oun Logabe PEUR MLBEKT | . ow at CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH 1.1 Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, the student should be able to: ssearch in particular 1. Define research in general and health systems re: 2. Enumerate the characteristics of research 3. Identify the different types of research 4, List the essential features of health systems research 5, Describe the broad divisions (steps) involved in the research process 6. Explain the roles of research in development a 1.2 Introduction ‘The ultimate goal of any national health-development process is to enable its people, a level of health that enables them to make meaningful participation economic life of the community in which they live. To attain this objective) decide on the best approaches to adopt. However, this’ requires detai information on the existing health systems of these countries, Unfortunately! is often lacking , inadequate, or unreliable. As a result, decisions are base; and unjustified conclusions and often result in inappropriate policy choices. search for scientific knowledge and information should be strongly supporte Research in the context of public health thus aims to provide alfaspec necessary for planning and the effective implementation of a health communities, whether affluent or p questions are formidable: how priority needs, planning, fin of coverage, efficiency and effectiveness: In the si countriq led and such in don ass\ n this ret ts of inf system, oor, health research is the top priority. The to join with policy makers and communities in a ancing and implementing programs, and evaluating them to reach cial and s should laccurate rmation mptions ard, the mation, For all esearch sessing in termsResearch methodology 1.3 Definition and characteristics of research Definition: Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning ne It is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of knowledge and answer a certain question or solve a problem. Characteristics of research > Itdemands a clear statement of the problem > It requires a plan (it is not aimlessly * looking’ for something in the hope that you will come across a solution) » It builds on existing data, using both positive and negative » New data should be collected as required and be organiz they answer the research question(s) 1.4 Types of research data to generate new Te din suc facts, testing ideas, etc. a way that Research is a systematic search for information and new knowledge. It covers topigs in every field of science and perceptions of its scope and activities are unlimited. making optimal use of available resources. Quantitative and Qualitative researches: Early forms of research originatéd in the sciences such as biology, chemistry, physics, geology ete, and was investigating things which we could observe and measure in some way. S and measurements can be made objectively and repeated by other resi Process is referred to as “quantitative” research. Much later, along came researchers working in the social sciences: psychology, socio anthropology etc, They were interested in studying human behaviour and the social inhabited by human beings. They found Increasing difficulty in trying to behaviour in simply measurable terms, Measurements fll us how often or how many pe ncerne} he ¢lassjcal broad divisions of research are: basic and applied research. The basic research is necp: generate new knowledge and technologies to deal with major unresolve ssary to health problems On the other hand, applied research is necessary to identify priority problems design and evaluate policies and programs that will deliver the greatest health and to benefit, natural with uch observations earchers| explain hut This logy, orld an plebehave in a certain way but they do not adequately answer the “why” aijd "how" ee Research which attempts to increase our understanding of why things are the way they are in our social world and why people act the ways they do is “qualitative” research Research methodolog; 7 Qualitative research is concerned with developing explanations of social phenomens. That is {0 say, it aims to help us to understand the world in which we live and why fhings arg the way they are. Its concerned with the social aspects of our world and seeks to|answer questions about: + Why people behave the way they do * How opinions and attitudes are formed + How people are affected by the events that go on around them * How and why cultures have developed in the way they have Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin with: why? How? In what way? Quantitative research, on the other hand, is more concerned with questions about: how much? How many? How often? To what extent? etc. | Public health problems are complex, not only because of their multicausality, but and asa result of new and emerging domestic and international health problems, Sodial, economic, political, ethnic, environmental, and genetic factors all are associated with today's public health concerns. Consequently, public health practitioners and researchers Fegognize the need for multiple approaches to understanding problems and developing effective interventions that address contemporary public health issues. Qualitative methods fill a gap in the public health toolbox; they help us understand behaviors, attitudes, per¢eptions, |and culture in a way that quantitative methods alone cannot, For all these reasons, qualitative methods are getting renewed attention and gaining new respect in public health ‘A thorough description of qualitative research is beyond the scope of this ibcture nete. Students interested to know more about qualitative methods could consult other books which are primarily