System

Inquiry
Si Guide Series
 Overview
Systems inquiry is an attempt to understand and map out a complex system. It seeks a
holistic understanding of the system's overall workings through an inquiry-based
approach. This guide covers key considerations in trying to gain a deeper understanding
of a complex adaptive system before starting to work on influencing and guiding change.
It briefly covers systems modeling, systems mapping, and the idea of leverage points.
 Systems Thinking Systems Awareness Systems Theory Complexity Theory Adaptive Systems

System Inquiry Systems Modeling Mapping Actor Mapping Leverage Points

Where am I?
This paper forms part of
our set of 20 guides guide
covering all things systems
innovation. Transition Design Transition Models Furtures & Naratives System Gardening Co-Design

+++
Ecosystem Building Networks Value Network Scaling Change Systemic Evaluation
 Guide Content

System Model Systems Mapping Actor Maps Leverage Points

We start with the Now we add causal Here we map out the Look for places to
basic language for relationships to look at the actors, their values, intervene where small
modeling a system feedback loops models and incentives changes can have big
effects
 What is Systems Inquiry?
Systems inquiry is an attempt to understand and map out a
given system in a comprehensive fashion - especially a complex
system. What distinguishes it from other approaches to studying
the workings of a system is that it is holistic; meaning we are
primarily concerned with getting a view of the overall workings
of the system and the major relevant factors to be considered
before we start a more detail analysis.

Systems inquiry differs from systems thinking - which is

theoretical and abstract in nature - and different from systems
change - which is about influencing a given system - it is instead
about "listening" to the system to gain an understanding of how
it works before we try to take any course of action. It is only
from an unbiased observation of the current state of the system
and an understanding of its evolution to this point that we may
start to see pathways forward and how to work with the
system's innate potential for change.
 Understanding Systems
One of the central propositions of systems change is that we
should not change a system without first gaining a deep
understanding of its overall structure and workings. As the
influential systems thinker, Donella Meadows wrote: "Before
you disturb the system in any way, watch how it behaves. If
it’s a piece of music or a whitewater rapid or a fluctuation in a
commodity price, study its beat. If it’s a social system, watch it
work. Learn its history.”

There are many ways in which we can fail in our systems

change endeavors, one of them is to not properly understand
the system we wish to change. A narrow analytical and partial
vision of the system we wish to change will lead, at best, to
partial results. If we want to achieve something more than this
then we will need a more holistic vision of the system. It is
only from a more comprehensive view of what we are dealing
with that we can hope to achieve qualitatively better
outcomes.
 Recognition of Complexity
To be successful in our endeavors to change systems, we first need a
deep appreciation for the complexity of the systems we live in. The
reality we have to face as systems innovators is that we are just tiny
blips within vast, complex networks that shape the world around us.
These systems that we are trying to change are often so large and
complex that we have almost no opportunity to actually "change"
them. The idea that we can come in and define the desired outcome
and impose it on the system is not realistic; we see it fail time and
time again.

This often followed path to failure is a product of a lack of

recognition of the complexity of the systems we are dealing with.
Thus, one aspect of mapping systems is for us to gain a deeper
appreciation for the complexity and, from this, an acceptance that
we ourselves can’t change the system but must instead work with its
potential for change. Being responsible in our change endeavor
means first understanding the overall structure and complexity of the
system before attempting to influence it.
 The Art of System Inquiry
Systems inquiry is a science and an art. It involves aspects of
formal modeling, but just as importantly it involves the skills of
a good investigative journalist or an ethnographer. We need to
follow things wherever they lead, drawing upon any and all
relevant information like a good investigative journalist.
Likewise, we want to get out of our own perspective of the
system and into that of others, like a good ethnographer.

Systems do not fit into the nice need organizational and

conceptual boxes that we create, getting to the source of truth
about how a system really works often leads us across
boundaries. Thus, the aim is to defy traditional disciplines and
boundaries and expand thought horizons. As Donella Meadows
wrote: "Defy the disciplines. In spite of what you majored in, or
what the textbooks say, or what you think you’re an expert at,
follow a system wherever it leads. It will be sure to lead across
traditional disciplinary lines.”
The purpose of a system is what it does
The purpose of a system is what it does (POSIWID) is a systems
thinking saying coined by Stafford Beer. This saying explains
that the observed purpose of a system is often at odds with the
intentions of those who design and manage it. Indeed, if we
look around us, we can note that what systems do because of
the way they are organized - the incentives, structures, etc - are
often very different from what the managers of that system say
is the stated purpose of the system.

