COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN ENGLISH

Undergraduate Lecture Notes

TOPIC: THE WRITING PROCESS — PLANNING, DRAFTING, AND
REVISING
Course: Communication Skills in English Level: 100 Level (Undergraduate)
Unit: Writing Skills Duration: 2 Hours

Introduction
Writing is one of the most powerful instruments of human communication, yet it is also one
of the most challenging skills to acquire. Unlike speaking, which unfolds in real time with
the support of gesture, intonation, and immediate feedback, writing requires a writer to
organise thought, select language, structure argument, and anticipate the needs of a
reader — all without the benefit of face-to-face interaction. For university students, the
demands of academic writing are even greater: clarity, precision, coherence, and
intellectual rigour are expected as minimum standards.
A critical insight that has transformed the teaching of writing since the 1970s is the
recognition that writing is a process, not an event. Flower and Hayes (1981), in their
groundbreaking cognitive model of the writing process, argued that skilled writers engage in
a recursive set of cognitive operations — planning, translating thought into text, and
reviewing — rather than producing polished prose in a single linear pass. This model
shifted pedagogical attention from the written product to the writing process itself.
This lecture examines the writing process in its principal stages: planning, drafting, and
revising. Within these stages, we explore brainstorming and outlining techniques, the
development of the thesis statement, drafting and editing strategies, and the critical final
stage of proofreading. Taken together, these competencies equip students to approach any
writing task with confidence, method, and skill.

Section 1: Stages of the Writing Process

The writing process is commonly described as comprising three broad, recursive stages:
pre-writing (planning), drafting, and post-writing (revising and editing). The word recursive
is important — these stages do not proceed in a rigid, linear sequence. A writer may plan,
begin drafting, discover gaps in logic, return to planning, draft again, and revise multiple
times before producing a final text. As Murray (1978) observed, 'writing is rewriting,' and the
willingness to cycle back through the process is precisely what distinguishes accomplished
writers from struggling ones.

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Graves (1983) similarly emphasised that students who treat writing as a process — rather
than a one-time task to be completed under pressure — demonstrate significantly greater
improvement in text quality, coherence, and confidence. The following subsections
describe each stage in detail.

1.1 Pre-Writing (Planning)

The pre-writing stage encompasses all activities that occur before a writer begins drafting.
It is the phase in which the writer defines the writing task, identifies the audience and
purpose, generates and organises ideas, and constructs a plan for the text. Langan (2008)
describes pre-writing as 'the thinking stage of writing' — the period during which a writer
makes fundamental decisions that will shape everything that follows.
Neglecting the pre-writing stage is one of the most common errors made by inexperienced
writers. Students who begin drafting immediately, without planning, often produce
incoherent, underdeveloped, or directionless texts. The time invested in planning is never
wasted; on the contrary, it invariably reduces the total time spent on the writing task and
improves the quality of the final product.
Key activities in the pre-writing stage include: identifying the audience and purpose,
exploring the topic through brainstorming or freewriting, narrowing the topic to a
manageable scope, formulating a thesis statement, and constructing an outline.

1.2 Drafting
The drafting stage is the phase in which the writer transforms the ideas generated in
planning into connected, readable prose. The first draft is emphatically not the final text; its
purpose is to get ideas down on paper in an organised form, following the outline produced
during planning. Elbow (1973), in his seminal work Writing Without Teachers, urged writers
to practise 'freewriting' during the drafting stage — to write rapidly without stopping to
correct errors, thereby silencing the internal critic and allowing ideas to flow.
A first draft is sometimes called a 'rough draft' precisely because it is expected to be
imperfect. Lamott (1994), in her celebrated book Bird by Bird, normalised what she called
'shitty first drafts,' arguing that all accomplished writers produce poor first drafts before
crafting polished final texts. The liberating recognition is that the drafting stage is about
creation, not perfection. Perfection belongs to revision.

