The skeletal system

Objectives
Skeletal system
• Divisions of skeletal system
• Types of bone
• Salient features and functions of bones of axial and
appendicular skeletal system
Joints
• Structural and functional classification,
• types of joints movements and its articulation
• The skeletal system is composed of bones and cartilage connected by
ligaments to form a framework for the rest of the body tissues.

• There are two parts to the skeleton

The skeletal system

Axial skeleton Appendicular skeleton

The adult human skeleton consists of 206 bones

Axial skeleton

Bones along the axis of the body

including

• The skull

• Vertebral Column

• Ribcage
Appendicular skeleton
Appendages such as

• The upper limbs

• Lower limbs

• Pelvic girdle

• Shoulder girdle
Types of bones based on shape
Long bones –
• Typically longer than they are wide (such as
humerus, radius, tibia, femur), they comprise a
diaphysis (shaft) and epiphyses at the distal and
proximal ends, joining at the metaphysis.
• In growing bone, this is the site where growth
occurs and is known as the epiphyseal growth
plate.
Location: In the appendicular skeleton
Function: Movement
Short bones
• Cube-shaped and are nearly equal in length and
width.
• They consist of spongy bone tissue except at the
surface, which has a thin layer of compact bone
tissue.
Location:
The carpal (wrist) bones (except for the pisiform,
which is a sesamoid bone)
The tarsal (ankle) bones (except for the calcaneus or
heel bone, which is an irregular bone).
Flat bones
• Generally thin and composed of two nearly parallel plates
of compact bone tissue enclosing a layer of spongy bone
tissue.
Location:
Cranial bones, which protect the brain;
The sternum (breastbone) and ribs, which protect organs in
the thorax
The scapulae (shoulder blades).
Function:
Protection and provide extensive areas for muscle
attachment.
Irregular bones-

These have complex shapes and cannot be

grouped into any of the previous
categories.

They vary in the amount of spongy and

compact bone present.

Location:

The vertebrae (backbones), hip bones,

certain facial bones, and the calcaneus.
Sesamoid bones:
They may vary in number from person to person, are
not always completely ossified.
Notable exceptions are the two patellae (kneecaps),
large sesamoid bones located in the quadriceps
femoris tendon that are normally present in everyone.
Location: Develop in certain tendons where there is
considerable friction, tension, and physical stress,
such as the palms and soles.
Functions: Protect tendons from excessive wear and
tear, and they often change the direction of pull of a
tendon, which improves the mechanical advantage at
a joint.
SALIENT FEATURES AND FUNCTIONS OF BONES
of axial skeletal system
The Skull : 22 number of Bones
• The bones of the skull are grouped into two
categories:
1. Cranial bones (8)
2. Facial bones (14) The skull has many surface markings, such as foramina and fissures
through which blood vessels and nerves pass.
Cranial bones (8)
Facial bones (14)
The frontal bone-1 Nasal bones-2
Parietal bones-2 Maxillae-2 The mandible-1
Temporal bones-2 Zygomatic bones-2
The occipital bone-1 Lacrimal bones-2
The sphenoid bone -1 Palatine bones-2
The ethmoid bone-1 Inferior nasal conchae-2 The vomer-1
 CRANIAL BONES

• The cranium consists of eight (8) bones and is specifically

defined as the rounded, bony case enclosing and
protecting the brain .
• The cranium also functions as an attachment surface for
important groups of muscles.
• In the formation of the sinuses , which serve as resonance
chambers and help to reduce the total weight of the skull .
Frontal Bone (1)
• It is the bone of the forehead
• Forms part of
The orbital cavities (eye sockets) the
supraorbital margins  just above the
supraorbital margins  two air-filled
cavities or sinuses which open into the
nasal cavity.

