MODULE 2

Ultrasonic Machining :
Ultrasonic machining is a nontraditional process. In this process abrasives contained in the slurry are
driven against the work by a tool oscillating at low amplitude (25–100 microns) and high frequency
(15–30 kHz). Ultrasonic refers to waves of high frequency above the audible range of 20 kHz. The
ultrasonic machining was proposed by L Balamuth in 1945. It was developed for finishing of electro
spark machine parts. The USM process consists of tool made of ductile and tough material. Tool
oscillates with high frequency, and the continuous abrasive slurry is fed between the tool and
workpiece. The impact of the hard abrasive particles fractures the workpiece thus removing the small
particles from the work surface.

USM Machine
 The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar to a drill press. However, it has additional features to
carry out USM of brittle work material. The work piece is mounted on a vice, which can be located at the desired
position under the tool using a 2 axis table. The table can further be lowered or raised to accommodate work of
different thickness.
The typical elements of an USM are
 Slurry delivery and return system.
 Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the tool during machining.
 The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration.
 The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the vibration to the required amplitude of 15 – 50 μm
and accommodates the tool at its tip.

Working of horn as mechanical amplifier of amplitude of vibration

The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the transducer. The transducer is driven by suitable signal
generator followed by power amplifier.
High Power Sine Wave Generator (signal generator)
This unit converts low frequency (50/60 Hz) electrical power to high frequency (20 kHz) electrical
power.
Transducer
The high-frequency electrical signal is transmitted to the transducer which converts it into high
frequency (15–20 kHz), low amplitude vibration (5 microns). The function of the transducer is to
convert electrical energy into mechanical vibration using the principle of piezoelectric or
magnetostriction.
There are two types of transducer:
Piezoelectric transducer: These transducers generate a small electric current when they are
compressed. Also, when the electric current is passed through a crystal, it expands. When the current
is removed, the crystal regains its original size and shape. Such transducers are available up to 900
watts. Piezoelectric crystals have a high conversion efficiency of 95%.
Magnetostrictive transducer: The magnetostriction effect was first discovered by Joule in 1874.
According to this effect, in the presence of the applied magnetic field, ferromagnetic metals and alloys
change in length. These transducers are made of nickel or nickel alloy sheets. Their conversion
 efficiency is about 20–30%. Such transducers are available up to 2000 watts. The maximum change in
length that can be achieved is about 25 microns.
When the frequency of AC signal provided by high-frequency generator is tuned to the natural
frequency of the transducer, resonance occurs. Because of the resonance amplitude of vibration
increases.
The oscillation amplitude obtained from the magnetostrictive transducer is usually around 5 microns,
which is too small for removal of material from the workpiece. The function of the concentrator (also
called mechanical amplifiers, acoustic horn and tool cone) is to amplify the amplitude of vibration of
the magnetostrictive transducer from 5 to 40–50 microns. Concentrator also concentrates the
vibration to the tool from the transducer.

The horn or concentrator can be of different shape like

• Tapered or conical
• Exponential
• Stepped

Machining of tapered or stepped horn is much easier as compared to the exponential one.

Tool
Tools are made of relatively ductile materials like brass, stainless steel or mild steel so that tool wear rate (TWR)
can be minimized. The values of the ratio of TWR and MRR depend on the kind of abrasive, work and tool
[Link] material of tool should have good acoustic properties and high resistance to fatigue cracking.
Appropriate measures should be taken to avoid ultrasonic welding between the transducer and the tool holder.
Commonly used tool holders are of Monel, titanium and stainless steel. Tool holders are expensive, demand
high operating cost
Design considerations for tools
• The tool is made up of a strong but ductile metal.
• Stainless steels and low carbon steels are used for making the tools.
• Aluminium and brass tools wear is ten and five times faster than steel tools respectively.
• The geometrical features are decided by the process.
• The diameter of the circle circumscribed about the tool should not be more than 1.5–2.0 times the diameter
 of the end of the concentrator.
• The tool should be as short and rigid as possible.
• When the tool is made hollow, the internal contour should be parallel to the external one to ensure uniform
wear.
• The thickness of any wall or projection should be atleast five times the grain size of the abrasive.
• In the hollow tool, the wall should not be made thinner than 0.5–0.8 mm.
• When designing the tool consideration should be given to the side clearance which is normally of the order
of 0.06–0.36 mm, depending on the grain size of the abrasive.

