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 𝛼
Solving above equation
2 ∗ 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = 0.636 ∗ 𝑉𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝜋

Here α = firing angle of thyristor.

4. T1 and T2 is ON from α to (π + α) and T3 and T4 is ON from (π + α) to (2π + α). So conduction for

each thyristor is of 900.
5. During negative portion of DC output voltage stored energy is circulated through Free
Wheeling Diode.

6. Current equation
𝑉𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

𝑉𝑎 − 𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎

Here Va = Vdc (avg) = 0.636*Vm*cos (α)

7. Speed equation
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ 𝜔𝑚 − −𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑉𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

𝑉𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 =
𝑘𝑏

8. Torque equation
𝑇 = 𝑘𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑎

9. Relation between speed (ωm) and torque (T)

𝑉𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 =
𝑘𝑏

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We know that
𝑉𝑎 = 0.636 ∗ 𝑉𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼)

0.636 ∗ 𝑉𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 = ( )−( )
𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑏

From torque equation

𝑇
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑘𝑡

0.636 ∗ 𝑉𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜶 𝑻 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝝎𝒎 = ( )−( )
𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑏 ∗ 𝑘𝑡

Effect of firing angle on speed torque characteristics

The above graph indicates that when firing angle (α) is in between 0 to 900, the speed
(ωm) of the motor is positive. But when firing angle goes beyond 900 then the speed becomes
negative.
The graph between Va and α is plotted as shown.

We know
𝑉𝑎 = 0.636 ∗ 𝑉𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼

Va = 0.636*Vm ----- for α = 00

Va > 0 (positive) ------ 0 <α < π/2
Va = 0 ----- for α = π/2
Va <0 (negative) ----- α > π/2

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Two Quadrant Characteristics:
(1) When firing angle (α) < 900
For this condition speed (ωm) is positive. Va is also positive. So power flows from source
to motor and it acts in forward motoring mode (quadrant I).
(2) When firing angle (α) > 900
For this condition speed (ωm) is negative. Va is also negative. So power flows from motor
to source and it acts in reverse braking mode (quadrant IV).

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  3 phase fully controlled drive for separately excited motor
Let’s consider 3 phase fully controlled converter is connected to armature of separately excited
DC motor.

There are 6 thyristors, with 3 thyristors are in upper leg and 3 are lower leg as shown. For
symmetrical triggering gate pulse is applied after every 600 of interval. Also every thyristor will
conduct for 1200.

The input and output waveform is as shown in figure.

(1) for ωt = 300 to ωt = 900

R phase is more positive and Y phase is more negative. So T1 and T6 are conducting and
output voltage is VRY.
(2) for ωt = 900 to ωt = 1500
R phase is still more positive and B phase is more negative. So now T 6 is off and T1 and T2
are conducting and output voltage is VRB.
This process continues and at the end of one cycle (360 0), 6 pulses of output DC voltage
are obtained as shown in waveform.

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Analysis:
1. Input is 3 phase AC supply
VR = Vm*sin ωt
VY = Vm*sin (ωt – 120)
VB = Vm*sin (ωt + 120)

2. The output DC voltage of converter is pulsating in nature as shown. Its average value can be
calculated as
𝝅
𝟑 𝜶+ 𝟑
𝑽𝒅𝒄 = ∫ 𝑽𝒎 ∗ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 𝒅𝝎𝒕
𝝅 𝜶
Solving
3
𝑉𝑑𝑐 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = ( ) ∗ 𝑉𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝜋
Here α = firing angle of thyristor.
Vdc (avg) = 0.954*Vm*cos α

3. Current equation
𝑉𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

𝑉𝑎 − 𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎

Here Va = Vdc (avg) = 0.954*Vm*cos (α)

4. Speed equation
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ 𝜔𝑚 − −𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑉𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

𝑉𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 =
𝑘𝑏

5. Torque equation
𝑇 = 𝑘𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑎

6. Relation between speed (ωm) and torque (T)

𝑉𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 =
𝑘𝑏

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We know that
𝑉𝑎 = 0.954 ∗ 𝑉𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼)

0.954 ∗ 𝑉𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 = ( )−( )
𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑏

From torque equation

𝑇
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑘𝑡

0.954 ∗ 𝑉𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜶 𝑻 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝝎𝒎 = ( )−( )
𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑏 ∗ 𝑘𝑡

Effect of firing angle on speed torque characteristics

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Chopper Controlled DC Drives
Chopper is also called as DC to DC converter as it converts DC input voltage to DC
output voltage. Basically chopper is a static device that converts fixed DC voltage into variable DC
voltage.

