TOPIC 2: SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY CURRICULUM
2.1. Historical development and progress of the biology syllabus in Kenya
2.1.1 Historical development of biology as a science
The ancient Greeks in Romans such as Plato Aristotle were skilled observers but were not
scientists by todays definition. Their science was called Natural history we refer to as
naturalists
They relied mainly on external observation of living things to make their conclusions
about the nature of living things. In their frame of references, biology, majorly a
descriptive science. However, this position has changed science to-day adequate
measurements and other qualitative measures were employed in creating biological
knowledge until the mid 1800s, biology confirmed to have a natural perspective focusing
on descriptions as a basis for comparing organisms and providing experimentation to
questions based on observation a lone through the scientific method had began in
physical sciences, it was not readily used in biology because any people at the time feels
that the knowing world transcendence physic allows and experimentation could not
answer questions regarding living things. A critical shift occurred during the 19th century
when Charles Darwin came up with the theory of natural selection. This shift biology as a
true science a pre-occupation with move into an investigation of functions and concepts
scientist began to go beyond observation to put forth hypothesis and testing them by
experimentation.
Hypothesis formation and experimentation are key attributes of a scientific method in this
case; biology is a young science whose nature developing has been with the last
300years, the development of biology can be summarized under four Major stages
a) Primitive era (pre-scientific era)
b) Classical era-(time of Romans/Greeks Aristotle)
c) Reconnaissance era(lung revolution)
d) Modern era (Darwin period)
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2.1.2. Secondary School Biology Curriculum
Curriculum innovation was a major focus when Kenya achieved her independence in
1963.
To innovate generally means to make c or introducing three things new usually leading to
curriculum improvement.
The biology curriculum for secondary school experienced fundamental changes since that
time up to now.
The changes were in terms of: -
a) Content
b) Teaching materials
c) Teaching methods
d) Assessment procedures
the changes that took place in this subject are best understood by tracing them through
focus phase namely: -
experimental
adoption
adaptation
ownership phase
Experimental phase
Phase Primary Science And Secondary Science And
Mathematics Mathematics
Experimental (latent) 1963-1975 1963-1967
Adoption 1976-1984 1968-1980
Adaptation 1985-2003 1981-2002
Ownership 2003 2003
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a) Experimental phase (latent)
Content- The biology curriculum i.e. traditional curriculum secondary schools had the following
characteristics
1. basic biological concepts were introduced in Form 1- Form 2, they focused on during
things and how they function but excluded genetic and ecology
2. the concepts- were further elaborated in form 3 Form 4 in spiral approach
3. the content of A level (F5-F6) curriculum was a cope detailed and included a
molecular approach to physiology and genetics and detailed analysis of Ecology
4. a) The syllabuses for F1 to F4 and F5 to F6 were developed and examined by Cambridge
university examination syndicate and in collaboration with East African examination
council up to 1973. This role was taken by East African examination council between
1974-1977.
b) Teaching method
The teaching approaches were mainly didactic whereby transmission of information and
knowledge was more important than practical understanding/searching knowledge.
Experiments were done only to confirm or improve the absenteeism and facts covered in
theory work. Emphasis was on development of scientific skills and attitude but rather on
acquisition of scientific knowledge
c) Teaching resources-these included basic textbooks Written by authors in Britain who
looked at the biological concepts from their own perspectives. These perspectives were
passed on to the leanest in Kenya. There were no teachers guide but although inspectorate
section occasionally issued circulars addressing specific issues on the curriculum.
d) Assessment procedures
It was mainly through external examinations the test items in the theory paper were
structured and essay type focusing on the entire aspect of the syllabus but while at the
same time reflecting on the B
ritish environment
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Product examination focused on skills and observation applications and conference since
many teachers did not developed some of these skills results/practical exams were usually
disapproving overall for the curriculum. In general the biology curriculum focused on
knowledge at the expense of the development of essential scientific skills.