written for that purpose. The main Purpose of this lecture note js to giva a detailed account on the principles of quantitative research. | :Research methodolog: | Health research Knowledge, both generalizable worldwide and locally specific, is essential to effective action for health. Worldwide knowledges the basis on which new tools, strategies, and approaches are devised that are applicable to health problems facing many countries. Local knowledge, specific to the particular circumstances of each country can inform decision regarding which health problems are important, what measures should be applied and hpw to obtain the greatest health benefit from existing tools and limited resources. In this regard| health research is both global and local in nature. In most cases, health research has been divided into three overlapping groups. Essential health research: Consists of activities to define the health problems of 4 given country or community, to measure their importance and to assure the quality of activities to deal with them. Much of this research comes within the category of health service research but there will be elements of clinical research and development of technology, depending on the situation. The information, which may be obtained in a number of ways, 5 essential and specific to each country for planning and monitoring health services. Some of the ah arch conclusions, however, may be generalized and applicable to other areas. : Clinical research: In its widest sense, this group of topics ranges from studies of| the prevention and diagnosis of diseases through new methods of treatment to problems of |care and rehabilitation, The sophistication will vary from problem to problem and|there wit be overlap with the fields of essential and biomedical research. Some of the research : be mainly of local import include clinical trials of disease prevention and the design of ee | for clin ical Examples fance; much will be useful for other individuals in ary aN ies, chemotherapeutic a: gents. Wherever clinical facilities exist, there is a potenti\ \ Research methodolog \ Biomedical research: It is the most basic part of health research whi¢h demayds more resources, facilities and skilled investigators. The results of biomedical re re more often of universal importance and thus of general significance. During the past two decades, concepts and research approaches to support health development have evolved rapidly. Many of these have been described by specific terms such as operations research, health services research, health manpower| research, policy and economic analysis and decision-linked research. Each of these has mada) crucial contributions to the development of health research 1.5 Health systems research It is a component of health research. Research that supports health, development has come to be known as Health Systems Research, It is ultimately concerned with improving the health of a community, by enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of the health system as an integral part of the overall process of socioeconomic development. * Definition of “health system” A health system may be described as; = A set of cultural beliefs about health and illness that forms the basis for health-seeking and health-promoting behaviour. * The institutional arrangements within which that behaviour occurs; and * The socioeconomic (political) physical context for those beliefs and institutions. In short, it consists of what people believe and know about health and illness and what they do to remain healthy and cure diseases. Beliefs and action are usually closely connected. ra example, if in a society people perceive germs as the cause of disease, they |will look ifor modern (biomedical) health care. \ | The institutional arrangements within which the health-seeking and health-promoting behaviour occurs may include:Research methodolo 1. The individual, family and the community 2. Health care services, private sector: traditional and moylern | Nee practice (legal or legal) Public (governmental) sector Health workers, health institutions, ete. 3. Health related sectors ——+ education, agriculture, ete 4. The international sector, including bilateral and multilateral donor agencies (UNICEF, WHO, etc.) that may support health as well as Essential Features Health Systems Research (HSR) : 1} Bearing in mind that HSR is undertaken primarily to provide information to support\decision- aking at ail levels that can improve the functioning of the health system, some of the essential features are summarized as follows: + HSR should focus on priority problems. It should be action oriented (i.e., aimed at developing solutions) An integrated multidisciplinary approach is required (research approaches from many disciplines) The research should be participatory in nature (from Policy makers| to comrpunity members) Research must be timely. «Emphasis should be placed on comparatively simple, short-term research designs that are likely to yield practical results. The principle of cost-effectiveness is important in the selection of researth projects. + Results should be presented in formats most useful. for administrato: , degision- makers and the community. = A clear presentation of results with a summary of the major findings | adapted to the interests of the party being targeted by the report.Research methodology | = Honest discussion of practical or methodological problems a could have affected the findings. = Alternative courses of action that could follow from] the reshIts and the advantages and drawbacks of each. 9. Evaluation of the research undertaken - An HSR proje¢t should| not stop at finding answers to the research questions posed, but include an assessment of what decisions have been made based on the results of the study! This is the ability of research findings to influence policy, improve services and contribution to the betterment of health. 