Systems

Maps
Si Guide Series
 Overview
This guide is designed to introduce you to the basics of systems mapping. The
guide starts by outlining what a systems map is and how to get started creating
one. We then add causal relations to the map and talk about feedback loops. The
final section covers systems archetypes - commonly reoccurring patterns we see in
systems dynamics. By the end of this guide, you should have a basic
understanding of what systems maps are, causal links and feedback dynamics
within systems.
 Systems Thinking Systems Awareness Systems Theory Complexity Theory Adaptive Systems

System Inquiry Systems Modeling Systems Mapping Actor Mapping Leverage Points

Where am I?
This paper forms part of
our set of 20 guides guide
covering all things systems
innovation. Transition Design Transition Models Furtures & Naratives System Gardening Co-Design

+++
Ecosystem Building Networks Value Network Scaling Change Systemic Evaluation
 What This Guide Covers

Mapping Causal Maps Feedback Loops System Archetypes

This section covers the We start by laying We outline the two Systems archetypes illustrate
basics of building a down the basic different kinds of common and reoccurring
systems map language of causal feedback loops and their patterns of causal
loop maps dynamics relationships
 Why System Mapping?
Systems mapping is a type of modeling that is designed
to reveal the underlying interrelationships and structure
of a complex system. System maps are powerful
visualization tools that can help change agents describe
and diagnose the current state of a given system;
understand how system structure creates the observable
outcomes; create a shared vision of the system; gain
consensus about the problems and identify opportunities.

System mapping is about gaining an empirical

understanding of what is before we engage in
envisioning what could be or what we would like to be.
However, systems maps should not be seen as
deliverables or endpoints, rather they are tools of
exploration, stepping stones on our path to
understanding the system dynamics that underly complex
issues.
 When to Build a System Map
When we want to gain a deeper understanding of the context and identify gaps in our
understanding of a system.

When you want to try and identify leverage points to make smart choices about how to
intervene effectively in a system for high impact.

When we want to bring diverse stakeholders together to co-create a shared

understanding.

When we want to mitigate the risks of unintended consequences of an action and

reduce the likely hood that we will create superficial solutions that do not address the
real issues.

When we have designed a solution, but it is working in unexpected or counterintuitive

ways, and we want to understand it better.
Mapping
 Starting at the Beginning
Let’s start at the beginning. The aim at this early stage is to get a visual overview of the
system we are dealing with; the different component types and generally how they are
interrelated. Before we start adding causal relations or different dimensions to the map we
want to simply get it all out in front of us so that we are sure we are not missing anything.
Once we have this overview we can start to refine it and add in detail later in the process.
 System Dimensions
Change in complex systems does not happen from one centralized locus but instead is the
product of many concurrent and parallel processes taking place at multiple different levels in
multiple different domains at the same time. For this reason, the first thing is for us to go
expansive in our thinking so as to make sure that we are adding in all the different dimensions
to the system we want to map; this is the divergent stage of the process so let's try and
capture all relevant dimensions. For example, at first glance, we might think that education is
just about teachers and schools, however, if we were to dig into it we would see that it is as
much about external factors such as food, family finance and employment, politics, media and
entertainment, etc. Our map should start by trying to capture those different domains and
factor them in.
Environmental
Economic

Social

Technological
 Define Nodes
The basics of a systems map is very simple, just nodes and links between them.
We can then start by defining the different kinds of nodes in the system.

Economic

Social

Technological Environmental
 Linkages
A link simply denotes that two things are connected in some way. This may be the exchange of
information between two organizations, the flow of goods from a manufacturer two distributor,
or money from citizens to government via taxes.

Exchange of
Products

Supplier Distributor
 System Map
A system map is then the Environment
network a nodes and links Node
with a boundary

Relation

Boundary
 Environmental Factors
All the systems we are interested in are at the end of the day dependent upon material and
energy flows, sometimes this is explicit e.g. mapping a food system, sometimes it is in the
background, e.g. mapping a commercial system. Either way environmental factors should be
added into the map when and where relevant. Some of the primary categories to consider
when including environmental elements include:

Food Materials Water Atmosphere

 Atmosphere

Materials
Food

Water
 Technological Factors
All the systems we are interested in are also dependent upon a huge infrastructure of
technology. Whether we are dealing with education, media, finance or commerce, they all
require vast networks of telecommunications, energy supply, transport and physical
infrastructure to enable them.

Information Energy Transport Infrastructure

 Information
Infrastructure

Energy

Transport
 Economic Factors
To run a hospital, provide water to a city, run a concert or even a local church all involve
economics. The influences and considerations of economics and finance are everywhere and its
many different dimensional must be factored in.

Insurance Finance Retail Logistics

 Banking

Insurance

Logistics Retailer
 Social Factors
Lastly socio-political factors need to be included. These may include: regulation and
governance, media and entertainment, education and science, healthcare, etc.

