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Multiculturalisms
Enzo Colombo University of Milan, Italy

abstract This article presents an overview of multicultural debates in western societies. It introduces t
key theoretical approaches, the main criticisms and it identifies current and future topics of discussion an
analysis.
keywords cultural difference ◆ cultural rights ◆ inclusion/exclusion ◆ integration ◆ recognition

DOI: 10.1177/2056846014xx

Introduction

The term ‘multiculturalism’ has become very popular ways in which multicultural issues have be
in the last few decades and, as often happens to pop- oped and critically discusses some aporias of
ular words, it has ended up expressing quite different ticultural perspectives. The third section pr
meanings. In this short essay, only a very concise and alleged current multiculturalism backlash,
(personally) selective presentation of the current final part highlights some current dire
debate and the rich literature on this subject is possi- research.
ble. In fact, multicultural discussions refer to a wide
variety of situations – integration policies and welfare
state regimes, the legal and political accommodation Multiculturalism: A polysemous
of cultural diversity, the management of immigration
and national borders, the recognition and respect of Generally speaking, multiculturalism refers
:
 and national borders, the recognition and respect of Generally speaking, multiculturalism refers
cultural/religious difference, living with ‘difference’ in tions in which people who hold ‘different’ h
daily contexts, the ideological representation of iden- toms, traditions, languages and/or relig
tities, cultures and ‘the good society’, to name only a alongside each other in the same social spac
few. These also involve different disciplines – philoso- to maintain relevant aspects of their own
phy, sociology, anthropology, social psychology, polit- and to have it publicly recognized. Usually
ical science, pedagogy, and cultural and postcolonial involves a positive evaluation of cultural div
studies – with their own distinct questions, perspec- the institutional commitment to its pre
tives and tool-kits. All this justifies the use of the term Multiculturalism is closely associated with
in the plural to highlight its polysemy and accounts politics’, ‘the politics of difference’ and ‘the
for the inevitable partiality of this presentation, which recognition’, all of which consider proper re
mainly focuses on western societies. of cultural diversity a necessary step towards
This essay aims to offer the necessary coordinates disrespected identities and changing domi
to locate these debates in an approximate, although I terns of representation and communication
hope useful, map. It starts exploring the various mean- ginalize certain groups (Song, 2010). In fact
ings difference can assume in the debate on multicul- of difference multiculturalism emphasizes
tural societies. The second section sets out the main recognition it claims can be quite disparate.
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Related papers © 2014 The Author(s)
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Enzo Colombo, 2014, ‘Multiculturalisms’, [Link], DOI: 10.1177/2056846014xx
A FUNDAMENTAL The rise and fall of The Challenges of
STUDY OF multiculturalism? Multiculturalism
MULTICULTURALISM … New debates on … Malory Nye
AND
DR N AMULTI-ETHNIC
DIYAH inclusion and
Will Kymlicka
1
KHUSHBOO
SOCIETIES accommodation in
diverse societies
 Download free PDF  Download free PDF
(2010)  Download free PDF

Multiculturalism in TOWARD A RICHER CLASH OF CULTURES

the 21st Century: DEFINITION OF AND IDENTITY.
Challenges and … MULTICULTURALISM. SOCIOLOGICAL …
Possibilities
Stephen May IJAR Indexing ASPECTS OF
Marek Bodziany
Multiculturalisms MULTICULTURALISM
 Download free PDF  Download free PDF THE
IN
Download free PDF
AGE OF
SOCIAL CHANGES