ABRASIVES AND ABRASIVE SLURRY

In USM large variety of abrasive slurries is used. Some of them are:
• Boron carbide
• Silicon carbide
• Aluminium oxide
• Diamond dust.
Boron abrasive particles are used for machining tungsten, steel and precious stones. Boron silica carbide is also
used, and it is 8–12% more abrasive than boron carbide. Alumina is used for machining ceramics, glass and
germanium. Alumina wears out very fast and loses its cutting power very fast. Silicon finds maximum
applications. Diamond and rubies are cut by diamond powder. Good surface finish, accuracy and cutting rates
are possible with diamond dust.
Selection of abrasive particles depends on:
 Particle size
 Hardness
 Cost of abrasives
 Durability of abrasives
The life of abrasives depends on the hardness of the abrasive material and work combinations. Longer life of
abrasives can be obtained when the hardness of the abrasives is more than the hardness of the work material.
The metal removal rate and surface finish depend on size of abrasive particles. Coarse grains give higher MRR,
but lower surface finish. Fine grains give good surface finish, but MRR is low.
The abrasive slurry is circulated by pumping, and it requires cooling to remove the generated heat to prevent it
from boiling in the gap and causing the undesirable cavitation effect. A refrigerated cooling system is provided
to cool the slurry to a temperature of 5–6°C
LIQUID MEDIA
In USM process, the abrasive of about 30 to 60% by volume are suspended in liquid medium. Several functions
of liquid medium are:
 Liquid medium acts as an acoustic bond between vibrating tool and work.
 It carries the abrasive medium to the cutting zone.
 It acts as a coolant and also carries waste abrasives and other swarf.
 It acts as a transferring media for energy between the tool and the workpiece.
The characteristics of a good suspension liquid medium are:
 The density of the liquid medium should be approximately equal to that of abrasive.
 The liquid medium should have good wetting characteristics. It should wet tool, abrasives and the
workpiece.
 The liquid medium should have high specific heat and thermal conductivity so that heat transfer
between the tool and the workpiece is effective.
 The liquid must have good flow ability (low viscosity) and should carry the abrasives along with it.
 Liquid medium should not corrode the workpiece, tool and equipment.
Water is frequently used as the liquid carrier since it satisfies most of the requirements listed above. Some
corrosion inhibitor is generally added in the water.

Ultrasonic vibrations imparted to fluid medium have the following important actions:
1. Ultrasonic vibrations bring about the ultrasonic dispersion effect rapidly in the machining fluid medium
between the tool end and the machining surface of the workpiece.
2. Ultrasonic vibrations bring violent circulations of the fluid as a result of ultrasonic micro-agitation.
3. It causes the cavitation effect in the fluid medium arising out of the ultrasonic vibration of the tool in the
fluid medium.
Operation of USM
Ultrasonic machining is an economical process by which we can produce cavity or hole in the hard and
brittle materials. The sequence of operation is given below:
1. Electrical supply is given to high-frequency generator. HF generator creates an alternating magnetic
field which expands and contracts the stack made of magnetostrictive material (transducer). To get
maximum magnetostriction, HF AC current is superimposed with DC pre-magnetizing current.
2. Since the frequency of the magnetic field created by AC signal is same as that of the natural frequency
of the transducer, mechanical resonance occurs. Transducer length is equal to half of the length.
3. Oscillation of amplitude obtained from the transducer is about 5 microns, which is very small for metal
removal. Therefore, it is amplified to 40–50 microns by fitting amplifiers into the output end of the
transducer.
4. Acoustic horn transmits the mechanical energy to the tool and concentrates power on small
machining area.
5. The tool is fed into the workpiece by an automatic feed mechanism. It has a provision for
measurement of static pressure exerted by the tool and penetration depth measurement.
6. Abrasive slurry under pressure is supplied to the working gap between the tool and the workpiece by
a centrifugal pump.
7. Abrasive particles are hammered by the tool into the workpiece surface, and they abrade the
workpiece into the conjugate image of tool form.
 Loop
High Single
frequenc phase
Nickel
ycurrent 115 V
laminations 60~
Node
Support Transducer coil

