Medical
Imaging 2
Tutorial 2
Eng: Rahma Sayed
Definition of Radiation
• Radiation is the emission and propagation of energy through space or
material medium in the form of electromagnetic waves (light, X-rays) or
moving subatomic particles (alpha, beta, neutrons).
• It exists naturally in the environment and in human-made applications,
categorized into ionizing radiation (high energy) and non-ionizing
radiation (lower energy) based on its ability to remove electrons from
atoms.
• Understanding radiation is essential to understand how medical imaging
systems such as X-ray machines work.
Types of Radiation
Particulate Radiation (direct ionizing)
• Particulate radiation consists of actual particles that have mass and
energy.
• These particles travel at high speed and interact strongly with matter.
• Examples include alpha particles, beta particles, and neutrons.
• Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons and have low
penetration.
• Beta particles consist of electrons and have medium penetration.
• Neutrons have high penetration and are used in specialized therapy.
• Particulate radiation is generally not used in diagnostic imaging because it is
harder to control safely.
Electromagnetic Radiation (indirect ionizing)
• Electromagnetic radiation consists of energy waves that do not have
mass but carry energy through space.
• They travel at the speed of light and consist of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields.
• Examples include radio waves, visible light, X-rays, and gamma rays.
• X-rays belong to electromagnetic radiation, which makes them suitable for
medical imaging because they can penetrate tissues.
Atomic Structure
• All matter consists of atoms. An atom consists of a central nucleus and
surrounding electrons.
• The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
• Protons carry positive charge which determine the atomic number,
neutrons have no charge, and electrons carry negative charge.
• Electrons exist in energy levels or shells around the nucleus.
• X-rays interact mainly with electrons, causing absorption or scattering.
Electromagnetic Wave Properties
• Electromagnetic waves are described by wavelength, frequency, and
speed.
• The relationship is given by the equation: c = λν
• c is the speed of light, λ is wavelength, and ν is frequency.
• This relationship explains why X-rays have high energy due to their high
frequency.
Photon Energy and Planck Equation
• Electromagnetic radiation travels as photons, which carry discrete energy.
• The energy of a photon is given by the equation: E = hν
• E is energy, h is Planck constant, and ν is frequency.
• Higher frequency produces higher energy photons.
• This explains why X-rays can penetrate the human body.
The Exponential Attenuation Law
I (Transmitted Intensity): The intensity of the X-ray beam after it has passed through the object.
I0 (Incident Intensity): The original intensity of the beam before entering the object.
μ (Linear Attenuation Coefficient): A value that represents how easily a material can be penetrated by an X-
ray beam. It depends on the material's density and atomic number.
x (Thickness): The distance or thickness of the material the beam travels through.
• Exponential Decay: as the thickness (x) of the tissue increases, the
intensity of the X-rays (I) decreases exponentially.
• Material Dependence: A dense material like bone has a high μ value,
meaning it absorbs more radiation, while soft tissue has a lower μ value.
• Half-Value Layer (HVL): HVL is the thickness of a material required to
reduce the X-ray beam intensity to exactly half of its original value (50%).
Production of X rays
• X-rays are produced in a vacuum tube when high-energy electrons,
generated by a heated filament (cathode), are accelerated by a high
voltage toward a metal target (anode), usually tungsten.
Production of X rays
X-rays are produced at the Anode through two distinct types of interactions when
high-speed electrons strike the tungsten target.
1. Bremsstrahlung Radiation (Braking Radiation)
The Concept: This is the primary way X-rays are produced.
How it works: A high-speed electron travels near the nucleus of a target atom. The
positive charge of the nucleus attracts the negative electron, causing it to slow down
and change direction.
Energy Output: The kinetic energy lost by the electron during this "braking" is
emitted as an X-ray photon.
Spectrum: It produces a continuous spectrum of energies (a wide range of X-ray
intensities).
Production of X rays
X-rays are produced at the Anode through two distinct types of
interactions when high-speed electrons strike the tungsten target.
2. Characteristic Radiation
The Concept: These X-rays are "characteristic" of the specific
target material (like Tungsten).
How it works: A high-speed electron hits an inner-shell electron
(K-shell) of the target atom and knocks it out of orbit.
The Interaction: An electron from an outer shell (L or M shell)
"drops down" to fill the vacancy in the inner shell.
Energy Output: The difference in binding energy between the two
shells is released as an X-ray photon.
Spectrum: It produces discrete energy peaks (specific, sharp
energy values).
X-ray Interactions Overview
• When an X-ray beam enters the body, it can be absorbed, scattered,
or pass through. These interactions determine both image quality and
patient dose.
1. Primary Interactions in Radiology:
• Photoelectric Effect (Absorption) =B
• Compton Scattering (Scatter) =D
Coherent
• Coherent Scattering (Low energy) =C
2. High Energy Interactions:
• Pair Production (Therapeutic/Nuclear levels)
X-ray Interactions Overview
Effect of kVp on Image Quality
• kVp determines the maximum energy and penetrating ability of the X-ray
beam.
• Increasing kVp increases photon energy and penetration, allowing
imaging of thicker tissues.
• However, higher energies increase Compton scattering and reduce
subject contrast, producing a longer grayscale image.