Colombo Multiculturalisms

First, multiculturalism may refer to claims of quota reserved for members of disadvan
recognition by native and sub-state national groups in higher education, on corporate boar
(Kymlicka, 1995). In relation to indigenous popula- levels of university and in parliament, o
tions – such as Aboriginal peoples in Canada and sist of preferential treatment in selecti
Australia, American Indians, the Maori in New The debate also introduces the need for
Zealand and the Inuit in Greenland – multicultural itics of difference (Young, 1990), i.e. a
debates put forward the issues of the endowment of revision of the criteria used to allocate
rights for minority groups that have been subjugat- tions and material goods. In this case, p
:
 rights for minority groups that have been subjugat- tions and material goods. In this case, p
ed, exploited and discriminated against by (white cies of assimilation and inclusion are ac
European) foreign conquerors. Natives were subject- towards white males and of being prese
ed to systematic and persistent violence, both physi- trality- and impartiality-led, but succeed
cal and symbolic, and they now occupy marginal versalizing the experience of those
positions in economic, political and social life, where Affirmative measures should be taken t
their capacity to participate on a par is restricted by marginalized groups gain access to the
negative representations and prejudices. The debate on an equal footing. This may entail d
focuses on the opportunity to endorse specific poli- and separate, exclusive organizations f
cies in support of indigenous people  to overcome groups  to enable  them to engage in co
long-standing injustices and lingering Save inequalities.
Share Download raising and empowerment
See PDF Cite processes.
The policies may include land rights, self-govern- While race and gender are ‘two-dim
ment rights, recognition of customary laws and ade- ‘bivalent’ forms of discrimination and re
quate political representation in nation-state in the forms of both distribution and
institutions as well as the promotion of anti-discrim- other types of difference can be prima
ination campaigns or the symbolic recognition of the nated against on a symbolic basis. This
role of these native groups in the shared history of the so-called despised sexualities
the country. In relation to sub-state national groups of oppression stems from cultural dev
– such as the Quebecois in Canada, Basques and than political economic arrangements a
Catalans in Spain, Corsicans in France, Flemish and fer injustice due to prejudice and misre
Walloons in Belgium, Scots and Welsh in Britain, (Fraser, 1997). Multicultural debates
Germans in South Tyrol and Swedes in Finland – these groups stress the importance of cu
multicultural debates have mainly focused on poli- sions. They deconstruct the alleged
cies such as federal or quasi-federal territorial auton- showing how what is presented as ‘natu
omy, self-determination rights, guarantees of versal’ is, in fact, the result of the impo
representation in the government and official lan- dominant rules and ask for appropriate
guage status, at either the regional or national level. only possible by changing current cult
A second way to address cultural difference is of interpretation, communication and
related to discriminated groups within society. tion.
Typically, this debate has to do with issues of race Multicultural debates in North Am
and gender. Integration and discrimination of encompass native peoples and cultural m
‘racially marked’ minorities and the position of Europe however, they refer to a post
women in society are cases in point, representing two urban mélange and the politics it
of the thorniest questions concerning the difficulties (Triandafyllidou et al., 2012). In this
of liberal democracies to move from formal egalitar- difference refers to immigrants
ianism to effective equality for all citizens. Although issues entail overcoming previous assim
formal discrimination has been eliminated, both colonialist patterns of migrants’ inclusi
racialized groups and women are under-represented of the recognition of immigrants an
at the topmost levels of economic, academic and spring’s right of being part of society w
political institutions; they usually have higher unem- plete identification with the majo
ployment rates and suffer forms of symbolic violence Multicultural policies include the foun
that entrap them in misrepresentations and margin- state of ethnic group organizations to su
al social positions. They are often depicted as
Colomboinferi- al activities and preserve ethnic tra
Multiculturalisms
or, lacking, irrational, and unfit for power and founding of bilingual or mother-tongu
leadership. The multicultural debate focuses on the the exemption from dress codes and th
necessity for affirmative action policies
claims for facilitated access to citizenship, includingfavouring the of specific forms
importance of the of legal andofpolitic
recognition differ
themembers
possibilityofofthese
dualdisadvantaged
citizenship. groups and allowing at the including multiplelevel
philosophical jurisdictional system
– its importanc