Loop
Feed Tool holder

Pump
Cooler
Vibration
Tool Abrasive
Loop slurry
Workpiece
Fixture
Vibration
stroke of
tool

TOOL FEED MECHANISM

The feed mechanism of an ultrasonic machine must perform the following functions:
1. Bring the tool slowly to the workpiece to prevent breaking.
2. The tool must provide adequate cutting force and sustain it during the machining operation.
3. The cutting force must be decreased when the specified depth is reached.
4. Overrun a small distance to ensure the required hole size at the exit.
5. The tool has to come back to its initial position after machining is done.

There are four types of feed mechanism which are commonly used in USM:
1. Gravity feed mechanism
2. Spring loaded feed mechanism
3. Pneumatic or hydraulic feed mechanism
4. Motor controlled feed mechanism.

1. Gravity feed mechanism

Counterweigh Counterweight
t Fulcrum
Lever
Acoustic Acoustic
head head
Concentrato Concentrato
r r

Counterweight with rope and Counterweight with lever and

pulley fulcrum
Figure shows the operation of the gravity tool feed mechanism. In this mechanism counter, balance weights
are used to apply the required load to the head through pulley and rope arrangement. In order to reduce
friction ball, bearings are used. Gravity feed mechanisms are simple in construction, but this mechanism is
insensitive and inconvenient to adjust.

2. Spring loaded feed mechanism

Spring

Acoustic
head

Concentrator

Spring control

Figure shows the operation of spring loaded tool feed mechanism. In this mechanism spring pressure is used to
feed the tool during the machining operation. This type of mechanism is quite sensitive and easy to adjust.

3. Pneumatic or hydraulic feed mechanism

Hydraulic
/Pneumatic
actuator

Acoustic head

Concentrator

Figure shows the operation of pneumatic or hydraulic tool feed mechanism. In this mechanism, hydraulic
cylinder is used to give a linear motion of the tool. High feed rate and accurate positioning are possible with
hydraulic feed mechanism.
 4. Motor controlled feed mechanism

Control to adjust
fluid resistance

Dashpot
Rack Counterweight
Speed
reducer

Acoustic
head
Stalled motor to
Concentrator develop torque
Pinion

Figure shows the operation of the motor-controlled feed mechanism. This mechanism is used for precise control
of the tool feed movement.

PROCESS VARIABLES:
1. Amplitude of vibration (15 to 50 microns)
2. Frequency of vibration (19 to 25 kHz)
3. Feed force (F) related to tool dimensions
4. Feed pressure
5. Abrasive size
6. Abrasive material: Al2O3, SiC, B4C, boron silica carbide, diamond
7. Flow strength of the work material
8. Flow strength of the tool material
9. Contact area of the tool
10. Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry
11. Tool
(a) Material of tool
(b) Shape
(c) Amplitude of vibration
(d) Frequency of vibration
(e) Strength developed in tool
(f) (g) Gap between tool and work
12. Work material
(a) Material
(b) Impact strength
(c) Surface fatigue strength
13. Slurry
 (a) Abrasive—hardness, size, shape and quantity of abrasive flow
(b) Liquid—chemical property, viscosity, flow rate
(c) Pressure
(d) Density

