PSY 6B 04 – Life Skill Education | Module 1: Introduction to Life Skills | Deep Study Notes

MODULE 1
Introduction to Life Skills
Deep Essay-Style Study Notes | 12 Hours

PART 1 — WHAT ARE LIFE SKILLS?

Before going into definitions and classifications, it is important to understand what the phrase 'life skills'
actually points to. The term might sound simple, but it carries a precise and layered meaning in psychology
and education. Life skills are not the same as academic knowledge, technical skills, or job qualifications. A
student may score high in examinations and still struggle to handle a disagreement with a friend, manage
anxiety before an interview, or make a sound decision under pressure. This gap — between knowing
something and being able to live well — is exactly what life skills are designed to fill.
Life skills are psychosocial competencies. The word 'psychosocial' is important: it tells us that these skills
operate at the intersection of the psychological (internal — thoughts, feelings, beliefs) and the social (external
— relationships, communication, cultural expectations). A person's ability to cope with failure, for instance,
depends both on their inner resilience (psychological) and on the support systems available to them (social).
Life skills education works on both dimensions simultaneously.
Rajasenan (2010) emphasises that life skills are practical in nature. They are not theoretical constructs to be
memorised — they are habitual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that a person develops over time
through experience, reflection, and deliberate practice. This is why life skill programmes are always activity-
based, not lecture-based. You cannot teach someone to communicate well by only explaining communication
theory to them.
Nelson-Jones (2007) approaches life skills from a counselling perspective. He argues that many of the
problems people bring to counsellors — difficulty in relationships, poor self-esteem, inability to assert oneself,
helplessness in the face of stress — are essentially deficits in specific life skills. Counselling, in this view, is
partly a process of teaching and rebuilding these skills. This is a powerful insight: it means life skills are not
luxuries or add-ons. Their absence has real psychological consequences.

PART 2 — NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF LIFE SKILLS

2.1 Why Life Skills Are Needed: The Problem Life Skills Solve
To understand why life skills are needed, we must first understand the kind of world individuals — particularly
young people — are navigating today. Modern life is characterised by rapid change, information overload,
competitive environments, and complex interpersonal demands. Traditional social structures — joint families,
close-knit communities, religious institutions — that once provided guidance and modelling for adaptive
behaviour have weakened significantly. The result is that many individuals enter adulthood without having
developed the internal resources to manage their lives effectively.
Hurlock (2007), writing from a developmental psychology framework, identifies developmental tasks at each
stage of life — things a person must accomplish to move successfully from one stage to the next. In childhood,
learning to get along with peers is a developmental task. In adolescence, forming a stable identity and
handling independence are crucial tasks. In early adulthood, choosing a career and establishing intimate
relationships become central. Life skills are essentially the competencies that enable individuals to accomplish

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these developmental tasks. When these skills are absent or underdeveloped, the individual struggles — not
because they lack intelligence, but because they lack the tools.
UNESCO (2001) draws attention to a particularly serious gap: millions of young people, especially in developing
countries, are out of school or in non-formal educational settings. These young people face the same life
challenges — poverty, health risks, social pressure, unemployment — but have even fewer resources to deal
with them. Life skills education in non-formal settings is, for these populations, not merely beneficial but
essential. It is a matter of survival, dignity, and opportunity.

2.2 Importance at the Individual Level

At the most personal level, life skills determine the quality of a person's inner life. Self-awareness — one of
the ten core life skills identified by WHO — is the foundation of everything else. Without knowing who you
are, what you value, what you feel, and how you typically respond to situations, you cannot make genuine
choices. You simply react. Self-awareness transforms reaction into response, impulse into decision.
Closely connected to self-awareness is emotional regulation — the ability to recognise, understand, and
manage one's emotional states. Rajasenan (2010) links this directly to personality development. A person who
cannot manage anger, anxiety, or frustration will consistently underperform in social, academic, and
professional settings, regardless of their intelligence. Emotional regulation is not about suppressing feelings; it
is about processing them in ways that are constructive rather than destructive.
Coping with stress is another individual-level skill of immense importance. Stress is unavoidable —
examinations, relationships, loss, uncertainty are universal. What differs between people is not whether they
face stress, but how they respond to it. Life skills build what Hurlock (2007) and the broader psychological
literature call resilience — the capacity to recover from adversity and continue functioning. Resilience is not an
inborn quality; it is developed through the practice of coping skills, problem-solving, and the cultivation of a
support network.
Self-efficacy, a concept developed by Albert Bandura, deserves special mention here. Self-efficacy is a person's
belief in their own ability to accomplish a task or handle a situation. It is different from self-esteem (general
self-worth) and different from actual ability. Research consistently shows that self-efficacy is one of the
strongest predictors of behaviour — people with high self-efficacy persist longer, attempt more difficult tasks,
and recover more quickly from setbacks. Life skills training directly builds self-efficacy because it gives
individuals experiences of successfully managing challenges.