Media Education Governance Healthcare

Healthcare
Education Governance

Media
 Giga-mapping?
Giga-mapping is a way of getting
everything out there in front of us. Giga-
mapping is extensive mapping across
multiple layers and scales. It is aimed at
investigating relevant far-reaching
connections between seemingly
separated categories.
Giga Mapping - Map Everything
 Food Systems Map
Now lets take a look at what the map of a food system might look like,
putting in the relevant social, economic, environmental and
technological factors.
 Farmers
Example
Food System
Map

Machinery
Producers

Regulator
s End
User

Super
Processor Markets
s
 Insights
With only this basic map we can already start to gain insight into the system, such as
identify key important elements based upon their level of connectivity e.g. the
Farmers and Retailers
 Certifiers
Technology

Consumer

Climate

Farms
Retailers

Soil
Media

Financiers

Regulators
Processors Health
Causal
Mapping
 Framing
To get started we need to define the system of interest.
We can’t map everything, so let's define what it is we
are mapping first of all. Here we encourage people to
spend time thinking about why they are creating the
map and what is the system you are interested in. This
will work to put a boundary around the system map
which will define the title and create the context for
communicating what it is you are doing.

For example, are we creating a map of the French

healthcare system or just of the French health insurance
ecosystem? The two are different and they work to
contextualize and frame what we are doing. So first, let
us invest time in defining what exactly it is we are
interested in. Although we will be able to add different
aspects and scales later on the aim here is to be clear
about the initial focus of the map's attention.
 System of Interest
Scope of Map What is our focus of Interest?

E.g. energy system in Central

Set the system boundary, this may be a
Africa,
geographic area, a particular industry, a
climate resilience building in rural
business function, etc. This is just an initial
India,
starting point, we can adjust it as we go
education globally
along.
Environment Node

Boundary

Relation
 Define Nodes
A systems map first consists of defining the factors that are of relevance within the system.
First, the mappers must brainstorm for all factors they see as relevant in generating the
dynamics of the system. The nodes in the map are the outcome of an influencing dynamic.
For example, ‘builders’ would not be considered a node we need to define something
about them that we are interested in that can change. The number of builders in
employment is an example of a node: they can influence and be influenced, their associated
value can go up or down. It’s worth noting that nodes are not just nouns, they are things
that can have a measurable quality or quantity.

Products in Stock Ships in Port Restaurants in Paris

 Income = 11K Variables
Causal maps define relationships between entities
that affect each other. Thus we need to be able to
define for all the nodes what is changing and be
able to ascribe some value to this. For example,
our map might be focused on obesity in Mexico.
The map will work to draw a set of causal relations
between different factors that are relevant.
Each of these factors should have a quantity
associated with it. If we identify that the main
drivers behind food habits are rising incomes,
Urbanization = urbanization and globalization, we can then define
70% the percentage of people who are obese, GDP
per capita, levels of urbanization, etc. Thus all
elements in the map should have variables
associated with them. Similar elements should be
Obesity Levels = aggregated.
40%
 Causal Relations
We now map the relations between those elements. Relations define causal connections,
meaning if one thing changes this will affect the variables associated with the other that it is
interrelated with, i.e. a change in the state of one will create a change in the state of the other
node it is linked to. Ideally, these changes can be expressed as quantities. Nodes are not
verbs, as the action in the map is in the causal relationships.

The amount of The number of

rain in our snails we see
garden
 Types of Causal Relations
A causal relationship within a map is a dynamic, it defines a relationship of change. One
node can influence another in one of two ways: positive or negative.

Positive Negative
More of A leads to more of B More of A leads to less of B

+ -

A B A B
 Negative Causal Relation
Example: more outmigration in a region will reduce the population

-
Outmigration Population

A B
 Positive Causal Relation
Example: the more you practice basketball the better you will get

+
Practice Proficiency

A B
 Delays
Causal linkages between nodes may not be immediately expressed; there may be a time delay
before the effects are visible in the variables. For example, a poor diet now may not be
expressed in health outcomes until some time in the future. Likewise, as illustrated below,
given that you may not be paid until the end of the month, the causal link between the amount
you have worked so far this month and the amount in your account will be delayed. This kind
of time delay is often denoted by drawing a short line or double line across the causal linkage.
+

Work Money in
Done Bank Account
 Map
A set of causal relations between elements forms a causal map.
 Getting Started Mapping
Get started mapping by putting down a single node and ask the simple question: what causes
the variable associated with this node to change? That will be your next node. Then ask the
question: what does this result from?