1.3 Revising
Revision is the stage at which the writer re-examines the draft with a critical eye and makes
substantive improvements. Sommers (1980), in an influential study comparing the revision
strategies of student and experienced writers, found that experienced writers revised
'globally' — rethinking structure, argument, and meaning — while student writers revised

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only 'locally,' making surface corrections of spelling and grammar without addressing
deeper issues of content and organisation.
True revision involves much more than proofreading. It may involve reordering paragraphs,
strengthening the thesis, adding evidence, eliminating irrelevant material, improving
transitions, and reconsidering the overall coherence of the argument. Editing — attention to
sentence-level correctness — and proofreading — a final check for mechanical errors —
are distinct sub-stages that follow global revision.

Key Principle: The writing process is recursive, not linear. Plan thoroughly, draft
freely, and revise rigorously. No stage is optional, and the quality of the final text is
largely determined by the quality of the process that produced it.

Section 2: Brainstorming and Outlining Techniques

Before a writer can draft a coherent text, they must first generate and organise ideas.
Brainstorming and outlining are the two principal pre-writing tools for accomplishing this.
While brainstorming is concerned with idea generation — producing as many ideas as
possible without censorship — outlining is concerned with idea organisation — arranging
the generated material into a logical, hierarchical structure.

2.1 Brainstorming Techniques

The concept of brainstorming was introduced by Osborn (1953) as a group creativity
technique, but it has been widely adapted for individual writing. In the context of writing,
brainstorming refers to any technique that enables a writer to externalise and explore their
knowledge and ideas about a topic before drafting. Rico (1983) describes brainstorming as
'clustering the mind's natural associations' — allowing the brain's non-linear, associative
thinking processes to generate material that linear outlining alone cannot produce.
The following brainstorming techniques are particularly useful for academic writing:

a) Freewriting
Freewriting involves writing continuously for a set period (typically five to ten minutes)
without stopping to correct, evaluate, or censor what is written. The goal is quantity, not
quality. Elbow (1973) advocates freewriting as the most effective technique for overcoming
writer's block and accessing ideas that a writer does not yet know they possess. Even if the
output contains irrelevant material, freewriting frequently surfaces valuable ideas that
structured thinking might suppress.

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b) Mind Mapping (Clustering)
Mind mapping, also called clustering or webbing, is a visual brainstorming technique
developed by Tony Buzan (1974). The writer places the central topic in the middle of a
blank page, then draws branches representing associated ideas, sub-ideas, and examples,
creating a web of related concepts. This technique is particularly effective for visual thinkers
and for topics where multiple interconnected themes need to be explored simultaneously.
Example: A student writing on 'Climate Change and Food Security' might create a mind map
with central node 'Climate Change,' branching out to: rainfall patterns → drought → crop
failure → famine; rising temperatures → pest infestation → reduced yields; flooding → soil
erosion → agricultural land loss.

c) Listing
Listing is the simplest brainstorming technique: the writer records every idea, fact, question,
or example related to the topic as a rapid list, without ordering or evaluating. The list is then
reviewed, and related items are grouped together, forming the basis of an outline. Langan
(2008) recommends listing as particularly useful for students who find more elaborate
techniques overwhelming, as it requires no special equipment or prior knowledge of visual
organisation.

d) The Journalist's Questions (5W + H)

Borrowed from investigative journalism, this technique involves systematically asking:
Who? What? When? Where? Why? and How? with respect to the topic. This structured
approach ensures that a writer considers all significant dimensions of a subject before
drafting and is especially useful for expository and argumentative writing. Grabe and
Kaplan (1996) note that this heuristic is particularly effective for non-native writers of
English, as it provides a clear cognitive scaffold for topic exploration.

e) The Socratic Method (Question Storming)

Rather than generating statements, the writer generates questions about the topic. What is
at stake? Who disagrees, and why? What evidence exists on each side? What
assumptions underlie the dominant view? This technique is especially productive for
argumentative and analytical writing and is aligned with the principles of critical thinking that
higher education demands. Paul and Elder (2006) situate this technique within their
framework of disciplined intellectual inquiry.

2.2 Outlining Techniques

Once brainstorming has generated sufficient raw material, the writer must organise it.
Outlining is the process of creating a structural plan — a roadmap — for the text. A well-
constructed outline reduces drafting time, prevents structural incoherence, and ensures
that every paragraph contributes purposefully to the overall argument.