Chopper is high speed semiconductor switch which can connect and disconnect the load
to source at a very high speed (high frequency). Self-commutated devices like MOSFET, GTO,
IGCT, IGBT, Power Transistors etc are used to build chopper circuit because they can be
commutated by a low power control signals. Due to high speed of operations, current ripples are
reduced. So motor performance is improved. Also discontinuous conduction mode can be
eliminated. Another important feature of chopper control is that regenerative braking can be
carried out for very low speed of motor.
MOSFET: - Low power and low voltage applications.
IGBT & Power Transistors: - Medium Power applications
GTO and IGCT: - High Power applications
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 Chopper is used to provide armature voltage control, thereby providing speed below its
rated value. There are two types of choppers
(1) Step down chopper – (Vout < Vin) --- used for simple motor control
(2) Step up chopper – (Vout > Vin)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(1) Step Down Chopper (Forward Motoring Control):
A simple arrangement of chopper used for Motoring control is as shown

Switch is operated periodically with total period T. When switch is turned ON, motor
receives rated input voltage (Vs). When switch is turned OFF, motor receives zero voltage and
current is circulated through freewheeling diode (FWD).

Mathematical Analysis
(a) During ON period
𝑑𝐼𝑎
𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐿𝑎 ∗ ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑉𝑠 − − − 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑇𝑂𝑁

During this interval armature current increases from Ia1 to Ia2.

(b) During OFF period
𝑑𝐼𝑎
𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐿𝑎 ∗ ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 0 − − − 𝑇𝑂𝑁 < 𝑡 < 𝑇

During this interval armature current decreases and passes through FWD from I a2 to Ia1.

Waveforms:

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Total time period (T) = TON + TOFF
Frequency of operation (f) = (1/T)
Let’s consider
𝑇𝑂𝑁 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 ) 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝛿) = = =1−( )
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

From waveform
𝑇𝑂𝑁
1
𝑉𝑎(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = ∗ ∫ 𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜹 ∗ 𝑽𝒔
𝑇
0

Since duty cycle (δ) is always less than 1, average value of dc voltage (output) is less than
input voltage (Vs). So it is called as step down chopper. By controlling duty cycle, armature
voltage (Va) can be controlled so speed of the motor can be controlled below its rated value
(Forward motoring).

Current and speed equation.

𝑉𝑎(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

(𝑉𝑎(𝑎𝑣𝑔) − 𝐸𝑏)
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎

𝜹 ∗ 𝑽𝒔 − 𝑬𝒃
𝑰𝒂 = ( )
𝑹𝒂

Speed equation
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ 𝜔𝑚 − −𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑉𝑎(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎(𝑎𝑣𝑔) − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

𝑉𝑎(𝑎𝑣𝑔) − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 =
𝑘𝑏

Torque equation
𝑇 = 𝑘𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑎

Relation between speed (ωm) and torque (T)

𝑉𝑎(𝑎𝑣𝑔) − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 =
𝑘𝑏

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We know that
𝑉𝑎(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝛿 ∗ 𝑉𝑠

𝛿 ∗ 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 = ( )−( )
𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑏

From torque equation

𝑇
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑘𝑡

𝜹 ∗ 𝑽𝒔 𝑻 ∗ 𝑹𝒂
𝝎𝒎 = ( )−( )
𝒌𝒃 𝒌𝒃 ∗ 𝒌𝒕

Speed Torque Characteristics (Forward Motoring)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2) Forward Braking Control:
A simple arrangement of chopper used for Braking control is as shown

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 Switch is operated periodically with total period T. When switch is turned ON, it produces
short circuit across the motor for very short duration and current through motor rises. When
switch is turned OFF, the stored energy in the motor flows through diode towards source. The
capacitor Cs is connected towards source side to absorb addition power delivered by motor.