1.6 Main components of any research work |. Preparing a research proposal Il. Fieldwork (i.e., data collection) Ill. Analyzing data and preparing a research report NB. The roles of health managers and the community should be identified in the various Phpses of the research process. 1.7 Exercises 1. The health of any community depends on the interaction and balance between the health needs of the community, the health resources that are Vailable,| and the selection and application of health and health related interventions. ta 2. To invest in research is to invest for a better future. Does this statement sound true? Justify your answer. 3. Describe the characteristics of HSR by giving your own examples.| Research methodology | i CHAPTER TWO | TOPIC SELECTION | 2.1 Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Examine the cyclical nature of the development of a research proposal 2. Describe the principles underlying whether a problem situation is researchal 3. List the criteria for selecting a research topic. 4. Identify and select his/her own topic (health problem) for research based on guidelines. ble. certain 2.2 Introduction The development of a health project goes through a number of stages. Fornulation df the research proposal is the major task in the process of developing a research project The proposal draws on alll the preparatory steps of the research process and pulls them together in a document describing the rationale and the methodology proposed for research. | The proposal is a basis for approval and funding. After approval, the proposal is used asa blueprint during implementation of the project. It should be noted that development pf a research proposal is often a cyclical process. The process is not always linear] It is a usual practice to go up and down on the developed proposal and make the necessary fevisions|| Is there evidence to indicate that the research proposal focuses on a probleln of priority importance? Was the given health problem identified by relevant groups of the health system? Was the problem adequately analysed to include all possible contributory factors from different sectors? Was it clearly stated? These questions should be clearly answeted before trying to develop the research proposal. The sections that follow are devoted to giving the guidelines useful for identification, selection, analysis and statement of the given proble|2.3 Problem identification We the answer to the research question is obvious, we are dealing with a [ee froblem that may be solved without further research. A number of research questions could be presented that may be posed at the various levels of the health syste) Whether a problem requires research depends on three conditions: ') There should be a perceived difference or discrepancy Between what it is and what it should be; |) The reason(s) for this difference should be unclear (so that \it makes| sense to develop a research question); and Ill) There should be more than one possible and plausible answer to the question (or Solution to the problem). example: Problem situation: In district “ Y “ a report showed that in the first month there were 500 children under one year old who started immunization, but at the end of the year it was found out that there were only 25 children who completed their vaccination. Discrepancy: All the 500 children at district “Y “should have completed their vaccination but only 5% out of those who started vaccination have completed. Problem (research) question: why only 5% of the children completed their vacpination?| Definite answer: Out of the 1 hospital, 2 health centers and 10 health statibns faundl in district “Y” only 2 health stations were functioning, the rest were closed due tolinsecurity in the area Inthe above example, assuming that all the given facts are true, there is Ino need of nce definite answer is Obtained to the problem situation. undertaking a research, sif es ey seer Example 2: Problem situation: In district "2" (population 160,000) there are 2 health centers, 1 hospital and 15 health stations and all of them function smoothly. However, at the end df the year it was found that the EPI coverage was only 25%. Discrepancy: Although district “Z" had 100% availability of health servides and at least 80% of the children should have had full vaccinations the EPI coverage was only 26% as seen above. Problem question: What factors influence the low EPI coverage in district “2”? Possible answers: * Mothers might have problems for not attending in the EPI sessions. * The MCH, EPI, OPD, CDD, etc... programmes might not have beenlintegratdd; hence children might have missed opportunities in getting immunization. * The follow up of defaulting children might not be effective and other rgagons. Thus, the above problem situation is researchable. 