PROCESS CAPABILITY OF USM

Process capabilities of USM are:
1. Can machine the workpieces harder than 40 HRC to 60 HRC like carbides,
ceramics, tungsten glass that cannot be machined by conventional methods. USM is not applicable to soft
and ductile materials such as copper, lead, ductile steel and plastics, which absorb energy by deformation.
2. Tolerance range: 7 to 25 microns.
3. Holes up to 76 microns have been drilled. Hole depths up to 51 mm have been achieved easily. Hole depth of
152 mm deep is achieved by special flushing techniques.
4. Aspect ratio 40 : 1 has been achieved.
5. Linear material removal rate: – 0.025 to 25 mm/min.
6. Surface finish: – 0.25 micron to 0.75 micron.
7. Non-directional surface texture is possible compared to conventional grinding.
8. Radial overcut may be as low as 1.5 to 4 times the mean, abrasive grain size.

Effect of Frequency and Amplitude

• With an increase in frequency of the tool head the MRR should increase proportionally. However, there is a
slight variation in the MRR with frequency.
• When the amplitude of the vibration increases the MRR is expected to increase.

Effect of Abrasive Size and Concentration

• MRR should also rise proportionately with the mean grain diameter d.
• When d becomes too large, the crushing tendency increases.
• Concentration of the abrasives directly controls the number of grains producing impact per cycle.
• MRR is proportional to C1/4 so after C rises to 30% MRR increase is not very fast
Effect of Feed Force
• MRR increases with increasing feed force but after a certain critical feed force it decreases because the
abrasive grains get crushed under heavy load

Effect of Grain Size on Surface Finish

• The surface finish is more sensitive to grain size in case of glass which is softer than tungsten carbide. • This is
because in case of a harder material the size of the fragments dislodged through a brittle fracture does not
depend much on the size of the impacting particles
Applications of USM
 Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc.
 Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface impressions.
 Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies.
 Drilling and machining cavities or holes in conductive and non-conductive materials like glass, ceramics etc.
 Used to machine hard materials like tool steel, tungsten and hard carbides.
 Threading of various glass and ceramic materials.
 Used for making tools and dies.
 Soft materials like non-ferrous metals and alloys and brittle materials can be machined.
 Removing flash and parting lines from injection moulded parts.
 Deburring and polishing plastic, nylon and Teflon components.
 To produce high quality surface.
 Hard materials and precious stones such as synthetic ruby for the preparation of jewels for watch and timer
movements are successfully machined by this method.

Advantage of USM
 Any materials can be machined regardless of their electrical conductivity.
 Especially suitable for machining of brittlematerials.
 Machined parts by USM possess better surface finish and higher structural integrity. · USM does not
produce thermal, electrical and chemical abnormal surface.
 No burrs and no distortion of workpiece.
 Hard and brittle metals can be machined.
 Stresses are minimum.
 Thin sheets can be machined.
 Investment cost is low.
 Power consumption is low.
Disadvantages of USM
• USM has higher power consumption and lower material-removal rates than traditional fabrication
processes.
• Tool wears fast in USM.
• Machining area and depth is restraint in USM.
• Depth of holes and cavities produced are small. Usually the depth of hole is limited to 2.5 times the
diameter of the tool. There is a tendency for holes to break out at the bottom owing to high amplitude of
vibrations of the tool.
• Not suitable for soft workpiece material.
• Machining accuracy is poor.
• Nozzle wear rate is high.
• Suitable only for small workpieces.
ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)

Abrasive jet cutting is an extended version of water jet cutting; in which the water jet contains abrasive particles
such as silicon carbide or aluminium oxide in order to increase the material removal rate above that of water jet
machining. Almost any type of material ranging from hard brittle materials such as ceramics, metals and glass to
extremely soft materials such as foam and rubbers can be cut by abrasive water jet cutting. The narrow cutting
stream and computer-controlled movement enables this process to produce parts accurately and efficiently. This
machining process is especially ideal for cutting materials that cannot be cut by laser or thermal cut. Metallic,
nonmetallic and advanced composite materials of various thicknesses can be cut by this process. This process is
particularly suitable for heat sensitive materials that cannot be machined by processes that produce heat while
machining.