Waveforms:

Total time period (T) = TON + TOFF

Frequency of operation (f) = (1/T)

Let’s consider
𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂𝑁 ) 𝑇𝑂𝑁
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝛿) = = =1−( )
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

From waveform
𝑇
1
𝑉𝑎(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = ∗ ∫ 𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜹 ∗ 𝑽𝒔
𝑇
𝑇𝑂𝑁

When the switch is turned ON it creates short circuit and back emf (Eb) circulates
armature current (Ia) through switch for short duration. But when the switch is turned OFF, the
armature current flows through diode and capacitor. In both cases the armature current flows
from motor to load. (Braking)

Armature current
𝐸𝑏 − 𝛿 ∗ 𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎

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Speed equation
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ 𝜔𝑚 − −𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) + 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎

𝑉𝑎(𝑎𝑣𝑔) + 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 =
𝑘𝑏

𝛿 ∗ 𝑉𝑠 + 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 =
𝑘𝑏
Torque equation
𝑇 = −𝑘𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑎

(Since Ia is reversed)
𝑇
𝐼𝑎 = −
𝑘𝑡

Relation between speed (ωm) and torque (T)

𝛿 ∗ 𝑉𝑠 + 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 =
𝑘𝑏

𝛿 ∗ 𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 = ( )−( )∗𝑇
𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑏 ∗ 𝑘𝑡

Speed Torque Characteristics (Forward Motoring)

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Open Loop and Closed Loop Control of DC Drives.
Open loop control is simplest form of drive control, but it is rarely used to control DC
motor. Closed loop control is more commonly used as feedback od speed, voltage and current
can be employed. Typical block diagram of closed loop control used for DC motor is as shown.

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 This drive system will operate at a constant field current and variable armature voltage
for below base speed operation. Also it will operate at variable field current and constant
armature voltage for above base speed operation. Hence both armature and field are fed from
fully controlled converters. The drive employs inner current control loop and outer speed control
loop.
Speed of the motor is sensed by speed sensor and it is fed back to speed control loop.
Armature current (Ia) is sensed by hall effect sensor and fed back to current control loop and field
control loop as shown. Armature voltage (Va) is fed back to field control circuit.

𝐸𝑏 = (𝑣 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎) = 𝑘𝑏 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝑁

𝑣 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝑁 = 𝑘1 ∗ ( )
∅

Operation at below base speed:

To obtain the speed below its base value, field current (If) has to be constant so flux will
remain constant. It can be possible by maintaining firing angle of field current (α f) at zero level.
So rated voltage is applied to field. The speed reference is adjusted such that current limiter
saturates and produces maximum permissible value. Now firing angle (αa) of armature voltage
control converter needs to be adjusted to change the speed to below is base value.
Operation at above base speed:
To obtain the speed above its base value, armature voltage (Va) has to constant (near to
its rated value) and field current need to change. It can be possible by controlling firing angle of
field controller (αf). At the same time the firing angle of the armature voltage controller needs to
be remain constant.

Since the armature voltage is controlled from fully controlled rectifier, forward braking is
not possible.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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  12 Pulse Converter / Duel Converter
The basic problem with 1 phase / 3 phase fully controlled converter is that it can
operate only in two quadrants (first and forth). To operate the motor in all four quadrants two 3
phase fully controlled converters are arranged in anti-parallel pattern and connected to same DC
drive. Since this combination consist of 12 thyristors (6 + 6), it is also called as 12 pulse converter.
Circuit diagram for duel converter is as shown