2.4 Criteria for prioritizing problems for research Each problem that is proposed for research has to be judged according to eprtain guidelines or criteria. There may be several ideas to choose from, Before deciding on a research topic, each proposed topic must be compared with all other options. The selection and analysis of the problem for research should involve those who are responsible for the health status of the community. This would include the health services, health-care workers, and community leaders, researchers. managers in as well asResearch methodolog) | The guidelines or criteria given below can help in the process of selection a) Criteria for selecting a research topic 1. Relevance: The topic you choose should be a priority problem: 5. Questions to be asked include: * How large or widespread is the problem? "Who is affected? * How severe is the problem? . Avoidance of duplication: investigate whether the topic has been researched, If the topic has been researched, the results should be eel to explore whether major questions that deserve further investigation remaii If not, another topic should be chosen. Feasibility: Consider the complexity of the problem and thi you will require to carry out the study. unanswered. @ resdurces Thought should be given first to personnel, time, equipment and re that are locally available. In situations where the local resources necessa the project are not sufficient, you might consider sources aval national level. Political acceptability: It is advisable to research a topic that has the| support of the authorities. This will facilitate the smooth conduct of the increases the chance that the results of the Study will be implemented. Applicability of possible results and recommendations to carry out lable at| the interest and esearch ee Is it tkely that the recommendations ffom the study will be applieg? This il depend not only on the bles: ‘, nd: resources for implementing the recommendations, sing of the authorities but also on the ayailability| ofResearch methodology TH 6. Urgency of data needed How urgently are the results needed research should be done first and which can be done late? 7. Ethical acceptability We should always consider the possibility that we may inflict while carrying out research. Therefore, it will be useful to revie study, 4) Scales for rating research topics Relevance 1= Not relevant 2= Relevant 3 = very relevant Avoidance of duplication 1 = Sufficient information already available 2 = Some information available but major issues not covered 3 = No sound information available on which to base problem-solving Feasibility 1 = Study not feasible considering available resources 2= Study feasible considering available resources 3 = Study very feasible considering available resources Political acceptability 1 = Topic not acceptable 2= Topic somewhat acceptable 3 = Topic fully acceptable Applicability 1= No chance of recommendations being implemented 2= Some chance of recommendations being implemented 3 = Good chance of recommendations being implemented harm on the pl for making a tteciston? Which others ‘oposed| | “Research ey | | urgency formation not urgently needed le 2 = Information could be used buta delay of some months would be acceprapl | 3 = Data very urgently needed for decision-making Ethical acceptability | 1.= Major ethical problems | 2s lihor ethical problems | 3=Ndethical problems |. NB. Thd above rating should be based on the existing data and not on mere assumptions: Exercise: 1.| Ina certain district (population, 150,000), sanitary conditions are very poor (only 5% of | households have latrines) and diseases connected with poor sanitation, such as, | gastroenteritis and worms are very common. The Ministry of Health has initiated a | sanitation project that aims at increasing the number of households with latrines by 20% eabh year. The project provides materials and the population should provide labour. r° years later, less than half of the target has been reached. State the discrepancy, research question and the possible answers. Is this problem situation researchable? 2. Go to the| nearby health institution and identify three health problems. Discuss about ese health problems and rate them based on the selection criteria. When rating these problems based on the criteria, use the rating scale indicated at the betom of the table (you can also refer to the "Scales for rating research topics” Presented r section 2.4b). You can do the exercise in small groups. | Which topic do you select for research? Defend your first choice in a plenary session. | 13Research methodology _ | | Rating Sheet Criteria for _ Selecting a Proposed topic | erate Health problem I | Health problem II Health problen WW Relevance 7 ounces | eee | | Avoidance of duplication | | Feasibility Fore acceptability 7 2 | ; \ 2 eae - ‘ Urgency of data needed | | Ethical acceptability | Total | . . : J Rating scale: 1=low, 2= medium, 3 = highResearch methodology CHAPTER THREE ANALYSIS AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 3.1 Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Describe the advantages of a systematic analysis of a problem 2. Describe the importance of a clear statement of a problem 3. Enumerate the points that should be included in the statement of a problem 3.2 Introduction Was the problem adequately analysed to include all possible contributory fa different sectors? Was it clearly stated? These questions should b¢ clearly pnswered before trying to develop the research proposal. The sections that follow ara preted to giving the principles useful for the analysis and statement of the given Hroblem. tars from 3.3 Analyzing the problem A systematic analysis of the problem, completed jointly by the researchers, health workers, managers, and community representatives is a very crucial step in designing the research because it Enables those concerned to bring together their knowledge of the problem, * Clarifies the problem and the possible factors that may be contributing to it, + Facilitates decisions concerning the focus and scope of the reseafch. 