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Troyka and Hesse (2012) identify outlining as 'the bridge between the chaos of
brainstorming and the coherence of drafting.' There are two principal types of outline used
in academic writing:

a) The Topic Outline

In a topic outline, each point is expressed as a word or short phrase. This type of outline is
quick to produce and gives a broad structural overview. It is most useful in the early stages
of planning, when the writer is still determining the overall shape of the argument.
Example Topic Outline — Essay on 'The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance'
I. Introduction II. Benefits of social media for learning A. Access to educational resources
B. Peer collaboration III. Negative effects on academic performance A. Distraction and
time mismanagement B. Reduced attention span IV. Strategies for balanced use V.
Conclusion

b) The Sentence Outline

In a sentence outline, each point is expressed as a complete sentence that conveys the
specific argument or claim of that section. This type of outline takes longer to produce but
offers a much clearer guide for drafting and is especially recommended for longer, more
complex academic texts such as research papers and dissertations.
Hairston and Ruszkiewicz (1993) argue that the sentence outline is the most valuable pre-
writing tool available to university students because it forces the writer to articulate their
argument with precision before committing to a full draft — thereby revealing logical gaps,
redundancies, and structural weaknesses before they become embedded in the text.

Study Tip: Always construct an outline before drafting. Even a rough topic outline of
five to seven points will significantly improve the coherence and focus of your first
draft. Experienced academic writers rarely draft without some form of structural plan.

Section 3: Developing a Thesis Statement

The thesis statement is the backbone of academic writing. It is a single sentence —
occasionally two — that articulates the central argument, claim, or position of a piece of
writing. Everything in the essay — every paragraph, every piece of evidence, every
example — exists to support, develop, or prove the thesis statement. As Rosenwasser and
Stephen (2012) observe: 'The thesis is not merely a topic announcement; it is a claim that
requires demonstration.'

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3.1 Characteristics of an Effective Thesis Statement
Not every statement qualifies as an effective academic thesis. A strong thesis statement
must possess the following characteristics:
• Specificity: A thesis must be narrow and focused, not broad and vague. 'Social
media affects students' is too vague to serve as a thesis. 'Excessive social media
use significantly impairs the academic concentration and long-term retention abilities
of undergraduate students' is specific enough to argue.
• Arguability: A thesis must be a claim that reasonable people could dispute, not a
statement of universally accepted fact. 'Water is essential for human survival' is not
arguable. 'Access to clean water should be recognised as a fundamental human
right enforceable under international law' is arguable.
• Significance: A thesis must address a question worth asking. It should reflect
genuine intellectual engagement with a topic of academic or social relevance.
• Supportability: A thesis must be capable of being substantiated with evidence —
data, examples, expert opinion, textual analysis, or logical argument.
• Clarity: The thesis must be clearly and precisely worded. Ambiguous phrasing
undermines the writer's authority and confuses the reader.

3.2 Types of Thesis Statements

Lunsford (2015) identifies several types of thesis statements corresponding to different
writing purposes:

a) The Argumentative Thesis

Used in persuasive and analytical essays, this thesis takes a position and anticipates the
structure of the argument.
'Although some economists argue that a universal basic income would discourage
employment, the empirical evidence from pilot programmes in Finland and Kenya suggests
that it fosters entrepreneurial activity and reduces social inequality.'

b) The Analytical Thesis

Used in literary, textual, or thematic analysis, this thesis identifies a pattern or relationship
and proposes an interpretation.
'In Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart, the protagonist Okonkwo's tragic downfall is not the
result of colonialism alone but of his own inability to reconcile personal ambition with
communal obligation.'

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c) The Expository Thesis
Used in informative writing, this thesis identifies the scope and key points of the essay
without taking a controversial stance.
'This essay examines three principal causes of graduate unemployment in Nigeria: skills
mismatch, inadequate industry-university linkages, and macroeconomic stagnation.'