them to overcome negative social representations.
Multiculturalism for immigrant groups clearly when warranted by religious beliefs
sonal identity, self-fulfilment and social par o
Affirmative
differs action
in substance frommay either
that consist of people,
of indigenous a specific – and toms. Immigrant
at the multiculturalism
political level – its importanca
the internally discriminated or that of cultural ing a voice, in the public space, to ma
minorities. Nevertheless, all of them, although in groups, overcoming previous injustice and
different measures, raise the same relevant issues: 2
tion.
Countering the liberal idea that emphas
• To promote more democratic inclusion, and sameness, a communitarian perspective
assuring real equal access and participation for all difference and group membership. It s
:
 assuring real equal access and participation for all difference and group membership. It s
members of society without subordinating inclu- recognition of individual rights is not
sion to assimilation into the majority group; because it presupposes an incoherent noti
• To overcome previous offensive and unde- individual as existing outside and apart fr
mocratic relations of domination and exclusion, relations, rather than embedded within t
recognizing the violence and exploitation by the appropriate recognition of both indivi
members of the dominant group who impose group difference establishes the basis for f
their own rules and ideas by presenting them as opment of individual capacities and for
‘natural’ and ‘universal’; democratic participation in social life (
• To take part in the debate on the ‘rules of 1996; Taylor, 1994). People can build an i
the game’ for participation and to have a say in ent and self-confident identity only thro
how to build a fairer, more equal society; logue with others, feeling part of a particula
• To assure adequate recognition of and community. Individual agency depends o
respect for cultural difference, fighting stereo- ing to particular social and cultural groups
types and prejudices that depict minority groups vide individuals with meaning. When the
in negative ways and entrap minority group of this community is ignored, glossed over,
members in despised identities; ed into a dominant or majority identity, or
• To recognize the right to be different, to nized, a person or group of people can s
hold different religious beliefs, sexual identifica- damage, real distortion (Taylor, 1994: 25).
tions and preferences, plural identifications and Liberal universalism and cultural neu
multiple citizenship without being discriminated contested too. Different cultures represent
or excluded; systems of meaning and visions of the goo
• To give relevance to ‘culture’, ‘cultural no single one of them may claim to give ap
groups’ and ‘cultural rights’ (Levy, 2000), not answers to the totality of human existence
only to individual rights. ture is perfect and no culture has the right
itself on others (Hollinger, 1995; Parek
Rorty, 1989). Consequently, diverse cultu
Theoretical approaches ties should be presumed to be of equal wort
traditional liberal principle of identical lib
Multiculturalism applies not only to diverse types of opportunities for all citizens should be repl
difference within society, it also entails various, a regime of special rights for minority
although intertwined, theoretical perspectives that groups (Song, 2010).
pose specific questions and highlight distinctive Defenders of liberalism
aspects of living with diversity in current societies. In Huntington, 1996, 2004; Schlesinger, 1998
this section, three approaches to multicultural issues that liberal democracy requires a common
are introduced and critically discussed. basis and a strong feeling of civic engag
order to function. They sustain that the p
Multiculturalism as a normative issue difference contrast with the politics of
A large part of the multicultural debate in the 1990s because recognition of group rights fragme
was monopolized by political philosophy in the ty, promotes ‘parallel lives’, withers loyal
effort to develop a coherent theory of justice able to
Colombo nation-state, reduces individual freedom an
Multiculturalisms
include a relevant space for group rights and the mines a politics of redistribution (for a sim
recognition of cultural difference. As political theory, cism from a progressive point of view, s
multiculturalism challenges
the liberal values a liberal
of freedom of philosophy of
choice, personal 1995).
principles of liberalism and the acceptan
universalism
autonomythat and conceives human
equality, he beings
stresses as ration- of
the importance A significant
al attempt
and religious to overcome
traditions may be aeasil
rig
al agents
cultureofand
freecultural
will, whose freedom may
membership. be granted
Cultural member- position
three between
conditionsindividual
are [Link] collective
Society and
onlyship
through
mattersidentical, individual
and cannot be easilyrights.
expungedIt stresses
from lib- been proposed
claim by Willy
cultural Kymlicka
recognition (1995).
must grantE
eral theory because culture provides its members bers: ‘egalitarian reciprocity’ (members