2.3 Importance at the Social Level

Human beings are inherently social creatures. A significant portion of life's satisfaction — and a significant
portion of life's difficulties — comes from relationships with other people. Effective communication, empathy,
and interpersonal skills are the life skills that determine the quality of these relationships.
Effective communication is not simply talking. It involves listening actively, reading non-verbal cues, expressing
oneself clearly without aggression, and adapting one's communication style to different contexts and people.
Nelson-Jones (2007) devotes considerable attention to these skills in his counselling framework, showing how
communication breakdowns are at the root of most interpersonal conflicts. When individuals learn to
communicate effectively, they reduce misunderstandings, build trust, and create genuinely supportive
relationships.
Empathy — the ability to understand and share the feelings of another person — is a life skill with profound
social implications. Empathy is the basis of gender sensitivity, cultural tolerance, conflict resolution, and
prosocial behaviour. UNESCO (2001) identifies empathy as central to life skills programmes aimed at reducing
discrimination, violence, and social exclusion. A person who can genuinely understand another's perspective is
far less likely to engage in prejudice or bullying.

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Assertiveness, which sits between passivity and aggression, is another critical social skill. Many people either
give in to pressure (passive) or lash out when frustrated (aggressive). Assertiveness enables a person to
express their needs, opinions, and boundaries clearly and respectfully. This skill is particularly important for
women and marginalised groups who may be socialised to be overly deferential, and its development is a
component of empowerment.

2.4 Importance at the Educational and Vocational Level

Rajasenan (2010) explicitly connects life skills to personality development and leadership — skills that are
directly relevant to educational and professional success. Decision-making, critical thinking, time
management, and organisational skills are all life skills that directly improve academic performance. A student
who can think critically is not just better at answering questions; they are genuinely better at understanding
and applying knowledge.
At the vocational level, employers consistently report that what they look for beyond technical qualifications is
a set of competencies that map almost exactly onto the WHO life skills framework: communication skills,
problem-solving ability, the capacity to work in teams, emotional maturity, and adaptability. Life skill
education, therefore, is not in tension with career preparation — it is career preparation in the deepest sense.
Leadership, which Rajasenan (2010) treats as both a life skill and an outcome of life skill development, is worth
highlighting. Leadership is not simply about authority. It is about the ability to inspire, communicate a vision,
manage relationships, make decisions under uncertainty, and handle conflict constructively. All of these are
life skills. This is why organisations that invest in life skills training find that they are simultaneously developing
leadership capacity.

Key Point to Remember

The importance of life skills operates at three levels: Individual (self-awareness, resilience, emotional
regulation), Social (communication, empathy, assertiveness), and Vocational (decision-making,
leadership, critical thinking). These three levels are not separate — they reinforce and depend on each
other.

PART 3 — DEFINITION AND INTERPRETATION BY WHO

3.1 The WHO Definition (1994)

The World Health Organization's Division of Mental Health published the document 'Life Skills Education in
Schools' in 1994. This was a landmark publication because it brought together decades of psychological
research into a coherent, practical framework for education and health promotion. The definition WHO
provided has since become the most widely cited and widely used definition of life skills globally.

WHO Definition — 1994

"Abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the
demands and challenges of everyday life."

This definition is deceptively simple. Every word in it carries weight, and unpacking each component reveals
the depth of the concept.