Russel Akoff notes this when he says the objective of an

education system is not educating students; it is to "maintain
the quality of work-life for the faculty. Teaching is a price the
faculty has to pay for the quality of work-life it wants and like
any price it tries to minimize it.” Likewise, we can note that
healthcare systems are generally not interested in health, but in
sickness prevention. The same follows for many other types of
systems. As Stafford Beer says, “There is, after all, no point in
claiming that the purpose of a system is to do what it
constantly fails to do.”
 Wholistic Approach
System inquiry is a holistic approach that becomes particularly
relevant when systems become complex. The reason our initiatives
often fail is that we take a partial approach, based upon a partial
understanding of the system. We often start with a pain point and
rush to find the solution to that; in the process, we quickly narrow
our vision to only those factors directly impacting the issue. When
issues become complex, there is no simple solution; outcomes are
emergent phenomena of the way the system is organized as a
whole, and we need to look at and map out the whole system.

Too often, our endeavors fail because we try to reduce the whole
system to one dimension to simplify things. To avoid common
pitfalls of linear thinking, the aim should be to expand our vision
rather than to reduce it. We need to grasp the multidimensional
nature of complex organizations and map this out as best we can.
If we want to be successful in our systems change efforts, we need
to be aware of all the different dimensions of the system we are
dealing with.
 Sustainable Outcomes
When we rush to find direct causes for an issue and reduce our
vision, we may get quick fixes but often the result is unsustainable
solutions. The issue reveals itself when the whole system changes
and we find that our perceived solution is no longer relevant in this
new context and we have to start again. A holistic vision prevents
us from becoming too narrowly focused on any one part of the
system or any one solution. By doing this we may not get quick
solutions but what we do get is a view of the whole that should
stay relevant as we can stay updating our map.

A wholistic inquiry will help us to void getting stuck, because we

will always be able to go back to the overall map to see why our
given interventions are not working. A systems map will provide an
infrastructure out of which we can start to develop our solutions.
This is a sustainable approach where we can be continuously
developing and building upon our model; crafting and refining the
map so as to develop our systemic problem statement.
 Understanding Structure
System inquiry is about trying to gain an understanding of
how the system is, how it works, but not on a superficial
level. We are trying to see the underlying structure rather
than just the observable outcomes. By looking at the
connections and linkages we start to build up a view of the
system's structure. This helps us to start to understand how
system structure creates the observable outcomes.

As Donella Meadows notes, starting with the behavior of the

system directs one’s thoughts to dynamic, not static,
analysis—not only to “What’s wrong?” but also to “How did
we get there?” “What other behavior modes are possible?”
By looking at linkages and structure we can start to see the
system in a new way, not as things and what is wrong with
those things but instead in terms of dynamics, flows, and
blockages.
 A Share Vision
Maps not only help us to gain an overall vision of the
structure of the system, but also by creating them
collectively we can start to come to some shared
understanding; some objective reference point. The map
becomes useful when individuals who experience the system
day-to-day can see themselves and their challenges
represented by the model; people start to see their actions
in a new light and how they affect the whole. Once the
causal linkages can be seen, they can be understood and
discussed openly.

This shared view of the system is a solid foundation for

forming collaborations. If we want coordinated action we
need some shared understanding of what the system is and
how it is operating and this is what systems mapping can
provide us. Of course, if we want shared consensus about
the state of the system then the mapping has to be a
collective action, created by those different parties involved.
 Without a system map With a system map
"It is a rock”

"It is a tree”

"It’s a
“It's a snake” “It's a bush” "It’s a complex
complex system"
system"
 Co-creation
When one looks at most systems, be that in education, finance,
energy systems or politics, one will observe that there is limited
understanding or consensus about the overall system. The
inevitable outcome of this is incoherence and lack of capacity to
take coordinated efforts for the benefit of the end-user. If we want
coordinated action we need some shared understanding of what
the system is and how it is operating and this is what systems
mapping can give us.