with a meaningful way of life and defines the range3 must not, by virtue of their membersh
of options from which individuals can choose. It also entitled to lesser degrees of rights than t
provides the necessary environment for developing ‘voluntary self-ascription’ (an individua
individual self-confidence and self-respect. A fair automatically assigned to a cultural, rel
society should recognize the importance of minority guistic group by virtue of his or her bir
cultures and allow their members to protect their of exit and association’ (individuals mu
:
 cultures and allow their members to protect their of exit and association’ (individuals mu
culture against majority practices and rules. stricted freedom to choose which group
Nevertheless not all the claims of cultural protection to and to move from one belonging to
can be accepted on a liberal basis. Kymlicka distin-
guishes between ‘external protections’ – the demand Multiculturalism as an (anti)ideo
by a minority culture to protect its distinctive exis- An original and important theoretical
tence and identity by limiting the impact of the deci- to the ‘multicultural debate’ comes fr
sions of the larger society – and ‘internal restrictions’ criticism of universalism. Since the 196
– the demand by a minority culture to restrict the cially the 1970s, decolonization mov
basic civil or political liberty of its own members in postcolonial theory have denounced t
order to maintain internal status quo, to prevent ism of those in power whose celebrati
group fragmentation or to contrast internal dissent. universal values, in fact, conceals pract
While ‘external protection’ claims are fully compati- nation and exploitation (Wieviorka, 20
ble with liberal principles and should be accepted theory, radical social theory and po
because they help to enhance individual freedom and have played a relevant role in the debate
social justice, ‘internal restriction’ requests must be different ways, all these theoretical
rejected. defied universalism giving priority
Jürgen Habermas (1994) shares the idea that the socio-historical variability and contin
protection of collective identities does not necessari- stimulated an open war over the ‘cano
ly conflict with the right to equal individual liberties. 1972; Rattansi, 1999) and a radical de
He sees the possibility of linking the two apparently of – white, male – domination; they also
irreconcilable principles when attention for the ‘con- to carrying on an acute critique of pat
tents’ of multicultural policies is replaced by a ‘pro- eties (Narayan and Harding,
ceduralist’ conception of rights according to which Eurocentrism (Shohat and Stam, 1994)
the democratic process has to safeguard both private Criticism of universalism also entail
and public autonomy at the same time. Safeguarding fixed identity and exclusive belonging.
the private and individual autonomy of citizens with tivist point of view is supported against
equal rights must go hand in hand with activating ist standpoint that conceives identity a
their autonomy as citizens participating in public as the deepest and more authentic nucl
life. Rather than concerns about which kind of poli- the basis for the existence of the indivi
cy to promote, it is preferable to focus on the ‘condi- group. Identity and difference are seen a
tions’ for a free, public discussion in which all continuous mediation, comparison,
citizens, from their specific cultural location, have a translation and conflict between differe
say in the definition of the common binding rules. A bilities (Amselle, 1990; Hannerz, 19
fair multicultural society does not depend on some 1995). Current economic and cultural
specific, real and well-defined set of juridical norms as well as migratory phenomena c
and policies. Instead, it is the result of ‘constitution- undermining the idea that individuals
al patriotism’, a public agreement on the rules for are characterized by single and permane
claiming recognition and taking decisions affecting and that the nation-state can be synon
all members of the society. Seyla Benhabib (2002)
Colombo universal values (Beck, 2006).
Multiculturalisms
further develops the centrality of deliberative democ- Ethnic difference, in particular, is se
racy for multicultural debates. She considers one of of power and violence, the outcome of h
thecritics
as its most –widespread
focuses on criticisms
ethnic andagainst thediffer-
religious commu- conflict that distinguish
Multiculturalism imperial of
as a feature andcu
co
nitarian
ence, perspective
depicting – namely
it as a ‘natural its tendency
given’; in so doing,to itreify (Gilroy,
global 2006). Western societies – a
societies
culture,
neglects theconceived
power and as fixed, stable and
the violence thatcharacterized
produce In western societiesterms,
its descriptive – are multiculturalism
and have always
suchbya well-defined boundaries
difference (Gilroy, 2005).– and argues that the cultural’. Current political
some peculiar characteristics of multicultura
current so
While liberal multiculturalism defends ethical focuses not only on the way in which cultu
universals – freedom, autonomy, tolerance – and ences are produced and reproduced, but a