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3.2 Unpacking the Definition

'Abilities'
The use of the word 'abilities' rather than 'traits' or 'qualities' is deliberate and significant. Traits suggest
something fixed and inborn — you either have it or you don't. Abilities, by contrast, are learnable and
improvable. This positions life skills as something that can be taught, practised, and developed over time. It is
an optimistic, empowering framing. No matter where a person begins, they can build greater competence.
This is consistent with Bandura's concept of self-efficacy — skills can be learned through observation, practice,
and feedback.

'Adaptive and Positive Behaviour'

'Adaptive' means the behaviour is flexible and responsive to context. Life does not present identical challenges
every day — situations change, people change, demands shift. Adaptive behaviour is not rigid or formulaic; it
adjusts to what each situation requires. A person who only knows one way to respond to conflict, for example,
lacks adaptability. 'Positive' adds a further qualifier: the behaviour must be constructive, not merely reactive.
Lashing out at someone when stressed is certainly a behaviour, but it is not a positive or adaptive one. Life
skills produce responses that are both contextually appropriate and genuinely beneficial.

'Deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life'

This phrase grounds life skills in reality. 'Everyday life' means the ordinary situations that all people face:
managing relationships, making decisions, handling disappointments, communicating needs, dealing with
authority, managing time. These are not extraordinary challenges — they are the fabric of normal living. The
word 'effectively' implies a standard: not just any response, but a response that actually works, that achieves a
good outcome for the individual and others around them. Life skills, therefore, are measured not by
knowledge but by outcomes.

3.3 WHO's Ten Core Life Skills

WHO did not stop at defining life skills — it identified ten specific skills and organised them into five pairs. This
pairing is conceptually meaningful: each pair represents two complementary dimensions of the same broad
competency.

Pair Skills What the pair addresses

1 Self-Awareness & Empathy Understanding oneself and understanding
others — the two pillars of all social
intelligence
2 Critical Thinking & Creative Analysing situations accurately and generating
Thinking novel solutions
3 Decision-Making & Problem- Making sound choices and resolving
Solving difficulties constructively
4 Effective Communication & Expressing oneself clearly and building
Interpersonal Skills healthy relationships
5 Coping with Stress & Coping with Managing internal states so they do not
Emotions overwhelm behaviour

Each of these ten skills deserves a brief elaboration here, because they often appear as individual short-
answer questions.
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Self-Awareness
Self-awareness is the ability to recognise one's own character, feelings, desires, and patterns of behaviour. It
means knowing your strengths and limitations honestly, understanding what triggers strong emotional
responses in you, and being aware of how your behaviour affects others. Without self-awareness, personal
growth is nearly impossible — you cannot change what you cannot see. Hurlock (2007) links self-awareness to
healthy identity development, particularly during adolescence. In clinical settings, most therapeutic work
begins with building self-awareness in the client.

Empathy
Empathy is the ability to imagine and understand the feelings, perspectives, and experiences of another
person without necessarily having gone through the same experience. It is distinct from sympathy (feeling
sorry for someone) — empathy is about genuine understanding. Empathy is the foundation of compassionate
communication, conflict resolution, gender sensitivity, and prosocial behaviour. Nelson-Jones (2007) treats
empathy as a core counselling skill, and it is equally central to life skill education. A society where individuals
practise empathy is fundamentally more just and peaceful.

Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is the disciplined process of evaluating information, arguments, and situations objectively and
rationally. It involves questioning assumptions, identifying biases, weighing evidence, distinguishing facts from
opinions, and reaching reasoned conclusions. Critical thinking is not the same as being cynical or negative — it
is about clarity and honesty of thought. In an era of misinformation and social media, critical thinking is an
essential protective skill. WHO includes it because many health risks — substance abuse, unprotected sex,
following unverified health advice — are partly products of uncritical thinking.

Creative Thinking
Creative thinking is the ability to look at problems and situations from new angles and to generate novel,
useful ideas. It is not limited to artistic expression — it is the capacity to think beyond conventional solutions.
Creative thinking is particularly important in problem-solving, because many of life's problems do not have
standard answers. Creativity involves the flexibility to abandon habitual ways of thinking when they are not
working, and to imagine alternatives. WHO pairs it with critical thinking because effective thinking requires
both analysis (critical) and generation (creative).