• The coronal suture joins the frontal and

parietal bones
• Two parts joined in the midline by the
frontal suture
Parietal bones (2)
• These bones form the sides and roof
of the skull.
• They articulate with each other at the
sagittal suture, with the frontal bone at
the coronal suture, with the occipital
bone at the lambdoidal suture and with
the temporal bones at the squamous
sutures.
• The inner surface is concave and is
grooved to accommodate the brain and
blood vessels.
Occipital bone (1)
• This bone forms the back of the head and
part of the base of the skull.
• The occiput has two articular condyles that
form condyloid joints with the atlas.
• Between the condyles is the foramen
magnum through which the spinal cord
passes into the cranial cavity.
Temporal bones (2)
• These bones lie one on each side of the head
• Form fibrous immovable joints with the parietal,
occipital, sphenoid and zygomatic bones
• The squamous part -Articulates with the parietal
bone
• Zygomatic process-Articulates with the zygomatic
bone
• The mastoid process-Communicate with the
middle ear
• The styloid process -Supports the hyoid bone and
muscles
• Temporomandibular joint-The temporal bone
articulates with the mandible
Sphenoid bone (1)
• This bone occupies the middle
portion of the base of the skull
and it articulates with the
occipital, temporal, parietal and
frontal bones
• On the superior surface in the
middle of the bone is a little
saddle-shaped depression, the
hypophyseal fossa in which the
pituitary gland rests.
Ethmoid bone (1)
• It occupies the anterior part of the base of the skull and helps to form the
orbital cavity, the nasal septum and the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
 THE FACIAL BONES (14)
• The facial bones consist of 14
bones that compose what is
known as the human face.
• Along with the cranial bones,
they help to form the nasal
cavity
• It also provide numerous
attachment sites for important
muscles that control facial
expressions and move the jaw.
 Nasal bones (2)
• These are two small flat bones that form the greater part of the lateral and
superior surfaces of the bridge of the nose.
Maxilla (2)
Forms the upper jaw
• The anterior part the roof of the
mouth
• The lateral part walls of the nasal
cavity
• The floor part  the orbital cavities
• The alveolar ridge/ process carries the
upper teeth.
• The maxillary sinus openings into the
nasal cavity.
Zygomatic (cheek) bones
• The zygomatic bone originates as two bones. They form the prominences of
the cheeks and part of the floor and lateral walls of the orbital cavities.
Mandible (lower jaw bone)-(1)
• This is the lower jaw, the only movable bone of
the skull.
• It originates as two parts that unite at the midline.
• Each half consists of two main parts:
1. A curved body with the alveolar ridge
containing the lower teeth
2. A ramus, which projects upwards almost at
right angles to the posterior end of the body
Condylar process  the temporal bone the
temporomandibular joint
Coronoid process- muscles and ligaments
Ramus joins the body The angle
Lacrimal bones (2)
• Two small bones are posterior and lateral to the nasal bones and form part of
the medial walls of the orbital cavities.
• Foramen - The nasolacrimal duct Tears medial canthus of the eye 
The nasal cavity
Palatine bones (2)
• Two small L-shaped bones.
• The horizontal parts  The posterior part of the hard palate
Perpendicular parts - Part of the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
Upper extremities - The orbital cavities
Inferior conchae (2)
• Each concha is a scroll-shaped bone, which
forms part of the lateral wall of the nasal
cavity and projects into it below the middle
concha.
• The superior and middle conchae are parts of
the ethmoid bone.
• The conchae collectively increase the surface
area in the nasal cavity, allowing inspired air
to be warmed and humidified more
effectively.
Vomer (1)
• It is a thin flat bone that
• Extends upwards- the middle of the hard palate -- inferior part of the
nasal septum.
• Superiorly - the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone.
Functions of the skull
• The cranium protects the delicate tissues of the brain.
• The bony eye sockets provide the eyes with some protection against injury and
give attachment to the muscles that move the eyes.
• The temporal bone protects the delicate structures of the ear.
• The sinuses in some face and skull bones give resonance to the voice.
• The bones of the face form the walls of the posterior part of the nasal cavities
and form the upper part of the air passages.
• The maxilla and the mandible provide alveolar ridges in which the teeth are
embedded.
• Chewing of food is performed by the mandible, controlled by muscles of the
lower face.
 The Vertebral Column
• The vertebral column, which is sometimes called “the backbone”
or “spinal column”
• Consists of 26 bones -Adult 33 bones –Infant
• It extends from the base of the skull and constitutes the main
framework of the trunk.
• Each vertebra has a Central hollow portion (neural canal)
through which the spinal cord passes.
• The vertebral column can be completely subdivided into five
areas
1. Cervical Vertebrae
2. Thoracic Vertebrae
3. Lumbar Vertebrae
4. Sacrum
5. Coccyx
Regions of the Vertebral Column:
Cervical vertebrae: (07)
The seven cervical vertebrae (C1 to C7) form the neck region of the spine.
• Atlas:
The atlas (C1) has no body; the superior surfaces of its transverse processes contain large
depressions that receive the occipital condyles of the skull.
• Axis:
The axis (C2) acts as a pivot for the rotation of the atlas (and skull) above; it has a large upright
process, the dens, which acts as the pivot point.