3.4 Formulating the problem statement After identifying, selecting and analyzing the problem, the next major section in @ research proposal is “statement of the problem”a) Why is it important to state and define the problem well? Because a clear statement of the problem: » Is the foundation for the further development of the research proposal |(research objectives, methodology, work plan, ete): ports of similar studigs from hich your + Makes it easier to find information and re! own study design can benefit; int out why the proposed re} earch on + Enables the researcher to systematically Po! the study the problem should be undertaken and what you hope to achieve with results. b) Points that need to be considered for justifying the selected research problem A health problem selected to be studied has to be justified in terms of its: * Being a current and existing problem which needs solution * Being a widely spread problem affecting a target populatio * Effects on the health service programmes = Being a problem which concerns the planners, policy; makers) and the communities at large. c) Information included in the statement of a problem A brief description of socioeconomic and cultural characteristics and an overview of health status. « Amore detailed description of the nature of the problem - basic description of the research problem the discrepancy between what is and what should be - its size, distribution, and severity (who is affected, where, a when, etc.)Researchmethedoiogy * An analysis of the-major factors that may influence the oak argument that available knowledge is insufficient to answer a cont update the previous knowiedge, A brief description of any solutions that have been tried in the past, worked, and why further research is needed information will be used to help solve the problem + Ifnecessary, problem, A description of the type of information expected to result from the pioject an in ques }Ow well and a Convincing ion and to they have how this. @ short list of definitions of crucial concepts used in the statement of the A list of abbreviations may be annexed to the proposal, but each abbreviation also has to be written out in full when introduced in the text the first 3.5 Exercises 1. Why do we need to analyze the research problem? 2, What are the points required to justify the selected research problem? t time. 3. What information should be included in the statement of a problem?CHAPTER FOUR LITERATURE REVIEW 41 Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Describe the reasons for reviewing available literature and other jnformati the preparation of a research proposal. re during 2. Describe the resources that are available for carrying out such a review. 3. Record (organize) information obtained from literature on an index card. 4.2 Introduction | At the outset of his/her study the investigator should be acquainted with the relevant literature. It is of minimal use to wait until a report is written 4.3 Use of literature review * It prevents you from duplicating work that has been done before, + Itincreases your knowledge on the problem you want to study and this, | May assist you in refining your "statement of the problem”. + Itgives you confidence why your particular research project is needed. * To be familiar with different research methods | 44 Sources of information Card catalogues of books in libraries Organizations (institutions) Published information (books, journals, etc.) * Unpublished documents (studies in related fields, reports, etc.) * Computer based literature searches such as Medline .* Opinions, beliefs of key personsoe \ \ a | Some eater of resources where information could be obtained are: |" Clini¢ and hospital based data from routine activity statistics Local surveys, annual reports Scientific conferences t Statistics issued at region and district levels + Articles from national and intemational journals (e.g., The Ethiopian Journal of Health | Development, The Ethiopian Medical Journal, The East African Medical journal, The \ Lancet) ete.) +) interne! Documentation, reports, and raw data from the Ministry of Health, Central Statistical Offices, [Nongovernmental organizations, etc. References al are identified: * \Should fitst be skimmed or read hen sutnmaries of the important information in each of the references may be tecorded on separate index cards hese shquld then be classified so that the information can easily be retrieved 4.5 Organization of information on index cards The indéx cards Should contain: Key words A summary bf the contents of books or articles which is relevant to one's own study A brief analysis of the content, with comments such as: ~ how pon from that particular study could be used in one's own study Infotmation obtained from key persons could also be summarized on the index card After collecting the required information on index cards, the investigator should decide in which order helete wants to discuss previous research findings | | - from global to local | from broader to focusedectth ey 7 - from past to current In nclusiop, while reviewing a literature, all what is known about the study topic should be ‘with the relevant references, This review should answer | «| How much is known? summarized " | What is not known? * |What should be done based on what is lacking? Overall, the literature review should be. adequate, relevant and: critical.'In adgition to this, appropriate referencing procedures should always be followed in research proposals as well as in research reports. While reviewing a literature give emphasis to both positive and negative findings and avoid any distortion of information to suit your own study objectives. Finally, after ai exhaustive literature review, summarize the findings and write a coherent discusBion by ini \dicating the research gap which supports the undertaking of your study. 4.6 Exercises 1. Why is literature review important when preparing a Proposal? 