Decision-Making
Decision-making is the process of choosing between alternatives in a thoughtful, informed way. Poor decision-
making — choosing based on peer pressure, impulse, or incomplete information — is a major cause of harm in
adolescence and beyond. WHO's inclusion of decision-making reflects research showing that many health-
compromising behaviours (unprotected sex, drug use, reckless behaviour) are the product of poor decision-
making skills. Teaching decision-making means teaching individuals to identify their options, consider
consequences, consult relevant information, and make choices that align with their values and goals.

Problem-Solving
Problem-solving is the ability to identify the nature of a problem, generate possible solutions, evaluate them,
and implement the best one. It is paired with decision-making because both involve choices — but problem-
solving is specifically about overcoming obstacles. People who lack problem-solving skills tend to become
overwhelmed, avoid problems, or respond impulsively. Problem-solving skills teach individuals to approach
difficulties systematically rather than emotionally, which significantly reduces stress and increases
effectiveness.

Effective Communication

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Effective communication involves expressing oneself clearly in both verbal and non-verbal forms, listening
actively, and adapting one's communication style to the listener and context. It includes the ability to ask for
what you need, say no when appropriate, give and receive feedback gracefully, and resolve misunderstandings
quickly. Nelson-Jones (2007) extensively documents how faulty communication patterns — defensiveness,
passive-aggression, poor listening — are at the root of most relationship difficulties, whether personal or
professional.

Interpersonal Skills
Interpersonal skills are the broader competencies that govern how we relate to others: forming friendships,
maintaining trust, handling disagreements, cooperating in groups, navigating authority relationships. These
skills involve emotional intelligence, flexibility, and respect. Hurlock (2007) shows that interpersonal skill
development is a central task of childhood and adolescence — children who fail to develop these skills are at
much greater risk of social isolation, bullying, and mental health difficulties.

Coping with Stress

Stress is an inevitable part of life. Coping with stress does not mean eliminating stress — it means managing
one's response to stressors so that they do not cause lasting harm. Effective coping strategies include
problem-focused coping (addressing the source of stress), emotion-focused coping (managing one's emotional
response), and social support-seeking. Maladaptive coping — substance use, avoidance, self-harm — is what
happens when this skill is absent. Life skills education teaches healthy coping strategies explicitly, because
many individuals have never been taught them.

Coping with Emotions

Coping with emotions is related to but distinct from coping with stress. It specifically concerns the ability to
recognise emotional states in oneself and others, understand what those states mean, and manage them
constructively. Emotional regulation — the ability to moderate intense emotions — is one of the most
researched competencies in developmental and clinical psychology. Difficulty regulating emotions underlies
many mental health conditions, including anxiety, depression, and personality disorders. Teaching emotional
coping skills is therefore both a preventive and therapeutic endeavour.

3.4 Life Skills vs. Survival Skills

A question that sometimes arises is the distinction between life skills and survival skills. Survival skills are basic
competencies required for physical existence — finding food, building shelter, basic first aid, navigation. They
are practical, physical skills tied to immediate biological needs.
Life skills operate at a higher level of human functioning. They are concerned not with survival but with living
well — with meaning, relationships, mental health, and social contribution. A person can technically survive
without emotional regulation or empathy, but they cannot thrive. The distinction reflects the difference
between existing and flourishing, between barely getting by and living with purpose and connection.

PART 4 — ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT OF LIFE

SKILLS

4.1 Pre-Formal Origins: Life Skills Before They Had a Name

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The practical transmission of living skills is as old as human society. In every culture, families and communities
have always passed on the knowledge of how to behave, how to relate, how to handle difficulty, and how to
make decisions. Apprenticeship systems taught young people not just technical trades but also how to
manage relationships, work with others, and navigate social hierarchies. Religious and philosophical traditions
— Stoicism in Greece, Confucian ethics in China, Dharmic frameworks in India — all devoted significant
attention to cultivating virtues and competencies that we would today call life skills.
What was missing was a systematic, scientific framework. Life skills were transmitted implicitly, informally, and
inconsistently. Whether a person developed them depended largely on the quality of their family
environment, their cultural context, and fortune. The modern life skills movement emerged from the
recognition that this was insufficient — that these competencies were too important to leave to chance, and
that they could be deliberately taught and learned.