• The third through sixth cervical vertebrae (C3--C6) represented by the vertebra and
• The seventh cervical vertebra (C7), called the vertebra prominens which contains single
large spinous process
Thoracic Vertebrae:(12)
The twelve thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12) are all typical.
Size. They are larger than the cervical vertebrae and are distinguished by the fact that they are
the only vertebrae to articulate with the ribs.

Shape. The body is somewhat heart-shaped and has two costal facets on each side, which
receive the heads of the ribs.

Transverse processes. The two transverse processes of each thoracic vertebrae articulate with
the nearby knoblike tubercles of the ribs.

Spinous process. The spinous process is long and hooks sharply downward, causing the
vertebra to look like a giraffe’s head viewed from the side.
Lumbar Vertebrae (5)
The five lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5) have massive, blocklike bodies.
Spinous processes. Their short, hatchet-shaped spinous processes make them look like a moose
head from the lateral aspect.
Strength. Because most of the stress on the vertebral column occurs in the lumbar region, these
are the sturdiest of the vertebrae.
Sacrum (5)
The sacrum is formed by the fusion of five
vertebrae.
Alae: The winglike alae articulate laterally
with the hip bones, forming the sacroiliac
joints.
Median sacral crest: Its posterior midline
surface is roughened by the median sacral
crest, the fused spinous processes of the sacral
vertebrae.
Posterior sacral foramina: This is flanked
laterally by the posterior sacral foramina.
Sacral canal: The vertebral canal continues
inside the sacrum as the sacral canal and
terminates in a large inferior opening called
the sacral hiatus.
Coccyx
The coccyx is formed from the fusion of three to five tiny, irregular shaped vertebrae.
Tailbone: It is the human “tailbone”, a remnant of the tail that other vertebrate animals have.
***Features of the vertebral column
Intervertebral discs: The individual vertebrae are separated by pads of flexible fibrocartilage-
intervertebral discs- that cushion the vertebrae and absorb shock while allowing the spine
flexibility.
Vertebral foramen: Canal through which the spinal cord passes.
Primary curvatures: The spinal curves in the thoracic and sacral regions are referred to as
primary curvatures because they are present when we are born.
Secondary curvatures: The curvatures in the cervical and lumbar regions are referred to as
secondary curvatures because they develop some time after birth.
Movements of the vertebral column: flexion (bending forward), extension (bending
backward), lateral flexion (bending to the side) and rotation.
Functions of the vertebral column
• Collectively the vertebral foramina form the vertebral canal, which provides a
strong bony protection for the delicate spinal cord lying within it.
• The pedicles of adjacent vertebrae form intervertebral foramina, one on each
side, providing access to the spinal cord for spinal nerves, blood vessels and
lymph vessels.
• The numerous individual bones with their intervertebral discs allow movement
of the whole column.
• It supports the skull.
• The intervertebral discs act as shock absorbers, protecting the brain.
• It forms the axis of the trunk, giving attachment to the ribs, shoulder girdle and
upper limbs, and the pelvic girdle and lower limbs
 Thoracic Cage
• The sternum, ribs, and thoracic
vertebrae make up the bony thorax.
• The bony thorax is routinely called the
thoracic cage because it forms a
protective, cone-shaped cage of
slender bones around the organs of the
thoracic cavity.
Sternum
The sternum (breastbone) is a typical flat bone and the result of the fusion of three bones-
the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process.
• Landmarks: The sternum has three important bony landmarks- the jugular notch,
the sternal angle, and the xiphisternal joint.
1. Jugular notch: The jugular notch (concave upper border of the manubrium) can be
palpated easily, generally it is at the level of the third thoracic vertebra.
2. Sternal angle: The sternal angle results where the manubrium and the body meet at a
slight angle to each other, so that a transverse ridge is formed at the level of the second
ribs.
3. Xiphisternal joint: The xiphisternal joint, the point where the sternal body and xiphoid
process fuse, lies at the level of the ninth thoracic vertebra.
Ribs
Twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of the bony thorax.
• True ribs. The true ribs, the first seven pairs, attach directly to the sternum by costal