2. The preserttation of research results or scientific joting the answer. Publications from other writers without author is not appropriate. Does this statement sound true? dustify your 2 3. Mention some of the sources of information in your area ai ind describe how such Information could be summarized on index cardsCHAPTER FIVE OBJECTIVES 5\1 Learning objectives ‘ After Sor this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Des | 2. Differentiate between general and specific objectives 3. Fornjulate specific objectives and hypotheses cal 2 stations in reasons for| logically connected parts, then we get specific objectives. 5.3 Defini General object Example: In a was: “tp assess a Unlike the Example: could be; now fe statement of objecti In the ribe the need for the development of research objectives 5.2 Introduction Having decided what to study, and knowing why s/he wants to study it, the investigator rmulate his study objectives. Objectives should be closely related to the the problem. For example, if the problem identified is low utilization of health p rural district, the general objective of the study could be to assess the this low utilization. If we break down this general objective into smaller and ives: aim of the study in general terms udy on missed opportunities for EPI in Addis Ababa the general gbjective missed opportunities for EPI in Addis Ababa”, ives: measurable statements n the specific questions to be answered. | objectives, the specific objectives are more specific and are related to the arn research problem situation. They indicate the variable to be examined and measured. \study of missed opportunity for EPI in Addis Ababa the specific objectivesRegearch methodology : . i who attend OPD, MCH, + To find out the magnitude of missed opportunities for children CDD) ete. in Addis Ababa, ized while attending the OPD, * To examine the reasons for children not being immuni MCH,|CDD, ete. services. 5.4 Formulation of the research objectives The formulation of objectives will help us to: Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials) Avoid collection of data that are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the identified problem «| Organize the study in clearly defined parts The explicit formulation of study objectives is an essential step in the planning of a study. It is said that “a question well-stated is a question half-answered”, but a question that is poorly stated or unstated is unlikely to be answered at all How should we state our objectives? We have to jnake sure that our objectives: + Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent ay and in a logical sequence . le clearly expressed in measurable terms * Are realistic considering local conditions * Meet the Rurpose of the study | * Use action verbs that are specific enough to be measured Examples of action verbs are: + tb determihe ~ t compare - to verify 1iegearch methodolo, : Regearcl | ee - to calculate - to describe - to find out - to establish | Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as; - to appreciate ~ to understand, - to nt | to believe Research objettives can be stated as: * | Questions - the Objectives of this study are to answer the following questions ..,. . Pest sentence - the objectives of this study are to find out, to astablish, to determine, ... * |Hypothesis - the objective of this study is to veri fy the following hypothesig (examples are given below) Based|on the ty Problerh that ca objectives, @ Of the study problem, it might be possible to develop explanations for the be tested. If so, we can formulate hypotheses in addition to the other study A hypothesis is a prediction of a relationship between one or more vari 4 ‘ables and the problem Under study. Th, is, It specifies the relationship among variables. These variables are to be Statistically tested at a later stage. In order to measure the telationshi Studied the deperldent and independent variables Need to be identified, A few examples are Given be| low: ip among variables to be 1. The health off children living in rural vilagization projects ig be traditonal "ural communities 2. To examine whether there is any significant diference betyye, tter than those living in en district “A” and district "B" “with respect to|their malaria prevalence rates 23—— = ase in i | preva os the frequency of face washing is followed by a reduction in trachoma One of the most important Problems Usually observed among students is the tendency of Stating too many study Objectives Which are not appropriately addressed (or sometimes wil be forgotten) in the sections th specific objectives that the example, sas size calc Most approp! ‘at follow. it should be noted that it is on the bases of these Methods, results and discussion sections will be presented, For ulations for each stated objective and identifying (Selecting) the late sample siz in the develo ment of mos! len research work, | the specific objectives are n € that will answer the required research questions is not covered t research Proposals. This is also true during the write up of the tis not uncommon to come across a situation in which some of lot addressed in the results section at all, Itis therefore advisable to limit the nu mber of specific objectives. In m lost practical situations, the number of specific objectives should not exceed three. 5.5 Exercises 1) Define general objectives, specific objectives and h examples The objectives of a study should be written after the statement of the research Problem) and before the methods section. Does thig Statement sound true? Justify your answer, ypotheses by giving your own = 3. |List the haracteristics of research objectives, 4. Comment on the statement: "A question well-stated is a question half-answerad’, 5. nae of the problems that may arise aS a result of having too many bjectives.