1st
What causes
this to change?
 Family
Student’s stress
native
abilities

+ Student
-
achievement
- in school +
Substance
abuse
in the Teacher talent
community and resources
Feedback
Loops
 Feedback Loop
When an effect feeds back to its cause this is termed a “feedback loop”

A B
 Types Feedback Loops
There are two qualitatively different types of feedback Loops: positive and negative

+ +
Negative Positive
Counteracting Amplifying

- +
Balancing Loop
Example: Predator-prey
dynamics

Number of Number
Prey of Predators

-
 Balancing Loop +
If a company produces a quality Customer
product customer satisfaction will
go up, which will increase demand,
Satisfaction
which may reduce the quality of the
product; as increasing quantity of
production may reduce their
investment in quality.

Quality of
Products

-
+
Demand
for products
Reinforcing Loop
Example: Births and Population

+
Population Births

+
Reinforcing Loop +
Example: Development of
tourism sector

Tourist industry
revenues
Average price
per night

+
Quality of hotel
infrastructure
Reinforcing Loop +
Example: taxation and
businesses
Number of private
businesses +
Attractiveness for
Business Tax Base

+
Tax Rate

Expected Profitability
- -
of Business
 Identifying Positive vs Negative Loops
For each loop, count the number of negative signs: An even number of negative links is a
reinforcing loop (R). An odd number of negative links is a balancing loop (B).

-
+

-
R B
-
+
+
 Virtuous & Vicious Cycles
Positive feedback can create escalating feedback cycles. When
these cycles are self-reinforcing in a positive direction we call them
virtuous cycles, when reinforcing in a destructive direction they are
termed vicious cycles. For example, if you cannot get a job without
experience, but you cannot get experience without a job, then you
are in a vicious cycle. Likewise being homeless may put you in a
vicious cycle as it too would make it difficult to get or hold a job,
which would reduce your income potential, thus reducing your
likely hood of getting a place to live.
Economics of scale is an example of a positive feedback loop
between a business and its customers creating a virtuous cycle,
where one party gains the other does so also. The more products a
company sells the more revenue it receives from its customers
giving it more to invest in scaling up production, thus allowing it to
reduce costs, which in turn means more customers will purchase
the product, etc. Of course, this cannot go on forever and that is
why positive feedback loops are typically associated with unstable
processes that are likely to crash at some time.
 Systems Sustainability
By using these tools of system dynamics we may get a qualitative and/or quantitative idea of
how a system of interest is likely to develop over time. For example, if we create a simple two-
dimensional graph with time on the horizontal access, we will see how the different feedback
loops create different types of graph patterns.
Graphs for positive feedback loops typically result in an initial exponential growth as they
shoot upwards rapidly but then reach some environmental boundary condition, where they
crash back down again. A financial bubble and ensuing crash could be an example of this.
In contrast, the net result of a negative feedback loop will be a wave-like graph that will likely
be bounded within an upper and lower limit over a prolonged period of time. Given sufficient
negative feedback there will be relatively smooth oscillations during the system's development
that enables it to sustain an overall stable state in the long-term.
 Positive Feedback Negative Feedback
Exponential, uncontrollable and Self-correcting, oscillating
unsustainable development and sustainable
System
Archetypes
 Overview
System archetypes represent commonly seen
patterns of behavior in a system. These are regularly
seen arrangements of causal relationships between
the system's parts and feedback loops that lead to
similar observable outcomes over time. Each
archetype has a characteristic theme or storyline,
pattern, and potential for action.

Being able to identify system archetypes in various

situations enables a deeper and quicker
understanding of that system, and can also help us
design powerful intervention strategies. The
following System Archetypes describe the most
common generic structures seen within a wide
variety of systems from economies and financial
markets to natural resource management or
reoccurring dynamics seen within political systems.
 Escalation - Arms Race
The “escalation” archetype is one that captures any long-term escalating competitive
situation where each competitor focuses on out-doing the others. They are responding to
the actions of the other player in order to “defend themselves”. The aggression grows and
can result in self-destructive behavior. Here there is a vicious circle which can be broken by
one side stopping to react defensively and turn the game into a cooperative one. A good
example of this is an arms race between to nations
 Shifting the Burden
This system archetype consists of two balancing loops
or processes (see next page for diagram). Both are
trying to correct the same problem symptoms and
bring the system back to balance. The above circle
represents the "quick fix" symptomatic intervention. It
often solves the problem symptom rapidly, but only
momentarily. The bottom circle, which has a delay,
represents a more fundamental response to the
problem. Although the effects of the latter normally will
take longer to become evident, the fundamental
solution will have a far more effective outcome.