Experimental curriculum
experimental curriculum in biology was developed between 1965 to 1967 with the
expressed goal of replacing then the existing traditional curriculum
The initial efforts were made by the educational development centered (EDC) in
the termed state at worship in 1961. Prof. J. Zacharias of the Masseuchetes
Institute of Technology along several other scholars created the pillar education
program under the auspices (umbrella) of EDC funded by USAID
the purpose of (AEP) was to give knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for
use of teaching in development of African characteristics, therefore AEP initiated
several projects among them: -
i. African Mathematics program (AMP)
ii. African Primary Science Program (APSP)
iii. Science Education Program for Africa
The programs initially focused on primary science of mathematics but rather expanded to
include secondary science of mathematics in drawing experimental curriculum a lot of
reference was made to the existing program in the US particularly made
a) Biological Science curriculum Study (BSCS)
b) Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC)
c) Chemical Education Material Study (CHEMS)
At the workshop held at Entebbe in 1962 the participants drawn from various parts of
the world resolved to develop curriculum in science and mathematics for African
characteristics both at primary and secondary school best on inquiry or discoveries
approach adopted by the existing programs in the US between 1965-1967, several
expatriates teacher and education officers in East Africa mainly British held series of
workshop under the auspices of school science project and developed science
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curriculum for secondary schools at the ordinary O level from F1 to F4 the school
science Project (SSP) was based on the philosophy of Nuffield Science Project in
Britain (NSP). However, this project was similar in philosophy approach to the
programs in USA.
The expatriate and Education officers eventually developed curricula and trial
materials in the following areas-;
a) The school science Project (SSP) –Biology
b) The school science Project (SSP) -Chemistry
c) The school science Project (SSP) –Physics
d) The school science Project (SSP) SMP-Mathematics
Materials were tried in some schools in E. Africa and were refined in readiness for
implementation by 1968.
Reasons for the introduction of the School Science Project- Biology curriculum
The school science project (SSP) biology curriculum was finally implemented in Kenya
between 1968 -[Link] SSP was based on the philosophy of Nuffield Science Project
(NSP) in Britain. According to SSP biology, teaching was supposed to be inductive using
scientific inquiry or discovery approach. Their focus was on the development of scientific
skills, knowledge, and attitudes. The scientific process such as observation, measurement,
experimentation, record keeping, inferences were key issues in SSP biology. The main
reasons for its introduction were as follows
o The SSP biology emphasized the mode of teaching to be discovery oriented and open
minded through scientific inquiry.
o The SSP biology focused on the development of scientific process skills e.g. scientific
knowledge, scientific skills and attitudes. The scientific process skills are observation,
measurement, experimentation, recording keeping and inferences.
o The SSP biology emphasized interplay between experiments and theory.
o The SSP biology present science and mathematics as a unified but even changing subject.
o SSP biology encouraged students and teachers to create scientific knowledge rather than
absorbing textbook fashions.
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o SSP biology curriculum approach placed heavier demand to the approach of teachers in
terms of preparation on pupils. Teaching materials were availed for teachers and students
e.g. pupils manual and teachers guide,
o SSP biology curriculum emphasized the need for practicals in school science and pupils
had to conduct practical and encourage hands on activities.
b) Adoption phase
The school Science project (SSP) Biology curriculum was finally implemented between 1968
and 1980. However, it was implemented in some schools in Kenya. Many schools rejected
the programs citing unpreparedness of the teachers and lack of certain teaching material. The
real problem was that many teachers were not involved in the in the initial development of
the program and were not inducted in implementing it. Teaching was supposed to be
inductive using the inquiry or discovery approach. Their focus was to be on the development
of scientific skills, attitude as well as scientific knowledge. Process such as observing,
measurement, experimentation, record keeping, inferences etc. were key in SSP Biology. The
approach placed heavily demand on the approach of teachers in terms of preparation on
pupils. Ping material included the use of pupils manuals and teachers guide.
Assessment included: -
a) Recording of field and experimental data in field notebooks which were assessed by
teachers and verified by external examiners.
b) Printed essay and structured questions based on class experiments performed and on the
applications of result obtained
c) Between the same periods i.e. 1960-1980 a majority of 20 schools confirmed with the
traditional curriculum both at Q and A, level. Both SSP Biology and traditional curricula
were a case of adoption of the content, objectives, philosophy of the programs,
instructional, procedures and assessment technique were heavily drawn from Nuffield
Biology program in the US and Britain and Biological sciences curriculum study in the
(US respectively) and the mainstream British curriculum respectively
c) Adaptation phase
In 1981, the new mathematics program was scraped by a presidential decree. The MOE also
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scrapped SSP Biology, Physics, and chemistry, Biology was replaced by integrating Biology
curriculum which incorporated aspect of SSP Biology as well as traditional biology
curriculum.