Working principle

In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to impinge on the work material at a high velocity.
The jet of abrasive particles is carried by carrier gas or air. The high velocity stream of abrasive is generated by
converting the pressure energy of the carrier gas or air to its kinetic energy and hence high velocity jet. The
nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled manner onto the work material, so that the distance between the
nozzle and the work piece and the impingement angle can be set desirably. The high velocity abrasive particles
remove the material by micro-cutting action as well as brittle fracture of the work material.
AJM Equipment

In AJM, air is compressed in an air compressor and compressed air at a pressure of around 5 bar is used as the
carrier gas. Figure also shows the other major parts of the AJM system. Gases like CO 2, N2 can also be used as
carrier gas which may directly be issued from a gas cylinder. Generally oxygen is not used as a carrier gas. The
carrier gas is first passed through a pressure regulator to obtain the desired working pressure. To remove any oil
vapour or particulate contaminant the same is passed through a series of filters. Then the carrier gas enters a
closed chamber known as the mixing chamber. The abrasive particles enter the chamber from a hopper through
a metallic sieve. The sieve is constantly vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker. The mass flow rate of abrasive
(15 gm/min) entering the chamber depends on the amplitude of vibration of the sieve and its frequency. The
abrasive particles are then carried by the carrier gas to the machining chamber via an electro-magnetic on-off
valve. The machining enclosure is essential to contain the abrasive and machined particles in a safe and eco-
friendly manner. The machining is carried out as high velocity (200 m/s) abrasive particles are issued from the
nozzle onto a work piece traversing under the jet.

Process Parameters and Machining Characteristics.

Effect of process parameters MRR

Parameters of Abrasive Jet Maching (AJM) are factors that influence its Metal Removal Rate (MRR). In a
machining process, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) is the volume of metal removed from a given work piece in unit
time. The following are some of the important process parameters of abrasive jet machining:
 Abrasive mass flow rate.
 Nozzle tip distance.
 Gas Pressure.
 Velocity of abrasive particles.
 Mixing ratio.
 Abrasive grain size.
Abrasive mass flow rate:
Mass flow rate of the abrasive particles is a major process parameter that influences the metal removal rate in
abrasive jet machining. In AJM, mass flow rate of the gas (or air) in abrasive jet is inversely proportional to the
mass flow rate of the abrasive particles. Due to this fact, when continuously increasing the abrasive mass flow
rate, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) first increases to an optimum value (because of increase in number of abrasive
particles hitting the work piece) and then decreases. However, if the mixing ratio is kept constant, Metal
Removal Rate (MRR) uniformly increases with increase in abrasive mass flow rate.

Nozzle tip distance:

Nozzle Tip Distance (NTD) is the gap provided between the nozzle tip and the work piece.
Up to a certain limit, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) increases with increase in nozzle tip distance. After that limit,
MRR remains constant to some extent and then decreases.
In addition to metal removal rate, nozzle tip distance influences the shape and diameter of cut.
For optimal performance, a nozzle tip distance of 0.25 to 0.75 mm is provided.
Gas pressure:
Air or gas pressure has a direct impact on metal removal rate.
In abrasive jet machining, metal removal rate is directly proportional to air or gas pressure.

Velocity of abrasive particles:

Whenever the velocity of abrasive particles is increased, the speed at which the abrasive particles hit the work
piece is increased. Because of this reason, in abrasive jet machining, metal removal rate increases with
increase in velocity of abrasive particles.