Rectifier A provides positive motor current and voltage in either direction, allows
motor control in quadrant I and IV. Rectifier B provides motor control in quadrant III and IV
because it gives negative motor current and voltage in either direction.
There are two methods of control for the duel converter
(a) Simultaneous control: In this method both the rectifiers (A and B) are controlled together. In
order to avoid dc circulating current between rectifiers, both of them produces same dc voltage
across the motor terminals.
𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 = 0
0.954 ∗ 𝑉𝑚 ∗ (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼𝐵 ) = 0

𝛼𝐴 + 𝛼𝐵 = 0
Inductors L1 and L2 are added to reduce ac circulating current. This method is also known as
circulating current control method.
(b) Non Simultaneous control: In this method, one rectifier is controlled at a time so no circulating
current flows. So no need of inductors L1 and L2. It eliminates losses also reduces weight and
volume associated with inductors. Also non – simultaneous control provides faster response than
simultaneous control. So non – simultaneous control method is widely used.

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Type of Numerical
1. Braking (Transient) – (a) Regenerative braking (b) Dynamic braking (c) Plugging
(a) – 1,7
(b) – 2, 3, 5
(c) – 4, 6
2. Speed Control – 8, 9,
3. Controlled rectifiers – (a) Single phase (b) Three phase
(a) – 10, 11,19 (b) – 12
4. Chopper Control – 13, 20
Insem 22 – 19, 20
Insem 23 – 10, 1

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1. A 220 V, 200 A, 800 rpm dc separately excited motor has an armature resistance of 0.06 Ω.
The motor armature is fed from a variable voltage source with an internal resistance of 0.04 Ω.
Calculate internal voltage of the variable voltage source when the motor is operating in
regenerative braking at 80% of the rated motor torque and 600 rpm. (Insem 23)

2. A 220 V dc series motor runs at 1000 rpm (clockwise) and takes an armature current of 100 A
when driving a load with a constant torque. Resistance of armature and field windings are 0.05
Ω each. It is operated under dynamic braking at twice the rated torque and 800 rpm. Calculate
the value of braking current and resistor. Assume linear magnetic circuit.

4. A 220 V, 970 rpm, 100 A dc separately excited motor has an armature resistance of 0.05 Ω. It
is braked by plugging from initial speed of 1000 rpm. Calculate (i) Resistance to be placed in
armature circuit to limit the braking current to twice the full load value.
(ii) Braking torque (iii) Torque when the speed falls to zero.

5. The rheostatic braking is applied to bring a separately excited dc motor to rest from its initial
speed of 1050 rpm along with the load torque equal to 15% of the rated value. The motor rating
plate provides following data 35 kW, 220 V, 175 A, 1000 rpm
Armature circuit has a resistance of 0.08 Ω. Calculate the braking resistance so as to limit the
braking current to twice the rated value.

6. Plugging is applied to bring a separately excited dc motor to rest from its initial speed of 1050
rpm along with the load torque equal to 50 % of the rated value. The motor rating plate provides
following data 35 kW, 220 V, 175 A, 1000 rpm, Armature circuit has a resistance of 0.08 Ω.
Calculate the braking resistance so as to limit the braking current to twice the rated value.

7. A 230 V, 870 rpm, 100 A separately excited dc motor has an armature resistance of 0.05 Ω. It
is coupled to an overhauling load with a torque of 400 N-m. Determine the speed at which motor
can be hold the load by regenerative braking.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Type II: Speed Control
8. A 220 V, 500 A, 600 rpm separately excited motor has armature and field resistance of 0.02 Ω
and 10 Ω respectively. The load torque is given by the expression TL = 2000 – 2N N-m where N is
the speed in rpm. Speed below the rated are obtained by armature voltage control and above
the rated are obtained by field control. Calculate
(i) The motor terminal voltage and armature current when the speed is 450 rpm
(ii) The field winding voltage and armature current when the speed is 750 rpm

9. A 220 V, 200 A, 750 rpm separately excited motor has armature resistance of 0.05 Ω. The load
torque is given by the expression TL = 500 – 0.25N N-m where N is the speed in rpm. Speed below
the rated are obtained by armature voltage control and above the rated are obtained by field
control. Calculate
(i) The motor terminal voltage and armature current when the speed is 400 rpm
(ii) Value of flux as a percentage of rated flux when the speed is 1500 rpm

