HARDY-WEINBERG EUILIBRUIM
This principle says that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is
constant from generation to generation.
The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant
This is called genetic equilibrium. Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1.
In Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium:
p2+2pq+q2=1p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1p2+2pq+q2=1
Where:
p² = frequency of AA
2pq = frequency of Aa
q² = frequency of aa
p+q=1
The Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium is maintained when no evolutionary
forces act on a population.
Conditions that Maintain Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium
1. Large population size
o Prevents genetic drift.
o Example: A population of millions of fish in the ocean.
2. Random mating
o Individuals mate by chance, not by traits.
o Example: Any male frog can mate with any female frog.
3. No mutation
o No new alleles are formed.
o DNA remains unchanged from generation to generation.
4. No gene migration (no gene flow)
o No individuals enter or leave the population.
o So allele frequencies remain constant.
5. No natural selection
o All individuals survive and reproduce equally
The Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium is disturbed by evolutionary forces that
change allele frequency in a population.
Factors that Disturb Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium
1. Gene migration (Gene flow)
o Movement of individuals between populations changes allele
frequency.
o Example: Birds migrating to another island introduce new genes.
2. Genetic drift
o Random change in allele frequency, especially in small
populations.
o Example: Some individuals die accidentally, changing gene
frequencies.
3. Mutation
o Sudden change in DNA creates new alleles.
o Example: Bacteria becoming antibiotic resistant.
4. Genetic recombination
o New gene combinations during meiosis.
o Occurs during crossing over and fertilization.
5. Natural selection
o Individuals with beneficial traits survive and reproduce more.
o Example: Dark-colored peppered moths surviving in polluted
areas.
6. Non random mating :
Non-random mating occurs when organisms do not choose mates
randomly, but select mates based on specific traits.
Ex .Female peahens prefer males with large colorful tails.
. Males with bigger tails get more mates.
1. GENE MIGRATION
o Movement of individuals between populations changes allele
frequency.
o Example: Birds migrating to another island introduce new genes.
When migration of a section of population to another place and population
occurs, gene frequencies change in the original as well as in the new population.
New genes/alleles are added to the new population and these are lost from the
old population.
There would be a gene flow if this gene migration, happens multiple times
2. GENTIC DRIFT:
Genetic drift is the random change in allele frequency in a population due
to chance events, especially in small populations.
It is a mechanism of evolution.
Changes occur by chance, not because of natural selection.
TWO EXAMPLES OF GENETIC DRIFT
1. FOUNDERS EFFECT
2. BOTTLE NECK EFFEC
FOUNDERS EFFECT:
Founder effect is a type of genetic drift in which a small group of individuals
separates from a large population and forms a new population.
Because only a few individuals (founders) start the new population, the allele
frequencies become different from the original population
Sometimes the change in allele frequency is so different in the new sample of
population that they become a different species.
The original drifted population becomes founders and the effect is called
founder effect.
BOTTLE NECK EFFECT:
Bottleneck effect is a type of genetic drift where a large population suddenly
becomes very small due to a disaster, and only a few individuals survive.
Because only a small number survive, the allele frequencies of the population
change randomly.
Simple Explanation
1. Original population has high genetic variation.
2. A sudden event occurs (earthquake, flood, disease, hunting).
3. Most individuals die.
4. The few survivors reproduce.
5. The new population has reduced genetic diversity
Bottleneck effect: Population reduces suddenly due to disaster.
Founder effect: Few individuals start a new population in a new area.
3. MUTATION
Mutation is a sudden, heritable change in the DNA sequence (gene or
chromosome) that creates new alleles in a population.
Mutation is one of the sources of genetic variation, which is important for
evolution and natural selection.
Normally DNA sequence remains the same.
Example:
Normal DNA sequence
A–T–G–C–A
After mutation
A–T–A–C–A
One base changes → new allele is formed.
“Microbial experiments show that pre-existing advantageous mutations
when selected will result in observation of new phenotypes.”
Meaning:
Experiments with microorganisms (like bacteria) show that some useful
mutations already exist in the population. When the environment selects
these useful mutations, new observable traits (phenotypes) appear.
Example:
Some bacteria already have a mutation that gives antibiotic resistance.
When antibiotics are used, only those bacteria survive and multiply.
2. “Over few generations, this would result in speciation.”
Meaning:
If these changes continue for many generations, new species can form.
This process is called speciation.
4. GENETIC RECOMBINATIONS
Genetic recombination is the exchange of genetic material between
homologous chromosomes during meiosis, producing new combinations of
alleles in offspring.
It mainly occurs during Prophase-I of meiosis.
Genetic recombination during gametogenesis
5. NATURAL SELECTION :
Natural selection is a process in which heritable variations
enabling better survival are enabled to reproduce and leave
greater number of progeny.
TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION
Stabilizing selection:
• It favours the average or normal phenotype and eliminates the extreme variants.
• After this natural selection mean value never change.
• Peak gets higher and narrower because more individuals acquire mean character
value.
• Always operates in constant environment.
e. g. Mortality in human babies:
The optimum birth weight favoured by stabilizing selection is 3KGS New born
infants less than 2 KGS and more than 4 KGS have the highest mortality rate.
Directional/ Progressive selection:
• It favours one extreme value and eliminates another extreme value and average value.
• After this natural selection mean value always changes.
• Peak shifts in one direction because more individuals acquire value other than the mean
character value.
• Always operates in changing environment.
e. g. (i) Industrial melanism (ii) DDT resistance in pests
Distruptive selection:
• In this natural selection members of both extreme are selected simultaneously and
average value get reject
• After this natural selection two peaks are formed because more individuals acquire
peripheral character value at both ends of the distribution curve.