Just as importantly mapping is visual; it helps to get our thinking

"out there", making it tactile and interactive in different ways.
Mapping should not be seen as simply a means to an endpoint but
a process for scaffolding debates as we build. The process of
building the map is a shared one where we reveal each other's
assumptions and start a conversation. The process of mapping
helps to; surface assumptions; provide the context for us to ask
questions; identify different perspectives; to see which voices and
opinions are being heard or not and to start to build consensus
across boarders, divides and boundaries.
 Pathways Forward
Although much of the value of mapping is in the collective
process of its creation as a method for building shared
understanding, the ultimate aim of a systems map is to start to
reveal places where we can try to influence the system toward a
more desirable direction. Once we start to see the events of the
day as parts of trends and those trends as symptoms of
underlying system structure, we will be able to consider new
ways to intervene and new courses of action.

Once a model of the current state is agreed upon, it is time to

go to work deciding upon how to influence the system to a more
desirable state. The map is not only a way of making sense of
complex systems it is also a way to identify points of potentially
high impact. The systems map holds the leverage points upon
which a group can collectively act. With a map, we can start to
explore the underlying forces in the system, start to identify
what is working and what not; where to make interventions;
where to invest our resources; how to create new, more
productive stories and develop a systemic problem statement.
 Celebrate Hold fast to the goal
complexity of goodness
Expand the boundary Get the
of caring beat

Listen to the wisdom

of the system
Expand thought
horizons
Expose your mental
models to the open air
Expand time
horizons.

Stay humble.
Go for the good of the Stay a learner
whole.
Dancing With Systems
By Donella Meadows Honor and protect
information
Pay attention to what is
important, not just
what is quantifiable Make feedback Locate responsibility
policies for feedback in the system
systems.
Systems
Model
 Systems
System In this section, we lay down the very basics of our
language for describing systems by talking about
elements, relations and whole systems. A system may
be defined as a set of interacting or interdependent
Elements elements forming an integrated whole.

Firstly a system is a group of parts, e.g. it is a

composite entity, being composed of a number of
things. In the language of systems theory, we call
Relations these parts, elements.

These parts are interconnected and interdependent

in some way, that is to say, there is a set of
relationships between the elements. Through these
relations the elements are arranged in a particular
way in order to perform some collective function that
defines the system as a whole.
 Function
A function is a very broad and fundamental concept that is central to systems theory, it is also
used in many other domains being particularly important within mathematics and engineering.
A function is a process that transforms energy or resources from one state to another. There
are a number of key aspects to this process. We have a resource that is inputted, we have a
process that transforms these resources according to a set of instructions to create an output.

Energy
Input Process

Boundary
Entropy
 Boundary

Overview
All systems have a boundary and
operate within an environment. Exchange
This environment represents the
sum total of other systems and
input/output resources that the
system interacts with during its
Autonomous
Filter
operation. System
Systems Model
Different aspects to the
Environment
model of a system

Elements

Input Energy

Process

Relations

Boundary
Entropy
Systems
Maps
 Why System Mapping?
Systems mapping is a type of modeling that is designed
to reveal the underlying interrelationships and structure
of a complex system. System maps are powerful
visualization tools that can help change agents describe
and diagnose the current state of a given system;
understand how system structure creates the
observable outcomes; create a shared vision of the
system; gain consensus about the problems and identify
opportunities.

System mapping is about gaining an empirical

understanding of what is before we engage in
envisioning what could be or what we would like to be.
However, systems maps should not be seen as
deliverables or endpoints; rather, they are tools of
exploration, stepping stones on our path to
understanding the system dynamics that underly
complex issues.
 Why Systems Mapping

Holistic View Analysis of Structure Shared Perspective Course of Action

Maps help us to view By mapping linkages By creating a shared visual Shared understanding
the system as a maps help to reveal the diagram maps help to build reveals points of
whole underlying structure shared understanding intervention
and consensus on action
 Define Nodes
The basics of a systems map is very simple, just nodes and links between them.
We can then start by defining the different kinds of nodes in the system.

Economic

Social

Technological Environmental
 Linkages
A link simply denotes that two things are connected in some way. This may be the exchange of
information between two organizations, the flow of goods from a manufacturer two distributor,
or money from citizens to government via taxes.