‘Shifting the burden’ structures are common in our lives

as well as in organizations. In these situations, obvious
symptoms of problems attract attention which often is
dealt with by quick ‘fixes’ that make the symptoms
reduced, at least for a while, however they reappear
again later.
 Delay Side Effect
+
Delay
Symptom
Solution
-
Delay
+
Problem - + -
Symptom
Fundamental
Solution
 + Side
Effect

-
-
Drugs
Symptom
+ Exercise
Fundamental
Solution Solution

+
Obesity
-
Problem
Symptom
 The Tragedy of the Commons
The tragedy of the commons is a socioeconomic
dynamic where it is in the best interest of each
individual to overuse a resource unless everyone else
also does likewise. The dilemma arises when
members of a group share a common good, such as
an ecosystem, where this common good is rivalrous
and non­-excludable, meaning that anyone can use
the resource but there is a finite amount of the
resource available and it is, therefore, prone to over-
exploitation.

The tragedy of the commons has proven to be a core

dynamic within the management of many socio­-
ecological systems around the world, from the
management of forestry to pasture and in particular
fisheries many of which have collapsed due to over-
exploitation and lack of solutions to this commonly
seen systems archetype.
 Fishing Example
Imagine a lake in rural Sudan where everyone is allowed to fish (see next page for diagram). The
lake doesn’t belong to anyone in particular and you can fish as much as you want. Imagine that
there are two fishing companies in the area and that all those who fish in the lake belong to
either company Z or company Y. The more fish company Z catches, the more profits they
generate and the more they will increase their Fishing, as profits allow the company to hire more
fishermen and buy more fishing boats. This principle is the same for Company Y and together
both companies make up the Total fishing. In the beginning, both companies make good profits
and provide a valuable service to the community.

However, when we look at the longer term we see that this system, if left uncontrolled, may
result in some unintended consequences. If the level of fishing is not limited in some way, then it
may eventually lead to a situation whereby more fish are being caught than are being naturally
replenished, leading to a decline in the number of fish in the lake.
 Level of Level of
Company
Fishing Fishing
Company

Z + + Y

$ $

+ +

+ +
Total Fishing
Fish
Population
-
 Success to the Successful
This archetype describes a dynamic where two people or activities require the same limited
resources(see next page for diagram). As one of them becomes more successful, more
resources are assigned to them. However, now the second one becomes less and less
successful due to lacking resources, this “proves the right decision” to support the first one.
Problems arise if the competition is unproductive and interferes with the goals of the whole
system. Examples may be seen with a company that has two products giving success to the
one that was initially successful.
 + -
+ A’s Success +
Money to B’s Success
Successful

Resources
+ - Resources
to A
to B
Conclusion
 Tips for Building Maps

Bit by Bit Check Causality

Build up your model in stages through a series Make sure you have checked the logical linkages
of smaller maps. Each diagram should between the nodes; the connections may not be
correspond to one part of the story being told. direct, you may need to add more linkages.

Think Dynamically Tell a Story

Remember to think in dynamic terms, e.g. Ensure that your map makes sense by telling a
‘more of X leads to more of Y’ story for each loop, and check that the story
matches the loop polarity.
 CC BY-NC 4.0 DEED

Version 2.0
A Systems Innovation Publication
[Link]
References & Resources
YouTube. (2018). Dana (Donella) Meadows Lecture: Sustainable Systems (Part 1 of 4). [online] Available at: [Link] [Accessed 27 Jul. 2018].

Brahim Chaib-draa (2002). Causal Maps: Theory, Implementation, and Practical Applications in Multiagent Environments. [online] ResearchGate. Available at:
[Link] [Accessed 5 Oct. 2020].

Goodier, C., Austin, S., Soetanto, R. and Dainty, A. (2010). Causal mapping and scenario building with multiple organisations. Futures, [online] 42(3), pp.219–229. Available at:

[Link] [Accessed 5 Oct. 2020].

Climate Interactive (2015). Causal Diagrams [The Climate Leader]. YouTube. Available at: [Link] [Accessed 5 Oct. 2020].
[Link]. (2018). [online] Available at: [Link]
[Link] [Accessed 28 Jul. 2018].

YouTube. (2018). The waste land: Tackling France’s illegal dumping. [online] Available at: [Link] [Accessed 28 Jul. 2018].

Google Books. (2018). Thinking in Systems. [online] Available at: [Link] [Accessed 27 Jul. 2018].

Wikiwand. (2018). Cobra effect | Wikiwand. [online] Available at: [Link] [Accessed 27 Jul. 2018].

Wikiwand. (2020). System archetype | Wikiwand. [online] Available at: [Link] [Accessed 5 Oct. 2020].

Diagnosing Systemic Issues and Designing High-Leverage Interventions. (n.d.). [online] Available at: [Link]

‌Christoph Brodnik (2017). week 3 systems mapping. YouTube. Available at: [Link] [Accessed 21 Sep. 2020].
Google Books. (2010). Thinking in Systems. [online] Available at: [Link]
[Accessed 21 Sep. 2020].