Mixing ratio:
Mixing ratio is a ratio that determines the quality of the air-abrasive mixture in Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM).
It is the ratio between the mass flow rate of abrasive particles and the mass flow rate of air (or gas).
When mixing ratio is increased continuously, metal removal rate first increases to some extent and then
decreases.
Abrasive grain size:
Size of the abrasive particle determines the speed at which metal is removed. smooth and fine surface finish is
to be obtained, abrasive particle with small grain size is used.
If metal has to be removed rapidly, abrasive particle with large grain size is used.
Applications
• Abrasive jet cutting is highly used in aerospace, automotive and electronics industries.
• In aerospace industries, parts such as titanium bodies for military aircrafts, engine components (aluminium,
titanium, heat resistant alloys), aluminium body parts and interior cabin parts are made using abrasive water
jet cutting.
• In automotive industries, parts like interior trim (head liners, trunk liners, door panels) and fibre glass body
components and bumpers are made by this process. Similarly, in electronics industries, circuit boards and
cable stripping are made by abrasive water jet cutting.

Advantages of abrasive jet cutting

• In most of the cases, no secondary finishing required
• No cutter induced distortion
• Low cutting forces on workpieces
• Limited tooling requirements
• Little to no cutting burr
• Typical finish 125-250 microns
• Smaller kerf size reduces material wastages
 • No heat affected zone
• Localises structural changes
• No cutter induced metal contamination
• Eliminates thermal distortion
• No slag or cutting dross
• Precise, multi plane cutting of contours, shapes, and bevels of any angle.

Limitations of abrasive jet cutting

• Cannot drill flat bottom
• Cannot cut materials that degrades quickly with moisture
• Surface finish degrades at higher cut speeds which are frequently used for rough cutting.
• The major disadvantages of abrasive water jet cutting are high capital cost and high
• noise levels during operation.

WATER JET MACHINING (WJM) INTRODUCTION

Abrasive water jet cutting is an extended version of water jet cutting; in which the water jet contains abrasive
particles such as silicon carbide or aluminium oxide in order to increase the material removal rate above that of
water jet machining. Almost any type of material ranging from hard brittle materials such as ceramics, metals
and glass to extremely soft materials such as foam and rubbers can be cut by abrasive water jet cutting. The
narrow cutting stream and computer controlled movement enables this process to produce parts accurately and
efficiently. This machining process is especially ideal for cutting materials that cannot be cut by laser or thermal
cut. Metallic, nonmetallic and advanced composite materials of various thicknesses can be cut by this process.
This process is particularly suitable for heat sensitive materials that cannot be machined by processes that
produce heat while machining.
The schematic of abrasive water jet cutting is shown in Figure which is similar to water jet cutting apart from
some more features underneath the jewel; namely abrasive, guard and mixing tube. In this process, high velocity
water exiting the jewel creates a vacuum which sucks abrasive from the abrasive line, which mixes with the
water in the mixing tube to form a high velocity beam of abrasives.
Applications
Abrasive water jet cutting is highly used in aerospace, automotive and electronics industries. In
aerospace industries, parts such as titanium bodies for military aircrafts, engine components
(aluminium, titanium, heat resistant alloys), aluminium body parts and interior cabin parts are made
using abrasive water jet cutting.
In automotive industries, parts like interior trim (head liners, trunk liners, door panels) and fibre glass
body components and bumpers are made by this process. Similarly, in electronics industries, circuit
boards and cable stripping are made by abrasive water jet cutting.

Advantages of abrasive water jet cutting

• In most of the cases, no secondary finishing required
• No cutter induced distortion
• Low cutting forces on workpieces
• Limited tooling requirements
• Little to no cutting burr
• Typical finish 125-250 microns
• Smaller kerf size reduces material wastages
• No heat affected zone
• Localises structural changes
• No cutter induced metal contamination
• Eliminates thermal distortion
• No slag or cutting dross
• Precise, multi plane cutting of contours, shapes, and bevels of any angle.

Limitations of abrasive water jet cutting

• Cannot drill flat bottom
• Cannot cut materials that degrades quickly with moisture
• Surface finish degrades at higher cut speeds which are frequently used for rough cutting.
• The major disadvantages of abrasive water jet cutting are high capital cost and high noise levels
during operation.