Why the SSP Biology curriculum was scrapped in Kenya?
Most of the teachers were not in-serviced and inducted.
There was lack of proper training on teachers.
There was unpreparedness of the teachers. Teachers were not involved in the
development of the SSP program.
There was lack of adequate of teaching materials like teachers guide and manuals
were not available.
Most of the materials were sketchy and had factual information.
Most of the laboratories were not equipped. teaching was supposed to be based on
inquiry approach, but most teachers preferred to use didactic approach due to lack
of proper training and workload,
Between 1981and1984, a new biology curriculum was developed under the auspices of
8:4:4 curriculums. It had two components biology and biological sciences. The
curriculum was implemented in 1986 and lasted up to the year 2002. The content of new
curriculum was an integration of SSP Biology, the traditional biology, integrated Biology
curriculum and some aspects of A level biology which was contained topics such as
survey of plant and animal kingdom, chemical of life, cell physiology, transport in plants
and evolution involved a more detailed analysis than before and included many ideas
covered by A level curriculum Ting materials included pupils manuals, and teachers
guide the latter gave clues on objectives, duration and instructional procedures and Ting
materials for every topic. Teaching is supposed to be based on inquiry approach, but
many teachers prefer to use deductive approaches due to lack of proper training,
workload, lack of adequate teaching materials and possibly due to lack of commitment to
professional work. Assessment involved continuous assessment tests in school as well as
external examinations, includes theory and practical papers. Practical exams still focused
on observation, application and inference skill. There is a great need to improve on the
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use of CATs with new to testing of practical skills and attitudes.
d) Ownership for indigenous phase
Biological science was discounted and emerged with Biology syllabus. The content of
new syllabus is eventually its the biology syllabuses except that it now embraces
aspects of human biology and first aid that were previously included in the biological
syllabuses.
More significantly, the curriculum did not require a detailed analysis of chemicals of life
mechanisms of inheritance, physiological processes, taxonomy, and ecology. The move
helps to place a lighter road on both students and teachers and may be friendlier to pupils
in terms of cognitive demand but whether we can say we own the curriculum. They
underline questions. Education to pupils and society at how relevant biology is at large.
Thus, the curriculum draws heavily form the society. If it does, are processes skills are
the centre of teaching skill rather than content.
Are there differences between the secondary school project biology (SSP Biology)
and the new biology curriculum in Kenya?
o The new biology curriculum embraces aspects of human biology and first aid
unlike a detailed analysis of chemicals of life, mechanisms of inheritance,
physiological processes, taxonomy, and ecology unlike SSP biology which was
sketchy with factual information.
o The new curriculum places a lighter demand friendly to pupils in terms of
cognitive demand whereas SSP biology places heavier cognitive demand to
pupils.
o The new curriculum draws heavily from the society and scientific process like
scientific skills are the centers of learning whereas SSP biology the subject was
the main centre of learning.
o In terms of assessment continuous assessment tests, practical exams and theory
papers are used in new biology as a mode evaluation to students whereas SSP
biology use field and experimental data in field notebooks which were verified by
the teachers and external examiners. Also printed essays and structured questions
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based on class experiments performed were also used.
2.1.3 Factors influencing curriculum Change in Kenya
The curriculum change in Kenya was and has been influenced by two categories of
factors: -
a) External pressure
b) Internal pressure
External Pressure
involves agents of curriculum development based outside Kenya particularly in USA and
Britain following the launching of the sputnik by the Soviet Union in 1957 the USA and
its elites saw a need t form science and mathematics education an idea that quickly gain
courage in Western Europe. At the time, the goal was to help teachers in schools gain
scientific skills that would help them understand the realities of the need to use
technology in their day to day lives. The changes that were proposed and implemented in
USA and Britain easily found their way to Kenya and other parts of Africa since they
were justified on the ground of introducing modernity. They were also accompanied by
financial and other forms of technological system
Internal Pressure
The most fundamental changes in any curriculum are always sparked off by
i. Political aspirations, after independence, the new government wanted a new
curriculum to reflect the need of an independent nation
ii. The Ominde Commission of 1964 recognized the role of science and mathematics
in the promotion of social and economic development of the country and therefore
recommended that the Ting of science and mathematics should be improved and
given priority over fields of knowledge.
iii. The political pressure, came at a time when external pressures to reform the Ting
of science and mathematics were on increase
iv. In the subsequent years, the internal pressures have been responsible for the
retirement observed in science and mathematics curriculum such pressure have
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risen from Non-governmental organization, ANC society, PTA, Associations of
Head teachers among others.