3.3 The Process of Developing a Thesis

Developing an effective thesis is itself a process. Most writers begin with a working thesis
— a provisional claim that evolves as research and drafting proceed. Brereton (1995)
stresses that students should not expect to formulate a polished thesis before engaging
with their material; rather, the thesis should be refined iteratively as understanding
deepens.
A useful heuristic for thesis development is the 'Because Formula':
[Claim] because [Reason 1], [Reason 2], and [Reason 3].
For example: 'Universities should make mental health services mandatory for all students
because rising rates of anxiety and depression impair academic performance, because
early intervention reduces long-term psychiatric morbidity, and because the university
environment carries specific psychological stressors that require specialised support.'
This formula forces the writer to move from a vague position to a structured, arguable, and
supportable claim — the hallmark of sound academic writing.

Common Error: A thesis statement is not a question, a personal announcement ('In

this essay I will discuss...'), or a factual observation. It is a clearly stated intellectual
position that the body of the essay will develop and substantiate.

Section 4: Drafting, Revising, and Editing Strategies

4.1 Strategies for Effective Drafting

The drafting stage transforms the outline and thesis into a structured, written text.
Experienced writers approach drafting with a set of strategies that promote productivity,
coherence, and intellectual depth.

a) Follow the Outline, but Remain Flexible

The outline is a guide, not a straitjacket. Writers should follow the structural plan they have
created but remain open to productive departures — new arguments, unexpected

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connections, or a more effective organisational logic — that emerge during drafting.
Williams and Colomb (2010) caution against 'outline rigidity,' which can prevent the natural
development of ideas.

b) Draft in Sections, Not from Beginning to End

Many writers find it effective to draft the body paragraphs first, before writing the
introduction and conclusion. The introduction, after all, is a promise about what the essay
will deliver; it is easier to make that promise after the delivery has been drafted. Swales and
Feak (2012), in their authoritative guide Academic Writing for Graduate Students,
recommend this approach specifically for research writing.

c) Maintain Paragraph Unity and Coherence

Every paragraph in an academic essay should develop a single central idea. This idea is
typically expressed in a topic sentence — the controlling statement of the paragraph —
which is then developed through supporting evidence, explanation, and analysis. Langan
(2008) identifies three essential qualities of an effective paragraph: unity (all sentences
relate to the topic sentence), support (adequate evidence or illustration), and coherence
(logical flow between sentences).
Transitional words and phrases — 'furthermore,' 'in contrast,' 'consequently,' 'however,' 'it
follows that' — are essential tools for ensuring coherence both within and between
paragraphs. Students should develop a repertoire of academic transitional expressions and
deploy them deliberately.

d) Use the PEEL Structure for Body Paragraphs

A widely recommended framework for structuring body paragraphs is PEEL:
• Point — State the paragraph's main claim (topic sentence)
• Evidence — Provide supporting evidence (data, quotation, example, case study)
• Explanation — Analyse the evidence and explain its relevance to the thesis
• Link — Connect the paragraph's argument back to the thesis or forward to the next
point
This structure ensures that each paragraph is both self-contained and connected to the
broader argument of the essay — a balance that characterises sophisticated academic
prose.

4.2 Revising Strategies

Revision is the most intellectually demanding stage of the writing process. As Sommers
(1980) demonstrated, the difference between skilled and unskilled writers is most visible in

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how they revise: unskilled writers make superficial changes; skilled writers reconsider and
restructure.
Effective revision operates at multiple levels, from the global (macro) to the local (micro):

a) Global (Macro) Revision

Global revision addresses the overall structure, argument, and content of the text. Key
questions to ask during global revision include:
• Does the thesis accurately represent the argument developed in the body of the
essay?
• Is the structure logical? Does each section follow naturally from the previous one?
• Is the argument sufficiently supported? Are there gaps in evidence or reasoning?
• Is any material irrelevant or repetitive? Should any section be cut or relocated?
• Is the introduction engaging and informative? Does the conclusion provide genuine
synthesis rather than mere summary?
Bean (2011) recommends a 'reverse outline' technique for global revision: after completing
the first draft, the writer constructs a new outline from what they have actually written (not
what they intended to write). Comparing this reverse outline with the original plan reveals
structural problems that might otherwise go unnoticed.