4.2 Psychological Foundations: Developmental Psychology

The scientific grounding for life skills comes substantially from developmental psychology. Hurlock (2007), in
her authoritative text, traces how psychological competencies emerge and are shaped across the lifespan.
Drawing on theorists like Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget, she shows that each stage of development brings
specific challenges and requires specific skills for healthy resolution.
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is particularly relevant. Erikson described eight stages, each
characterised by a central conflict that must be resolved to enable healthy development. The resolution of
each conflict builds a specific psychological strength — what we would today call a life competency. For
example, the adolescent conflict of Identity vs. Role Confusion, when resolved successfully, produces the
competency of fidelity — the ability to commit to values and relationships. This is precisely the kind of
competency that life skills education aims to develop.
Jean Piaget's work on cognitive development provides the theoretical basis for understanding when and how
certain life skills can be taught. The ability to engage in abstract reasoning, consider multiple perspectives, and
think about future consequences — all central to decision-making and critical thinking — develops during the
formal operational stage (roughly from age 12 onwards). Life skills curricula must therefore be
developmentally appropriate: what works for a 15-year-old will not work for a 9-year-old.
Albert Bandura's social learning theory, and specifically his concept of self-efficacy, provides another crucial
theoretical pillar. Bandura demonstrated that people learn not only through direct experience but through
observation of others. This has direct implications for how life skills should be taught: modelling, role-playing,
and observation are more effective than lectures. Furthermore, his finding that self-efficacy — belief in one's
own competence — is a prerequisite for skill performance means that life skills education must build
confidence alongside competence.

4.3 The Health Education Movement (1970s–1980s)

The formal life skills movement emerged primarily from the field of health education, not academic
psychology. In the 1970s, researchers studying adolescent substance abuse noticed that information-based
prevention programmes — simply teaching young people about the dangers of drugs — were not working.
Knowledge alone did not change behaviour. What seemed to matter was whether young people had the
psychological resources to resist peer pressure, make sound decisions, and manage stress without turning to
substances.
This insight led to the development of skills-based health education programmes in the late 1970s and 1980s.
Programmes like Gilbert Botvin's Life Skills Training (LST), developed in the United States, demonstrated
through controlled research that teaching interpersonal and coping skills reduced substance use significantly
more than knowledge-based approaches. This was a turning point: it shifted the focus of prevention and
health promotion from information to competence.

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The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, adopted by WHO in 1986, was another milestone. It explicitly
included 'developing personal skills' as one of the five key action areas for health promotion. This gave life
skills a formal place in international health policy and set the stage for WHO's more comprehensive framework
in the 1990s.

4.4 WHO's Formal Framework (1991–1994)

Between 1991 and 1994, WHO's Division of Mental Health undertook a systematic review of life skills research
globally and produced what became the definitive framework. The 1994 publication 'Life Skills Education in
Schools' did three important things: it provided a clear definition, identified the ten core skills, and offered
guidance on how to integrate life skills into school curricula.
This framework was built on a psychosocial model of health that went beyond the traditional biomedical view.
Mental health, in this framework, is not merely the absence of illness — it is a positive state of well-being
characterised by the ability to cope with normal stresses, work productively, and contribute to one's
community. Life skills are the competencies that enable this positive state. The WHO framework thus
positioned life skills not as a supplement to education but as essential to health itself.
The framework was also carefully designed to be universal — applicable across cultures, age groups, and
settings. This universality was important for global adoption, but it also created a challenge: life skills must
ultimately be contextualised to be meaningful. A life skills curriculum designed for urban middle-class youth in
Europe may need significant adaptation to be relevant for rural youth in Kerala or sub-Saharan Africa.

4.5 UNICEF and UNESCO: Expanding the Framework (1990s–2000s)

Following WHO's lead, UNICEF and UNESCO developed their own life skills frameworks in the 1990s and
2000s, each emphasising different dimensions.
UNICEF's approach, developed in the context of child rights and development programming, placed particular
emphasis on using life skills to address equity issues — gender inequality, child labour, HIV/AIDS prevention,
and social exclusion. UNICEF's life skills programmes were designed for some of the world's most marginalised
children, requiring highly contextualised, community-based approaches.
UNESCO's contribution, documented in the 2001 review 'Life Skills in Non-Formal Education' (which is one of
the prescribed references for this course), extended the framework to adult and non-formal learning contexts.
UNESCO recognised that the majority of the world's population does not receive life skills through formal
schooling, and that non-formal education — literacy programmes, vocational training, community learning
centres — must incorporate life skills explicitly. The UNESCO review also emphasised that life skills education
should be participatory, drawing on learners' own experiences and knowledge rather than transmitting a fixed
curriculum from above.