cartilages.
• False ribs. False ribs, the next five pairs, either attach indirectly to the sternum or are not
attached to the sternum at all.
• Floating ribs. The last two pairs of false ribs lack the sternal attachments, so they are
called the floating ribs.
SALIENT FEATURES AND FUNCTIONS OF BONES
of
Appendicular system
The appendicular skeleton
consists of
1. The shoulder girdle with
the upper limbs
2. The pelvic girdle with
the lower limbs
 Shoulder girdle and upper limb
• Shoulder girdle: The shoulder girdle consists of two scapulae and two clavicles.
• Clavicle (collar bone) : The clavicle is an S-shaped long bone. It articulates with the
manubrium of the sternum at the sternoclavicular joint.
• Scapulae/shoulder blades:
• These are triangular and commonly called “wings”
• Parts of the scapula-the acromion and the coracoid.
• Acromion-connects with the clavicle laterally at the acromioclavicular joint.
• Coracoid-suprascapular notch, which serves as a nerve passageway.
• Borders of the scapula: The scapula has three borders-
superior, medial (vertebral), and lateral (axillary).
• Angles of the scapula: It also has three angles- superior,
inferior, and lateral; the glenoid cavity, a shallow socket that
receives the head of the arm bone.
The upper limb
Humerus: (2)
• It is the bone of the upper arm.
• Two roughened projections of bone, the greater and lesser tubercles, and
between them the bicipital groove occupied by the tendons of the biceps
muscle.
Ulna and radius: (2) &(2)
These are the two bones of the forearm
The ulna is longer than and medial to the radius
Articulate with the humerus at the elbow joint,
the carpal bones at the wrist joint
Carpal (wrist) bones: (16)
• There are eight carpal bones arranged in two rows of four. From outside inwards they are:
• Proximal row: Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum, Pisiform
• Distal row: Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate, Hamate.
The bones of the proximal row are associated with the wrist joint and those of the distal row
form joints with the metacarpal bones.
Metacarpal bones (bones of the hand): (10)
These five bones form the palm of the hand.
They are numbered from the thumb side inwards.
Phalanges (finger bones): (28)
There are 14 phalanges, three in each finger and two in the thumb.
They articulate with the metacarpal bones
 Pelvic girdle and lower limb
The pelvic girdle:
The pelvic girdle is formed from two innominate (hip) bones.
The basin-shaped structure formed by the pelvic girdle and its associated sacrum.
Each hip bone consists of three fused bones: the ilium, ischium and pubis.
• The ilium forms a synovial joint with the sacrum
• The ischium bear the weight of the body when seated.
• The pubis is articulates with the pubis of the other hip bone at the symphysis pubis.
The pelvis:
The pelvis is formed by the hip bones, the sacrum and the coccyx.
In comparison with the male pelvis, the female pelvis has lighter bones, is more shallow and
rounded
The lower limb
Femur (thigh bone): (2)
• The femur is the longest and heaviest
bone of the body.
• The distal extremity has two articular
condyles, which, with the tibia and
patella, form the knee joint.
Tibia (shin bone):(2)
• The tibia is the medial of the two bones of
the lower leg.
• The proximal extremity is broad and flat
and presents two condyles for articulation
with the femur at the knee joint.
Fibula: (2)
The fibula is the long slender lateral bone in the leg.
The head or upper extremity articulates with the lateral condyle of the tibia and the lower
extremity articulates with the tibia.
Patella (knee cap):
This is a roughly triangular-shaped sesamoid bone associated with the knee joint.
Tarsal (ankle) bones: (14)
The seven tarsal bones forming the posterior part of the foot (ankle) are the talus, calcaneus,
navicular, cuboid and three cuneiform bones.
Metatarsals (bones of the foot):(10)
These are five bones which form the greater part of the dorsum of the foot.
The enlarged distal head of the 1st metatarsal bone forms the ‘ball’ of the foot.
• Phalanges (toe bones): (28)
There are 14 phalanges arranged in a similar manner to those in the fingers, i.e. two in the
great toe (the hallux) and three in each of the other toes.
 JOINTS
• Point of contact between two bones, between bone and cartilage, or between bone and teeth
called as joint.
• It is also called an articulation or arthrosis.
The structural classification of joints:
Based on the presence or absence synovial cavity, and the type of connective tissue