b) Local (Micro) Revision

Local revision focuses on individual sentences and paragraphs. It addresses clarity,
concision, precision, and style. Key concerns include:
• Sentence variety: Does the text rely too heavily on simple, short sentences? Are
there effective complex and compound sentences?
• Word choice: Are words precise, academic, and appropriate to the register? Are
there vague, informal, or repetitive words that should be replaced?
• Concision: Can sentences be tightened without losing meaning? Academic writing
prizes economy of expression.
• Active versus passive voice: While the passive voice has legitimate uses in
academic writing, overuse creates weak, impersonal prose. Prefer active
constructions where they are clearer and more direct.

c) Peer Review
Peer review — the practice of exchanging drafts with a classmate for feedback — is one of
the most effective revision strategies available to student writers. Peer reviewers often
identify problems of clarity, coherence, and logic that the author, too close to their own text,
cannot see. Vygotsky's (1978) concept of the 'zone of proximal development' has been
applied to writing pedagogy to explain why collaborative feedback from a more capable
peer or instructor supports growth beyond what a student can achieve independently.

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Students should approach peer review systematically, using specific criteria — thesis
clarity, paragraph unity, use of evidence, transitions — rather than offering vague
impressions. Hacker and Sommers (2014) provide detailed peer review checklists that
guide reviewers toward substantive, actionable feedback.

4.3 Editing Strategies

Editing is the stage at which the writer focuses on sentence-level correctness: grammar,
punctuation, syntax, and style. While revision is concerned with what is being said, editing
is concerned with how it is being said at the level of individual sentences.
Key editing priorities in academic writing include:
• Subject-verb agreement: 'The results of the study suggest...' (not 'suggests'),
because 'results' is the subject, not 'study.'
• Tense consistency: Academic writing generally uses the present tense for
established knowledge ('Smith argues that...') and the past tense for completed
research actions ('Data were collected from...').
• Pronoun clarity and agreement: Avoid ambiguous pronoun reference. Every 'it,' 'this,'
'they,' or 'which' must have a clear and unambiguous antecedent.
• Punctuation: Particular attention should be paid to the correct use of commas,
semicolons, colons, and apostrophes — four punctuation marks that are frequently
misused in student writing.
• Sentence fragments and run-ons: A sentence fragment lacks a subject or finite verb;
a run-on sentence joins two independent clauses without adequate punctuation.
Both are serious errors in academic writing.
Strunk and White (2000), in The Elements of Style — still one of the most widely read
guides to writing correctness and clarity — offer the fundamental editing principle: 'Omit
needless words.' Every word in an academic sentence should earn its place.

Section 5: Proofreading Techniques

Proofreading is the final stage of the writing process — a systematic examination of the
finished text to identify and correct residual errors of spelling, punctuation, typography, and
formatting before submission. Proofreading differs from editing in its scope: editing
improves sentences; proofreading ensures that those sentences are mechanically correct
and correctly formatted.
Cook (1986) emphasises that proofreading is a distinct cognitive task that requires specific
techniques because the human brain, having composed or edited the text, tends to 'see'
what it intended to write rather than what is actually on the page. Effective proofreaders
therefore use strategies that force the brain out of its predictive mode.

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5.1 Core Proofreading Techniques

a) Increase Temporal Distance

Set the text aside for at least several hours — ideally overnight — before proofreading.
Temporal distance reduces familiarity with the text and makes errors more visible. Students
who proofread immediately after writing are far more likely to overlook mistakes than those
who return to the text with fresh eyes. This is perhaps the single most effective
proofreading strategy and requires only one thing that students frequently neglect to allow:
time.

b) Read Aloud
Reading the text aloud — or whispering it — forces the reader to process every word
individually, rather than skipping ahead as the brain does during silent reading. Errors in
subject-verb agreement, missing words, awkward phrasing, and punctuation problems
become immediately audible when spoken. Raimes (1992) recommends reading aloud as
the most reliable technique for catching sentence-level errors in student writing.