Exchange of
Products

Supplier Distributor
Food Systems Map Certifiers

Technology

Consumer

Climate

Farms
Retailers

Soil
Media

Financiers

Regulators
Processors Health
 Causal Relations
We now map the relations between those elements. Relations define causal connections,
meaning if one thing changes this will affect the variables associated with the other that it is
interrelated with, i.e. a change in the state of one will create a change in the state of the other
node it is linked to. Ideally, these changes can be expressed as quantities. Nodes are not verbs,
as the action in the map is in the causal relationships.

The number of
The amount of
snails we see
rain in our garden
 Types of Causal Relations
A causal relationship within a map is a dynamic, it defines a relationship of change. One
node can influence another in one of two ways: positive or negative.

Positive Negative
More of A leads to more of B More of A leads to less of B

+ -

A B A B
 Student’s Family
native stress
abilities

+ -
Student
achievement
- in school +
Substance Teacher
abuse talent
In community and
resources
Actor
Mapping
 Overview
Actor maps are a type of system map designed to reveal
the network of people and organizations within a given
system and how they are interrelated. The aim is to gain
a deeper understanding of the stakeholder’s values,
models, incentives and the power dynamics in the
system. This is done by creating maps consisting of the
various individuals and organizations that have a role in
the system we wish to change.

With actor mapping, we are asking who are the

individuals or organizations that have an influence in
determining the pattern and outcomes of the system and
who are influenced by it. These "stakeholders" have a
stake in the outcomes to the organization and thus an
interest in shaping events according to their stake. To be
responsible in our systems change initiatives, we must be
first aware of these actors, their perspectives and
interests.
 Involvement Why Actor Maps? Communications
Start to recognize who will To understand the mental models
be affected by a change process and and values of actors so that we can
thus who needs to be involved better speak their language

Opportunities Explore Perspectives

Find opportunities for alliances, Build up a better understanding of
collaboration and recognize the system by looking at it from the
potential points of conflict different perspectives of the actors

Identify Gaps Adoption

Identify where gaps to the flow Understand how an adoption
of information or resources are process may take place; who would
as potential intervention points be likely to resist or promote change
 Actor Mapping
Factors to Models
Values
What are the models people use to
What are the values?
What are the stories those values create? Consider understand the system, who they are and
what they are doing? What are the
How do those values create the
assumptions? concepts and the language used?
What is the accepted paradigm? What are the perspectives the models
create?
What are the knowledge gaps created?

Incentives Power
What are the assets and resources in the system?
What are the sources of power?
How do resources flow through the system?
What are the sources of legitimacy?
How do those flows create the incentives? What are the rules?
How do those incentives motivate actors? Who gets to alter the rules?
Where are the potential points of cooperation For whom do the rules favor?
or conflict created by those motives?
 Map stakeholders
To get started, determine who needs to be
Direct Indirect System involved and from this create a list of
Influence Influence Influence stakeholders who form part of the system.
Those who are directly or indirectly
effected. Post their profiles up and draw any
connections there may be between them of
finical exchange, communications,
agreements etc.
Leverage
Points
 Overview
The idea of leverage points was introduced by Donella Meadows in a paper where
she proposed a scale of places to intervene in a system that would result in varying
degrees of change within the overall organization. She started with the insight that
there are levers or places within a complex system where a "small shift in one thing
can produce big changes in everything.”

This is an approach to changing complex organizations that involve working with its
innate evolutionary potential for change; approaches that aim to make small, but
intelligent and well-gauged interventions to influence flows within a system and thus
its future development.
 Why Leverage Points?
When we stand outside the system observing it, we can at
least try to see the whole, but when we go to make
interventions, we have to choose specific points in the
system to intervene. There are countless places within a
complex system to place yourself where what you will do will
have almost zero effect, worse than this the points that look
like they have the highest impact initially are often those
with the lowest systemic effect.

Systems change requires affecting the organization at high

leverage points to address systemic issues. This approach is
required on difficult problems since problem solvers can
exert only limited amounts of force on a large system. If that
force is applied at low instead of high leverage points it will
be overcome by the forces of the innate dynamics of the
system that arise from its structure of feedback loops.
 Counter-Intuitive
The manifest positions of power in the system, such as the
position at the top of a hierarchy, appear to have power and
influence because of linear cause and effect, however, such
linear effects have little overall systems change capacity. We
need to place ourselves in the system and influence it at
points where the minimal effort and resources will create the
largest long term influence - the leverage points.