Joints

Fibrous joint Cartilaginous joints Synovial joints

• No synovial cavity
• No synovial cavity Synovial cavity
• Dense irregular connective
• Cartilage Articular capsule
• tissue
FIBROUS JOINTS: No Synovial Cavity; Articulating Bones Held Together by Fibrous
Connective Tissue.
It permit little or no movement. The three types of fibrous joints are
1. Sutures
2. Syndesmoses
3. Interosseous membranes
Sutures Syndesmoses Interosseous membranes
sutures are fibrous joint Fibrous joint and more dense Substantial sheet of dense
composed of a thin layer of irregular connective tissue irregular connective tissue that
dense irregular connective typically arranged as a bundle binds neighboring long bones
tissue. (ligament). and permits slight movement
Occur only between bones of It permits limited movement.
the skull. Examples:
Examples: Examples: Between the radius and ulna
The coronal suture between The distal tibiofibular joint, in the forearm
the parietal and frontal bones anterior tibiofibular ligament Between the tibia and fibula in
connects the tibia and fibula. the leg
CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS: No Synovial Cavity;
Articulating Bones United by Hyaline Cartilage or Fibrocartilage.

• The articulating bones are tightly connected by either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage.
• The two types of cartilaginous joints are
1. Synchondroses
2. Symphyses

Synchondroses Symphyses
It is a cartilaginous joint in which the It is a cartilaginous joint in which the ends of
connecting material is hyaline cartilage. the articulating bones are covered with
hyaline cartilage, but a broad, flat disc of
fibrocartilage connects the bones.

Example: Example:
the epiphyseal (growth) plate that connects The pubic symphysis between the anterior
the epiphysis and diaphysis of a growing bone surfaces of the hip bones
SYNOVIAL JOINTS
• It is Characterized by a Synovial Cavity, Articular Cartilage, and an Articular (joint) Capsule;
May Contain Accessory Ligaments, Articular Discs, and Bursae.
• The presence of a space called a synovial ( joint) cavity between the articulating bones.
• The bones at a synovial joint are covered by a layer of hyaline cartilage called articular
cartilage.
• A sleeve-like articular (joint) capsule surrounds a synovial joint, encloses the synovial cavity,
• It also contain accessory ligaments called extracapsular ligaments and intracapsular
ligaments. Extra capsular ligaments lie outside the articular capsule. Intracapsular ligaments
occur within the articular capsule.
• Pads of fibrocartilage lie between the articular surfaces of the bones and are attached to the
fibrous capsule. These pads are called articular discs or menisci.
• Saclike structures called bursae to alleviate friction in some joints,
The functional classification of joints:
Based on degree of movement they permit.