c) Read Backwards
Reading the text from the last sentence to the first — sentence by sentence, in reverse
order — disrupts the flow of meaning and forces the proofreader to evaluate each sentence
in isolation. This technique is particularly effective for catching spelling errors and
grammatical mistakes within individual sentences, because it eliminates the contextual
cues that normally allow errors to pass unnoticed.

d) Use a Ruler or Finger

Placing a ruler or piece of paper below each line as it is read forces the eye to focus on one
line at a time, preventing the common tendency for the eye to skip ahead. This technique is
particularly useful for dense academic prose where multiple potential errors may occur on a
single page.

e) Proofread in Multiple Focused Passes

Rather than attempting to catch all errors in a single pass, experienced proofreaders make
multiple targeted passes through the text, each dedicated to a specific category of error.
Recommended passes include:
• Pass 1: Spelling errors (use spell-check as a preliminary filter, then read manually —
spell-check does not catch correctly spelled but contextually wrong words, e.g.,
'their' for 'there')
• Pass 2: Punctuation (commas, full stops, semicolons, apostrophes, quotation marks)

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 • Pass 3: Grammar (subject-verb agreement, tense consistency, pronoun reference,
sentence completeness)
• Pass 4: Formatting (font consistency, heading levels, citation format, page numbers,
reference list)

f) Use a Personal Error Log

Students who are aware of their recurring errors — comma splices, apostrophe misuse,
tense inconsistency — should develop a personal proofreading checklist targeting those
specific errors. Schmitt (2000), writing in a vocabulary context, advocates the use of
personalised learning records; the same principle applies powerfully to proofreading. A
writer who knows their own patterns of error can guard against them systematically.

g) Seek an External Proofreader

As a final check — particularly for high-stakes submissions — having a competent reader
proofread the text is invaluable. A reader who did not compose the text brings no
investment in what the text 'should' say and therefore reads what the text actually says.
Peer proofreading, used at this stage (distinct from peer review, which occurs during
revision), targets mechanical and typographical errors rather than content and structure.

5.2 The Limits of Technology in Proofreading

Students frequently rely on word processor spell-checkers and grammar-checkers as their
primary proofreading tool. While these tools are useful first-line filters, they are profoundly
limited. Spell-checkers do not detect incorrectly used but correctly spelled words ('Their are
many reasons...' will pass undetected). Grammar-checkers generate significant numbers of
both false positives (flagging correct constructions as errors) and false negatives (failing to
flag genuine errors).
Crystal (2010) notes that automated grammar-checking technology remains far behind
human linguistic competence in its ability to evaluate the correctness and appropriateness
of sentences in context. Digital tools should therefore supplement, not replace, careful
human proofreading.

Conclusion
The writing process — from planning through drafting to revision and proofreading — is not
a bureaucratic formality imposed on students by writing instructors. It is a disciplined set of
cognitive practices that mirrors how skilled professional writers actually work. As Flower
and Hayes (1981) demonstrated, expert writers plan more extensively, revise more
globally, and proofread more systematically than novice writers — and the quality of their
writing reflects these habits.

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For undergraduate students, internalising the writing process means shifting from a
product-oriented mindset ('I need to produce an essay') to a process-oriented mindset ('I
need to plan, draft, revise, and refine a text that communicates my ideas with clarity and
precision'). This shift, though it requires effort and a willingness to embrace imperfection in
early drafts, is the single greatest predictor of improvement in academic writing.
The specific techniques introduced in this lecture — brainstorming through freewriting, mind
mapping, and questioning; outlining with topic and sentence outlines; developing a focused,
arguable thesis; drafting with structural frameworks like PEEL; revising globally and locally;
and proofreading with deliberate, targeted strategies — constitute a comprehensive writing
toolkit that will serve students across every discipline, every assignment, and every stage
of their academic and professional careers.
Murray (1978) captured the essential truth about writing with characteristic directness:
'Writing is thinking made visible.' The writing process is therefore nothing less than a
process of thinking — of making arguments, weighing evidence, organising ideas, and
communicating with precision and purpose. Master the process, and you master the craft.

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