communitarianism emphasizes group membership, 4
questions and tensions these processes
critical multiculturalism (Goldberg, 1994; May, including the proposals for political and in
1999) is about empowering the disempowered, con- al procedures for dealing with them (W
testing dominant groups, challenging their ‘canon’ 1998).
and transforming their institutions and discourses. It Managing cultural difference is hardly a
highlights differences ‘within’ groups, not only dif- nomenon. In the past, societies we now c
ference ‘between’ groups (Yuval-Davis, 1999). It is cultural, were usually defined as ‘multi
:
 ference ‘between’ groups (Yuval-Davis, 1999). It is cultural, were usually defined as ‘multi
not about the ‘recognition of difference’, as a pure ‘multi-ethnic’ or just ‘plural’. Nevertheless,
acknowledgement of the existence of reified and turalism highlights specific aspects and po
stereotyped ‘others’ which should be ‘included’; ic questions. The point is that multicultura
instead, it critically focuses on the social and politi- not simply refer to the mundane fact that
cal construction of white male supremacy and the modern societies are characterized by cultu
dispensation of white male hegemony. The decon- sity; instead, it refers to the fact that the
struction of dominant positions, rather than the attributed to cultural diversity in western
recognition and the inclusion of the dominated, has radically changed since the second half
becomes the focus of analysis (McLaren, 1997). century. Rather than being the simple r
What is really at stake in the multicultural debate is ‘quantitative’ increase of ‘difference’ or
neither the recognition of identity nor the endorse- graphic fact’, it represents the effort to fi
ment of collective rights but the unmasking of the cultural, legal and political accommodatio
foundation of (white, male) domination (Hage, tural difference, replacing older forms of so
2000). Multiculturalism, in this case, unveils racism der, ethnic and racial) hierarchy (Kymlick
and counters the invisible and taken-for-granted pre- Therefore, it is difficult to understand mul
suppositions that define the setting for the entitle- ism without putting cultural difference in
ment of rights, power and privileges; it also priate context. Cultural, economic and
constitutes a readjustment of unequal relations of factors – and their combinations – have b
power and exploitation between dominants and the cated as causes of a significant change in t
dominated (Hall, 2000). of cultural difference following the Secon
Put into its precise historical perspective, multi- War (Semprini, 1997). Cultural factors re
culturalism is not the result of the encounter role of the ‘new social movements’ (Tourai
between ‘pure’ and ‘well-defined’ culturally different Wieviorka, 1996) and their struggle agains
groups; instead, it is the attempt to redefine power tion and the melting-pot ideology (Re
relations between mixed and changing forms of Multiculturalism is part of a larger human r
political identification (Gunew, 2004). The binary olution involving ethnic and racial
contrast between the particularism of ‘minority’ (Baumann, 1999; Kymlicka, 2012). Econ
demands for the recognition of difference versus the tors include the success of market ideolog
universalism of the ‘majority’ civic rationality is ren- crisis of the Fordist model of production (
dered impracticable by the postcolonial experience. 2000; Goldberg, 1994). Political factors em
It becomes evident that there are – and there have end of the Cold War (Beck, 2006) and t
always been – many relevant differences ‘within’ any quent crisis of nation-states (Habermas, 20
group, and, therefore, also the alleged ‘authenticity’, that is also connected to the intensification
‘homogeneity’ and ‘unity’ of the ‘autochthonous’ is alization processes, the changes in the char
challenged (Hall, 2000). Rather than attesting the of migration flows and the effort of the nat
different nature of different cultures, multicultural- to control their boundaries (Bloemraad et a
ism highlights the character of social construction of
Colombo The sociological perspective insists on
Multiculturalisms
any culture and identity; it shows that culture and construction of identity and difference, c
identity are more the result of history and power essentialism and reification. It aims to
than of biology In
unchanged. or this
fate. way, culture finishes to act as a The multicultural
inconsistency and pitfalls backlash
of considering
deterministic device that influences and even shapes ethnic and religious
In 1997 Nathan cultures as finishe
Glazer published
the actions and thoughts of all its alleged members, whose features haveNow
Multiculturalists beentodefined
suggestthrough
– may
depriving them of agency (Baumann, 1999; Phillips, torical processes and have now to
optimistically – that recognition and bere
2007). Without a sociologically informed concept of tural difference had become a permane
cultural difference, multiculturalism ends up foster-5 western society. Not many years later
ing new forms of discrimination, only superficially turn of the millennium, we witnessed