Joints

Synarthrosis Amphiarthrosis Diarthrosis

• Slightly movable
• Immovable joint joint
Freely movable joint
 TYPES OF JOINTS MOVEMENTS AND IT’S ARTICULATION
Movements at synovial joints are grouped into four main categories:

1. Gliding
2. Angular movements: Flexion, Lateral flexion, Extension, Hyperextension, Abduction ,
Adduction , Circumduction

3. Rotation
4. Special movements: Elevation, Depression, Protraction, Retraction, Inversion , Eversion
Dorsiflexion, Plantar flexion, Supination , Pronation , Opposition
1. Gliding:

Movement of relatively flat bone surfaces back-and-forth and side-to-side over one another;

No significant alteration of the angle between the bones.

2. Angular: Increase or decrease in the angle between bones.
A. Flexion: Decrease in the angle between articulating bones, usually in the sagittal plane.
B. Extension: Increase in the angle between articulating bones, usually in the sagittal plane.
C. Hyperextension: Extension beyond the anatomical position.
D. Lateral flexion: Movement of the trunk in the frontal plane.
Abduction: Movement of a bone away from the midline, usually in the frontal plane.
Adduction: Movement of a bone toward the midline, usually in the frontal plane.
Circumduction: Flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction in succession, in which the distal
end of a body part moves in a circle.
3. Rotation:
Movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis; in the limbs, it may be medial (toward
midline) or lateral (away from midline).
4. Special movements: Occurs at specific joints.
Elevation: Superior movement of a body part.
Depression: Inferior movement of a body part.
Protraction: Anterior movement of a body part in the transverse plane.
Retraction: Posterior movement of a body part in the transverse plane.
Inversion: Medial movement of the sole.
Eversion: Lateral movement of the sole.
Dorsiflexion: Bending the foot in the direction of the dorsum (superior surface).
Plantar flexion: Bending the foot in the direction of the plantar surface (sole).
Supination: Movement of the forearm that turns the palm anteriorly.
Pronation: Movement of the forearm that turns the palm posteriorly.
Opposition: Movement of the thumb across the palm to touch fingertips on the same hand.
TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS / TYPES OF ARTICULATION
Synovial joints are divided into six categories based on type of movement:
1. Planar joints

2. Hinge joints

3. Pivot joints
4. Condyloid joints

5. Saddle joints

6. Ball-and-socket joints
1. Planar Joints:
• Articulated surfaces are flat or slightly curved.
• Many biaxial diarthroses (freely movable): back-and-forth and side-to-side movements.
Example:
• Intercarpal joints
• Intertarsal joints
• Sternocostal joints
• Vertebrocostal joints
2. Hinge joints
• Convex surface fits into a concave surface.
• Monaxial diarthrosis: flexion-- extension.
Example:
• Knee (modified hinge), elbow, ankle, and interphalangeal joints.
[Link] Joints
• Rounded or pointed surface fits into a ring formed partly by bone and partly by a ligament.
Monaxial diarthrosis: rotation.
Example:
Atlanto axial and radioulnar joints.

4. Condyloid joints
• Oval-shaped projection fits into an oval-shaped depression.
• Biaxial diarthrosis: flexion-- extension, abduction, adduction.
Example:
• Radiocarpal and metacarpophalangeal joints.
5. Saddle joints:
• Articular surface of one bone is saddle-shaped, and the articular surface of the other bone
"sits" in the saddle.
• Triaxial diarthrosis: flexion-- extension, abduction-adduction, and rotation.
Example:
Carpometacarpal joint between trapezium and thumb.
6. Ball-and-socket joints:
• Ball-like surface fits into a cuplike depression.
• Triaxial diarthrosis: flexion--extension,
abduction-adduction, and rotation.
Example:
Shoulder and hip joints.