UNIT – 6

GRAVITATION
Gravitation is the force of attraction between any two bodies in the universe because of
their masses. Gravitation is the weakest of four basic forces in nature.
Gravity: - The gravitational force applied by the earth on any other object is known as
gravity of the earth.
Free Fall: - The motion of the body only under the influence of the gravity of the earth is
known as free fall.
Acceleration due to gravity: - The acceleration produced in a freely falling body under the
gravitational pull of the earth is known as acceleration due to gravity. It is represented by
the g.
Newton’s Law of gravitation: - Newton’s law of gravitation states that everybody in this
universe attracts every other body with a force, which is directly proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their
centres. The direction of the force is along the line joining the
particles. Thus, the magnitude of the gravitational force F that two particles of masses
m1 and m2 separated by a distance r exert on each other is given by

𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2
F∝ or F =
𝑟2 𝑟2

Where G is a constant known as universal gravitational constant. The value of G doesn’t

depend on the nature and the size of the body as well as on the nature of medium between
the two bodies. That’s why G is known as universal constant. The value of G is calculated by
an English scientist Henery Cavendish.
SI unit of gravitational constant is Nm2/kg2 and D.F. = [𝑀−1 𝐿3 𝑇 −2 ]
The value of G in SI unit = 6.67 x 10 – 11 Nm2/ kg2
The value of G in cgs unit = 6.67 x 10 – 8 dyn cm2/ g2
Gravitation in vector form: - Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a
distance r as shown in figure.

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
The force of gravitation on 1 because of 2, 𝐹⃗12 = 𝑟̂ 12
𝑟2
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
Similarly, The force of gravitation on 2 because of 1, 𝐹⃗21 = − 𝑟̂ 21
𝑟2

𝐹⃗12 = − 𝐹⃗21
Negative sign shows that both the force are in opposite direction and equal to each other.

Acceleration due to gravity: - Consider an object of mass m separated by a distance r from

the centre of the earth of mass M. The gravitational force applied by the earth on the object
𝐺𝑀𝑚
is given as F =
𝑟2

From the Newton’s second Law, F = ma or F = mg

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑮𝑴
So mg = or g=
𝑟2 𝒓𝟐

This shows that the acceleration produced in the object doesn’t depends on the mass of the
object m. it means the acceleration produced in the heavier and the lighter object will be
same if they both are released from the same height, means both will take the same time
duration to reach the earth surface only if the object is in free fall.
The value of the acceleration due to gravity on the earth surface is 9.81 m/s2 at sea level.
Mass of the Earth: -
𝐺𝑀 𝑔𝑟 2
As g = so M =
𝑟2 𝐺
9.81 𝑥 (6.4 𝑥 103 )2
M= = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝒈
6.67 𝑥 10−11

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Average Density of Earth: - As Density = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝟓.𝟗𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝒈
So Density = 4 = 5515.3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝜋𝑅 3
3
Density of earth is not uniform thought its volume, it maximum at the core up to 13000
kg/m3 while the earth crust is around 2600 kg/m3.

Variation of g with height: - Let the mass of the earth is M and the radius R.
𝐺𝑀
The acceleration due to gravity on the earth surface g = --------------------- (1)
𝑅2

Suppose the object is taken to a height h from the earth surface, then the acceleration due
𝐺𝑀
to gravity at that height is gh = ---------------------------- (2)
(𝑅+ℎ)2

On dividing equation 2 by 1
𝑔ℎ 𝑅2 𝒈𝑹𝟐
𝑔
= (𝑅+ℎ)2
so 𝒈𝒉 = (𝑹+𝒉)𝟐

𝑔ℎ 𝑅2 ℎ −2
On further solving, = ℎ = (1 + )
𝑔 𝑅 2 (1+ )2 𝑅
𝑅

On expanding using binomial theorem and ignoring the higher power

(h≪ 𝑅), we get
𝑔ℎ 2ℎ 𝟐𝒉
𝑔
= (1 − 𝑅
) or 𝒈𝒉 = 𝒈 (𝟏 − 𝑹
)

Variation of g with depth: - Let the mass of the earth is M and the radius R.
𝐺𝑀
The acceleration due to gravity on the earth surface g =
𝑅2

Suppose the object is taken to a depth d from the earth surface, then the effective mass will
be M’ (M’ < M)
𝐺𝑀′
the acceleration due to gravity at depth d is 𝒈𝒅 =
(𝑅− 𝑑)2

let the average density of the earth is 𝜌

4
the mass of the earth, M = 𝜌 3 𝜋𝑅 3

4 𝐺𝜌 π𝑅3 4
g= = 𝐺𝜋𝜌𝑅 --------------------------- (1)
3 𝑅2 3
4
mass M’ = 𝜌 3 𝜋(𝑅 − 𝑑)3