2.0 Goals and objectives of secondary school biology in Kenya
2.2.1 Goals of teaching biology in secondary schools
o Biology teaching will help learners to acquire scientific skills i.e. learners acquire
the scientific processes of inquiry by which knowledge of biology is obtained.
These skills will help learners to solve problems they encounter in their daily life.
The scientific knowledge is created through scientific methods through which
learners acquire scientific skills such as observation, measurement, control of
variables, experimentation, recording of data and interpretation of data.
o Learning of biology will help learners to acquire scientific knowledge about
living matter necessary in understanding real life situations i.e. interrelationships
and interdependence of living things together. Also, learners gain a better
understanding of themselves in terms of how their bodies function and how they
relate with organisms in their environment.
o Learning of biology teaching will help learners to develop useful positive
attitudes and values towards biological phenomena and life long learning. Good
examples are honesty and integrity in planning and communicating, open-
mindness in their approach to solve problems, ability to think and work
independently, the spirits of co-operation and development of career interests.
2.3 Content and organization of the biology syllabus in Kenya
2.3.1 The scope and organization of the secondary school biology curriculum in Kenya
The biology curriculum is highly organized into five major general themes which explain
biology as a science. The biology curriculum in Kenya is organized using the subject centered
approach, the approach entails acquisition of factual knowledge/every fact leads towards general
development of the subject.
Major Themes of Secondary School Biology Curriculum In Kenya
Diversity Of Life
Taxonomy
Structure and Function
Cooperation/Relationship/Association e.g.
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Symbiosis, Parasitism, Saprophytism etc.
Patterns Of Perpetuation of Life And Development
Homeostasis
Reproduction
Inheritance
Growth and Development
Nutrition
Physiology
Patterns Of Change
Evolution
Genetics
Integration with Environment.
Energy flow (Environment Living things)
Ecology
Modern Application in Biology
Encompasses all the above themes
Biotechnology- Improving life processes using technology
Genetic Engineering
The secondary school Biology Curriculum in Kenya covers all these themes
Organisation of the Biology Curriculum
There are several approaches to curriculum organization, some are:
1. Topical approach
2. Logical and physiological approach
3. Subject-centered approach
4. Process-based approach
5. Integrated approach
1. Topical Approach-Thematic Approach
In this approach topics from a particular subject area selected and arranged in order of relevance
e.g.
You may select and order the following for a Biology course
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a) Acid rain
b) Pollution
c) Genetic engineering
d) Biotechnology
e) HIV and AIDS
f) Drug and Drug Abuse
Limitation
This approach does not help learners to develop the concepts inherent in a given
Subject area
2. Logical and Physiological Approach
This approach requires a sequence of topics of the syllabus based on sound physiological
grounds. While framing the programme physiological principles of learning such as Readiness,
Transfer of learning, Reinforcement are taken into consideration
Physiological theories of curriculum and instruction advanced by physiologists such as Jerome
Brunner, Robert Gagne and Ausubel are important in this process
3. Subject-Centered Approach
This approach stresses the acquisition of factual knowledge. Every fact leads towards
the general development of the subject. In this approach the syllabus is based on the acquisition
of facts and concepts by learners followed by practical work which is an integral part of the
approach. Many countries including Kenya use this approach.
The science curricular projects PSSC, BSCS, CHEM-S, NSP, and SSP have been
developed using this approach. Physical science, Biological Science Curricular Study and
Secondary School Project focuses on both processes and product. The two supplement each other
4. Process-Based Approach
It stresses the processes of sciences in which learning is encouraged through hands-on-
activities. The approach gives teachers the freedom to teach any topic provided instruction is
based on problem solving. The major limitation of this approach is that it is difficult for pupils to
attain a coherent view of the subject matter.
5. Integrated Approach
In this approach all the disciplines of science are involved in teaching any given task. The
purpose of this approach is to provide a unitary view of science as a whole on the part of the
pupils. Whereas this approach reduces the number of hours spent on teaching science as separate
subject it is difficult to implement on the part of the teacher.
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