masked by respect and recognition of difference. An talk of a necessary retreat from mul
all-too-quick reification of the identities of a given which was a failure and had ended up fo
group has often frozen existing group differences, fragmentation, parallel lives and terr
strengthening the position of specific elites within The multiculturalism backlash became
communities and reproducing ancient hierarchies. for a sequence of tragic events and hot
Yet, the essentialist view of culture cannot easily notwithstanding their diversity, all have
be dismissed because culture constitutes a political tant in influencing public debate. First
:
 be dismissed because culture constitutes a political tant in influencing public debate. First
tool in arguing for rights and exemptions, recogni- series of urban riots (Oldham, UK, in
tion and group privileges. Effective social use of cul- banlieues, France, and Cronulla Beach,
tural difference requires a dual competence 2005) described as fights between im
(Baumann, 1999): the capacity to produce and to children of immigrants and local youth
overcome distinctions according to situations and and in political discourses, the riots w
personal and collective aims. Cultural difference as being caused by the inability or unw
needs a certain degree of credibility and stability in immigrants to integrate, encouraged as
order to be effective, but risks losing this effective- live parallel lives by generous multicul
ness if it cannot be adjusted to the specific situation that pushed them to feel apart from th
in which it is used. Dual competence not only population. Second, were the murder
depends on the will or the sensitivity of the individ- maker Theo van Gogh in 2004 in the
ual, but it also suffers under structural constraints the 7/7 2005 terrorist bombing in Lond
and conditions of power which transcend the ration- discussions in most western countries o
al abilities and strategies of the person involved. ty to counter (Islamic) religious fund
Multiculturalism poses the tricky question of issuing laws to ban the wearing of I
combining difference and identity, reification and scarves in public spaces or the building
ongoing production, ‘drawing together on the same As a result, talks of a necessary retre
terrain those formal incommensurables of political ticulturalism as a normative ideal and as
vocabularies – liberty and equality with difference, cies spread in all western countries. It m
“the good” with “the right” ’ (Hall, 2000: 235). to discuss in some detail four different
Accepting and taking this ambivalence seriously may
result in a more complex, fragmented and heteroge- Conservative, right-wing criticis
neous civil sphere (Alexander, 2001, 2013; Kivisto, Conservative critics accuse multicultur
2010) that makes the expansion of democratic par- ing exaggerated support to minority gro
ticipation possible. Rather than being solved in the and cultures, in so doing weakening
abstract, at the level of a new theory of justice, local culture. They often depict ‘a ze
ambivalent requests coming from multicultural between cultures (Auster, 2004; Huntin
debates may be negotiated and reconciled in practice with multicultural policies favouring i
(Werbner, 2005; Wieviorka, 2013). modern and anti-democratic minority
From this perspective, analysis focuses on the blaming the majority group of being
meaning and practice of multiculturalism, both at and racist. Uncritical acceptance of hab
the level of state policies and of local relationships. values and languages far from, if not
Analysis draws attention to how cultural difference those of the majority, is diminishing w
becomes a political tool for claiming rights and ty, its institution and its beliefs. Cultu
inclusion or, vice versa, it turns into a justification so the criticism goes, reinforces aggres
for exclusion. Multiculturalism is conceived as groups and neglects the value of the
an ongoing political accomplishment, a practical unique history of liberal, democratic we
resource that can be used either in defence of (cultur- condemning it to extinction. The ma
al, human) rights or in defence of communal solidar- must take pride in its own culture and e
ity. making the most of national belonging
cohesion. It must expect minority grou
majority rules and values and show w

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 References (102)

1. Alexander JC (2001) Theorizing the 'modes of incorporation': Assimilation, hyphenation, and multiculturalism
as varieties of civil participation. Sociological Theory 19(3): 237-49.

2. Alexander JC (2103) Struggling over the mode of incorporation: Backlash against multiculturalism in Europe.
Ethnic and Racial Studies 36(4): 531-56.

3. Al-Hibri AY (1999) Is western patriarchal feminism good for third world/minority women? In: Cohen J,
Howard M and Nussbaum M (eds) Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women? Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, pp. 41-6.

4. Amin A (2002) Ethnicity and the multicultural city: Living with diversity. Environment and Planning A 34:
959-80.

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