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Type III: Converter Control
10. A 200 V, 875 rpm, 150 A separately excited dc motor has as armature resistance of 0.06 Ω. It
is fed from a single phase fully controlled rectifier with an ac source voltage of 220 V, 50 Hz.
Assume conduction to be continuous. Calculate
(i) firing angle for rated motor torque and 750 rpm
(ii) firing angle for rated motor torque and – 500 rpm
(iii) motor speed for α = 1600 and rated torque ------- (Insem 23)

11. A 220 V, 1500 rpm, 10 A separately excited dc motor has as armature resistance of 2 Ω. It is
fed from a single phase fully controlled rectifier with an ac source voltage of 230 V, 50 Hz.
Assume continuous conduction. Calculate firing angles for
(i) half the rated motor torque and 500 rpm
(ii) rated motor torque and – 1000 rpm

12. A 220 V, 1500 rpm, 50 A separately excited motor with armature resistance of 0.5 Ω, is fed
from 3 phase fully controlled rectifier. Available ac source has a line voltage of 440 V, 50 Hz. A
star – delta connected transformer is used to feed the armature so that motor terminal voltage
equals the rated voltage when converter firing angle is zero.
(i) Calculate transformer turns ratio.
(ii) Determine the value of firing angle when
(a) Motor is running at 1200 rpm and rated torque
(b) Motor is running at – 800 rpm and twice the rated torque
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Type IV: Chopper Control
13. A 230 V, 960 rpm, 200 V separately excited dc motor has an armature resistance of 0.02 Ω.
The motor is fed from a chopper which provides both motoring and braking operations. The
source has a voltage of 230 V. Assume continuous conduction. Calculate
(i) Duty ratio of chopper for motoring operation at rated torque and 350 rpm
(ii) Duty ratio of chopper for braking operation at rated torque and 350 rpm
(iii) If maximum duty ratio of chopper is limited to 0.95 and maximum permissible motor current
is twice the rated, calculate maximum permissible motor speed obtainable without field
weakening and power fed to source.

19. A 220 V, 1500 rpm, 10 A separately excited dc motor has as armature resistance of 1 Ω. It is
fed from a single phase fully controlled rectifier with an ac source voltage of 230 V, 50 Hz.
Assume continuous conduction. Calculate (Insem – 22) – similar to problem no 11
(i) Motor speed at firing angle of 300 and torque of 5 N-m
(ii) Developed torque at the firing angle of 450 and speed of 1000 rpm

20. A 220 V, 24 A, 1000 rpm separately excited DC motor has and armature resistance of 2 ohm.
Motor is controlled by chopper with frequency of 500 Hz and a source voltage of 230 V. Calculate
the duty ratio for 1.2 times the rated torque and 500 rpm. (Insem – 22)

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 Question Bank (Theory)

1. Draw and explain different characteristics of DC Shunt Motor.

2. Draw and explain different characteristics of DC Series Motor.
3. Explain how dynamic braking is applied to separately excited DC motor? Also draw braking
characteristic for the same.
4. Explain how plugging is applied to DC motor? Also draw braking characteristic for the same.
5. Write a short note on regenerative braking applied to DC motor.
6. With neat diagram explain operation of single phase fully controlled drive used for DC motor.
Also draw two quadrant characteristic for the same. Derive relation between speed and firing
angle.
7. Explain operation of 3 phase fully controlled drive used for DC motor. Also explain effect of
firing angle on torque speed characteristic.
8. Explain how step down (buck) chopper used as forward motoring control for separately excited
DC motor. Draw input output waveform for the same.
9. Explain the working of duel converter used for DC motor. Write its advantages.
10. Draw block diagram of closed loop control of separately excited DC motor. Explain its
operation at below and above base speed.
11. Explain operation of chopper controlled separately excited DC motor drive with suitable
waveforms.
12. Explain regenerative braking of DC motor along with speed control characteristics.

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