4 𝐺𝜌 π(𝑅−𝑑)3 4
𝒈𝒅 = = 𝐺𝜋𝜌(𝑅 − 𝑑)------------- (2)
3 𝑅2 3

On dividing equation 2 by 1
𝑔𝑑 (𝑅−𝑑) 𝑑 𝒅
𝑔
= = (1 − 𝑅) or 𝒈𝒅 = 𝒈 (𝟏 − 𝑹)
𝑅
If the object is taken to the centre of earth i.e. d = R
So g at centre equals to zero.
Relation between depth and height: - As we move above and below the earth surface the
value of acceleration due to gravity, it means there will be two points where g has the same
2ℎ 𝑑
value. As 𝑔ℎ = 𝑔 (1 − 𝑅
) and 𝑔𝑑 = 𝑔 (1 − 𝑅)

So 𝑔ℎ = 𝑔𝑑
2ℎ 𝑑
𝑔 (1 − ) = 𝑔 (1 − )
𝑅 𝑅

So, d = 2h
Variation of g with distance from centre: -
𝑔𝑅 2
For height, 𝑔ℎ =
(𝑅+ℎ)2

𝒈𝑹𝟐 𝟏
the distance of the object from the centre of earth, r = R + h so 𝒈𝒉 = 𝒓𝟐
⇒ 𝒈𝒉 ∝ 𝒓𝟐

It means as we move above the earth surface the value of g decreases.

𝑔(𝑅−𝑑)
For depth, 𝑔𝑑 = 𝑅
𝑔𝑟
The distance of the object from the centre of earth, r = R – d so 𝑔𝑑 = 𝑅
⇒ 𝒈𝒅 ∝ 𝒓

It means as we move from centre of the earth to its surface the value of g increases linearly.

Latitude: - The angle formed by the line joining the point with the centre of earth with the
line on the equatorial plane is known as latitude.
Variation of g with latitude: - Consider an object of mass m lies at a point p on the earth
surface at a latitude 𝜆. Let the earth is revolving about its axis with angular velocity 𝜔. The
object is moving in a circular path of radius r about the axis of rotation of the earth.
The centrifugal force acting at point p = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2
The centrifugal force will resolve in cos and sin components

𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑟𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 = 𝑚𝑔′

So 𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝑟𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆
𝑟
As 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 = 𝑅
⇒ 𝑟 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆

So 𝒈′ = 𝒈 − 𝑹𝝎𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝀

on the equatorial point 𝜆 = 0𝑜 so 𝒈′ = 𝒈 − 𝑹𝝎𝟐

on the polar point 𝜆 = 90𝑜 so 𝒈′ = 𝒈
It shows that on the polar region the value of
acceleration due to gravity is more than the equator
region.
If the earth suddenly stops rotating (𝜔 = 0) than the weight of the object will increase.

Gravitational field: - The space around a massive object where its gravitational force of
attraction can be experienced by another massive object is known as its gravitational field.
Ideally the gravitational field of an object exists up to infinite distance but after finite
distance it approaches to zero depending on the mass of the object.
Intensity of Gravitational Field: - The intensity of gravitational field at a point P due to an
object of mass M is defined as the gravitational force experienced by a mass m placed at
point P. It is represented by E.
𝐹
𝐸=𝑚

Consider a unit mass m is placed at point P located at distance r from an object of mass M.
𝐺𝑀𝑚
Gravitational force between the two objects =
𝑟2
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀
gravitational field intensity at point P, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑟 2
= 𝑟2
=𝑔

Thus, the intensity of gravitational field at a point is equal to the acceleration due to gravity
at that point.

Gravitational Potential Energy: - Gravitational potential energy of the object is the energy
possessed by an object due to its position in the gravitational field of another object. It is
defined as the amount of work done to bring the object from infinity to a given point in the
gravitational field of another object.
Consider an object of mass m which initially lies at infinity is brought to point P located at a
distance r from another object M as shown in figure.
Let at any instant object m is at point A located at distance x from M.
Small work done dw to move a mass from A to B. 𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (as 𝜃 = 0)
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹= 𝑥2
⇒ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
𝑟 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Total work done to move the mass m from infinity to point P, 𝑊 = ∫∞ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2

𝑟 1 −2𝑟 1 𝑟 1 1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 ∫∞ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 ∫∞ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = − 𝐺𝑀𝑚 [ ] = − 𝐺𝑀𝑚 [ − ]
𝑥 𝑥 ∞ 𝑟 ∞

𝑮𝑴𝒎
So 𝑾=− 𝒓

This work done will store in the form of gravitational potential energy in the object.
The maximum value of gravitational potential energy is zero and that is at infinity.
The negative sign shows that the work done by the system (gravitational force of attraction)
𝑮𝑴𝒎
so the mutual energy of two object reduces by 𝒓
.