4.6 Development in India

In India, the formal integration of life skills into education developed primarily through two channels:
government policy and youth development organisations.
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF, 2005) recommended life skills as a component of health and
physical education at all levels of schooling. The Adolescence Education Programme (AEP), a joint initiative of
the Ministry of Human Resource Development and UNFPA, brought WHO's life skills framework into
secondary schools through teacher training and curriculum materials. These programmes addressed sensitive
topics — puberty, relationships, substance abuse, gender — through a life skills lens.
Rajasenan (2010), writing from the context of the Rajiv Gandhi National Institute of Youth Development
(RGNIYD) in Chennai, placed life skills at the centre of youth development work. His framework connects life
skills to personality development and leadership training, emphasising that young people who develop strong
life skills become not just better individuals but better citizens and leaders. This is a distinctly Indian

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contribution to the life skills discourse: the framing of life skills as a tool for social transformation, not just
personal improvement.
Nelson-Jones (2007), though writing primarily for a counselling audience, has been incorporated into Indian
psychology curricula because his framework bridges the gap between life skills and therapeutic practice. His
work makes clear that the skills taught in life skills education are the same skills that counsellors work to
rebuild in clients — making life skills education a form of primary prevention of mental health difficulties.

4.7 Life Skills Across the Lifespan: Hurlock's Contribution

Hurlock (2007) makes a distinctive and important contribution by grounding life skills in developmental theory.
Rather than treating life skills as a static list of competencies, she shows that their relevance and content shift
across the lifespan. This has critical implications for education: life skills programmes must be tailored to the
developmental stage of the learner.
In childhood, the foundational life skills are basic social competencies — sharing, taking turns, managing
frustration, following instructions, making simple choices. These are not trivial — they are the building blocks
of all later social and emotional functioning. Hurlock's developmental perspective shows that deficits at this
stage create difficulties that compound over time.
In adolescence — the stage most commonly targeted by life skills programmes — the critical skills are identity
formation, peer relationship management, decision-making under social pressure, and coping with the
emotional intensity that characterises this developmental period. Hurlock (2007) shows that adolescence is a
particularly sensitive period for life skill development: the neural plasticity of the adolescent brain, combined
with the new social demands of this stage, makes it an optimal window for intervention. Life skills education in
secondary schools is therefore not just convenient — it is developmentally timed.
In early and middle adulthood, the relevant life skills shift toward career management, intimate relationship
skills, parenting competencies, and leadership. The developmental challenges of this period — establishing a
career, maintaining a partnership, raising children, contributing to community — each require specific
competencies that go beyond what formal education typically provides.

Connecting Theorists to Life Skills — Summary

Hurlock (2007): Life skills are developmental tasks — stage-specific competencies needed for healthy
transition through life stages.

Nelson-Jones (2007): Life skills are counselling foundations — their absence causes the problems that
bring people to therapy.

Rajasenan (2010): Life skills are personality and leadership tools — they transform individuals into
socially effective citizens.

WHO (1994): Life skills are psychosocial health competencies — ten core abilities for adaptive, positive
functioning.

UNESCO (2001): Life skills must reach everyone, including non-formal learners — they are a matter of
equity and rights.

REFERENCES
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PSY 6B 04 – Life Skill Education | Module 1: Introduction to Life Skills | Deep Study Notes

Hurlock, E.B. (2007). Developmental Psychology. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
Nelson-Jones, R. (2007). Life Counseling Skills. New Delhi: Sage Publishers.
Rajasenan, U. (2010). Life Skills, Personality and Leadership. Chennai: RGNIYD.
UNESCO & Indian National Commission for Cooperation. (2001). Life Skills in Non-Formal Education: A Review.
Paris: UNESCO. [Link]
World Health Organization. (1994). Life Skills Education in Schools. Geneva: WHO, Division of Mental Health.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2),
191–215.

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