It is firstly important to know that leverage points are

counter-intuitive. Leverage is not found in the centralized
points of the greatest manifest power in the system but is
found rather in abstraction. By abstraction, we mean shifting
up from the manifest observable everyday phenomena to
look at information flows and mental models. Understanding
these different levels of abstraction is done through the
iceberg model.
 Abstraction
The nonlinear nature of complex systems means that their
behavior is somewhat counterintuitive to us. Leverage points
are likewise not intuitive. Our common sense leads us to search
for them in the most obvious but superficial places. For
example, if we were to take a large organization and look for
the leverage point, we would likely look to the top of the
hierarchy, thinking that if we could just change what the leader
is doing, then this would affect everyone else. However, this
person is just an actor in the system who is responding to
events, and if we want to change systems, we need to change
the structures that the actors inhabit.

Where our intuition fails us is that we look for the leverage

points all on one level, the event level, unfortunately this will
lead us astray. The real points for systems-level influence are in
abstraction; we have to remove the successive layers of detail
before we get to the fundamentals where the leverage really is.
The iceberg model is designed to help us with just this.
 Iceberg Model
The iceberg model is a model used in systems thinking to illustrate the various levels of
abstraction to a situation or organization; from the observable events to underlying
patterns that generate these, to the supporting structure and ultimately the mental
models used by an organization. Just like with an iceberg, a large percentage of what is
going on in our world is hidden from view and the Iceberg Model tries to make this
explicit by depicting it as a series of layers that sit beneath the everyday observable
phenomena.
Event
The observable actions and phenomena
Patterns
Describe trends over time
Structure
How the parts are interrelated to influence the patterns
Models
The mental models that support everything else in the
system
Example of Iceberg Model in Education

Events
An app to help students study better

Patterns
A policy to tackle increasing school dropouts

Structure
Changing the structure of education from
teacher & school centered to peer networks
Models
Rethinking education as a learner-centered
interest driven process.
Leverage Points
Adapted from Leverage Points: Places to Intervene in a System

Transcend
Alter paradigms
Change Mindsets
Alter Goals
Change Structure
Information Rules
Positive Flows
Negative Feedback
Length Feedback
Material Of Delay
Buffer Flows
Quantitative Stability
Parameters

System
 Overview
In general, there are no linear solutions for a complex problem, rather with partners
we have to identify what are blockages and bottlenecks in the system — which may
be political, economic, environmental, etc — and where can we intervene to influence
current behavior. Thus systems change is somewhat analogies to the practice of
acupuncture. Professor Orit Gal suggested the idea of social acupuncture which
"explores how analyzing the deeper interactions sustaining patterns can be used to
identify leverage points; and how small accumulative interventions across such points
can be used to disrupt and transform them.”
 Networked Approach
Many of today’s most complex challenges can be
better thought of as the emergent outcomes of a
complex adaptive system; patterns that are
continuously re-created through the ongoing
decisions, actions and reactions among numerous
players embedded within multiple networks. This
perspective has huge advantage as it lets us start
to work with this complexity.

Instead of our traditional linear approaches that

are constantly pushing against complexity - by
creating boundaries and focusing on small
sections of these networks - systems acupuncture
reveals an approach that harnesses and utilizes
complexity to our advantage.
 Systems Aikido
Similar to systems Aikido, social acupuncture draws
insight from ancient practice, in this case, that of
acupuncture to provide a strategy for system change. In
general, acupuncture is an age-old healing practice of
traditional Chinese medicine in which thin needles are
placed at specific points in the body.

Acupuncture seeks to release the flow of the body's

vital energy or "chi" by stimulating multiple points
along energy pathways. As such it sees the bodily
system's health as a network of flows and aims to
intervene at certain points to release blockages. The
ultimate aim is to help the system flow back into
balance.
 CC BY-NC 4.0 DEED

Version 2.0
A Systems Innovation Publication
[Link]
 Reference and Resources
Adapted from Leverage Points: Places to Intervene in a System
[Link]

Systems Aikido: A philosophy for engineering complex systems

[Link]

The purpose of a system is what it does - Wikipedia

[Link]

Participatory Systems Mapping

[Link]

Dancing With Systems - Donella Meadows

[Link]

Thinking In Systems: A Primer

[Link]