Gravitational potential: - Gravitational potential at a point is defined as the amount of work

done to bring the unit mass from infinity to a point within the gravitational field of another
𝑊
object. It is represented by V. 𝑉 = 𝑚 , it is a scalar quantity.

SI unit = J/kg Cgs unit = erg/g D.F.= [𝑀0 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀
As 𝑊 = − 𝑟
so 𝑉 = − 𝑚𝑟
= − 𝑟

The maximum value of gravitational potential is zero and

that is at infinity.
Escape Velocity: - The minimum velocity by which an object must be thrown so that the
object will leave the earth gravitational field is known as Escape velocity.
Consider an object of mass m lies on the earth surface of mass M and radius R. Work done
to move the object from A to B for small distance dx.
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (as 𝜃 = 0)
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹= ⇒ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥2

Total work done to move the mass m from earth surface to infinity,
∞ 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑊 = ∫𝑅 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2

∞ 1 ∞
−2 1 ∞ 1 1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 ∫𝑅 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 ∫𝑅 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝐺𝑀𝑚 [ ] = − 𝐺𝑀𝑚 [ − ]
𝑥 𝑥 𝑅 ∞ 𝑅

𝑮𝑴𝒎
So 𝑾=
𝑹

this work done will store in the form of kinetic energy in the object so,
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
2
𝑚𝑉 2 = 𝑅

𝟐𝑮𝑴
𝑽𝒆 = √ 𝑹

𝐺𝑀
As 𝑔 = ⇒ 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅 2 so,
𝑟2

2𝑔𝑅 2
𝑉𝑒 = √ 𝑅
= √𝟐𝒈𝑹

4
In terms of density of planet, as M = 𝜌 3 𝜋𝑅 3

2𝐺𝑀 2𝐺 4 𝟖
𝑉𝑐 = √ = √ 𝑅 𝑥 𝜌 3 𝜋𝑅 3 = √𝟑 𝑮𝝅𝝆𝑹𝟐
𝑅

The escape velocity is independent of mass of the object which is thrown, it means a heavier
and the lighter object will have same value of escape velocity if they are thrown from same
height.
The escape velocity is different for different planet as each planet have different mass and
radius. The escape velocity for earth is 11.2 km/s. In actual practice the value of escape
velocity is slightly greater than the calculated value because in the calculation we ignore the
air resistance.
Orbital Velocity: - The velocity by which a satellite revolve in an orbit around the earth is
known as orbital velocity.
Consider a satellite of mass m revolves around the earth in a circular orbit of radius r.
 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Then, =
𝑟 𝑟2

𝐺𝑀 𝑮𝑴 𝑮𝑴
𝑉𝑜2 = 𝑟
or 𝑽𝒐 = √ = √(𝑹+𝒉) (as r = R + h)
𝒓

𝒈𝑹𝟐
As 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅 2 so 𝑽𝒐 = √
(𝑹+𝒉)

𝒈𝑹𝟐
if ℎ ≪ 𝑅, then 𝑽𝒐 = √ = √𝒈𝑹
𝑹

Relation between orbital and escape velocity: - As 𝑉𝑒 = √𝟐𝒈𝑹 and 𝑽𝒐 = √𝒈𝑹

𝑉𝑒 √𝟐𝒈𝑹
So, = = √2 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒 = √2 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑜 √𝒈𝑹

Time Period of Revolution: -

𝟐𝝅𝒓 (𝑹+𝒉) (𝑹+𝒉)𝟑

As 𝑻 = = 𝟐𝝅(𝑹 + 𝒉)√ = 𝟐𝝅√
𝑽𝒐 𝑮𝑴 𝑮𝑴

Height of Satellite: -

(𝑹+𝒉)𝟑
As 𝑇 = 𝟐𝝅√ 𝑮𝑴

4𝜋 2 (𝑅+ℎ)3
On taking the square root of both sides, 𝑇 2 = 𝐺𝑀

𝐺𝑀𝑇 2
(𝑅 + ℎ)3 = 4𝜋 2
1⁄
𝐺𝑀𝑇 2 3
𝑅+ℎ =( 4𝜋 2
)
𝟏⁄
𝑮𝑴𝑻𝟐 𝟑
𝒉=( 𝟒𝝅𝟐
) −𝑹

Energy of Satellite: - The total energy of satellite is the sum of its kinetic and potential
energy.
Consider a satellite of mass m revolving around the earth in an orbit of radius r with orbital
velocity Vo.
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑮𝑴𝒎
Kinetic energy = =
2 𝟐𝒓
𝑮𝑴𝒎
Potential energy = − 𝒓
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑮𝑴𝒎
Total energy = K.E. + P.E. = − = −
2𝑟 𝑟 𝟐𝒓

from the above expression we can conclude that,

Kinetic Energy = - Total Energy
Potential Energy = 2 Total Energy
Total energy and potential energy will always be negative, it shows that the satellite is
bounded with the planet because of gravitational force.