• Lower kVp enhances contrast through the photoelectric effect but
increases absorption and patient dose.
• Proper kVp selection balances penetration, contrast, and radiation safety.
SHEET 3
1. Explain why the photoelectric effect dominates in bone compared to soft tissue at diagnostic X-
ray energies, and discuss the mathematical dependence involved.
"The photoelectric effect is more likely to occur in materials with high atomic number, such as bone,
because its probability is proportional to Z³. This causes bone to absorb more X-rays and appear
white in radiographic images.“
2. Derive the exponential attenuation law and explain the physical meaning of the attenuation
coefficient.
The exponential attenuation law describes how X-ray intensity decreases as it passes through
matter. The attenuation coefficient represents the probability of photon interaction per unit
thickness and determines image contrast in radiography.“
SHEET 3
8. Explain why scatter radiation cannot be eliminated completely and discuss its
probabilistic nature
Scatter radiation cannot be eliminated completely because Compton scattering is unavoidable
at diagnostic X-ray energies. Since all tissues contain electrons, some photons will always
undergo scattering. X-ray interactions are probabilistic, meaning each photon has a certain
probability of being absorbed, scattered, or transmitted. Although techniques such as grids
and collimation reduce scatter reaching the detector, scatter radiation cannot be completely
eliminated.
SHEET 3
8. Explain why scatter radiation cannot be eliminated completely and discuss its
probabilistic nature
Collimation: It is the process of determining the size and shape of the X-ray beam so that it
strikes only the area to be imaged. This is done using metal shutters (lead blades) inside the
X-ray machine. Used for beam controlling.
SHEET 3
8. Explain why scatter radiation cannot be eliminated completely and discuss its
probabilistic nature
Grid: It allows primary radiation to pass through, but blocks scatter radiation. Used to image
quality.
SHEET 3
9. Critically discuss how tissue thickness and beam hardening affect attenuation
As tissue thickness increases, more photons interact with the tissue, resulting in greater
attenuation. Low-energy photons are absorbed more readily, leaving higher-energy photons
in the beam. This process is called beam hardening. Beam hardening increases the
penetrating power of the beam and violates the assumption of monoenergetic radiation used
in exponential attenuation models. It also reduces image contrast and may cause artifacts in
CT imaging.
SHEET 3
9. Critically discuss how tissue thickness and beam hardening affect attenuation
Beam Hardening: Beam hardening is the process where low-energy photons are absorbed
first, leaving higher-energy photons. It increases beam penetration but reduces image
contrast and may cause artifacts (darker centers with brighter edges).
SHEET 3
10. Explain why X-ray attenuation is better described statistically rather than
deterministically
X-ray attenuation is statistical because photon interactions occur randomly. Each photon has a
probability of being absorbed, scattered, or transmitted. It is impossible to predict the
behavior of individual photons. Therefore, attenuation laws describe the average behavior of
a large number of photons, making statistical models more accurate than deterministic ones
SHEET 4
11. The intensity of the continuous X-ray spectrum is proportional to:
A. kVp
B. mA
C. Exposure time
D. kVp²
The General Relationship in X-ray Production:
The intensity (or exposure) of the X-ray beam depends on both tube voltage and mAs:
This means:
Increasing kVp increases intensity quadratically.
Increasing mAs increases intensity linearly
Increasing kVp by 15% ≈ Doubles the exposure
Decreasing kVp by 15% ≈ Reduces exposure by half
SHEET 4
14. Added filtration primarily:
A. Increases beam quantity
B. Decreases average energy
C. Removes low-energy photons
D. Increases patient dose
Filtration removes low-energy photons from the X-ray beam. This reduces patient dose and
increases beam quality by increasing the average energy of the beam.
SHEET 4
18. Half-value layer (HVL) is defined as the thickness of material that:
A. Absorbs all X-rays
B. Reduces intensity to zero
C. Reduces intensity by half
D. Doubles beam energy
Half-Value Layer (HVL) is the thickness of a specified material, usually aluminum, required to
reduce the X-ray beam intensity to half its original value. HVL is a measure of beam quality.
Higher kVp or increased filtration results in a higher HVL because the beam becomes more
penetrating which in range 3–5 mm Aluminum.
SHEET 4
• Filtration → removes low-energy photons
• Beam hardening → increases average energy
• Beam quality ↑ → HVL ↑
• HVL measures beam quality
SHEET 4
22. Satellite lines in characteristic spectra arise from:
A. Single ionized atoms
B. Doubly ionized atoms
C. Backscattered electrons
D. Bremsstrahlung photons
Satellite lines in characteristic spectra occur when atoms are doubly ionized, meaning two
inner-shell electrons are removed. This changes the energy levels of the atom slightly,
producing additional X-ray photons with slightly different energies. These appear as small
additional peaks near the main characteristic peaks.
SHEET 4
25. High-frequency generators improve X-ray output mainly by:
A. Increasing ripple
B. Decreasing ripple C.
Reducing filtration D.
Reducing mAs
High-frequency generators improve X-ray output by decreasing voltage ripple. This provides a
more constant tube voltage, allowing electrons to maintain consistent energy. As a result, X-
ray production becomes more efficient, and image quality improves.