GED Science
PART 1: Life Science
CHAPTER 1: Structures and Functions of Life
Cell Theory
The Cell Theory explains the relationship between cells and living things.
Three main ideas:
1. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
2. Cells are the smallest unit of structure and function in living things.
3. New cells come only from pre-existing cells.
History note:
• Cells were discovered after the microscope was invented (~1590).
• The Cell Theory was developed in the 1800s.
Specialized Cells
• Different cells have unique
structures to perform specific
functions.
o Muscle cells → contract for
movement.
o Nerve cells (neurons) →
transmit signals.
• A group of specialized cells = a
tissue.
Tissue Type Function Examples
Supports and connects body
Connective Bone, cartilage, blood
parts
Epithelial Covers and protects surfaces Skin, organ linings
Muscle Contracts for movement Skeletal, cardiac, smooth
Nervous Sends electrical signals Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Levels of Organization
1. Cells → basic unit of life
2. Tissues → groups of cells working together
3. Organs → groups of tissues with a common function
4. Organ Systems → groups of organs working together
5. Organism → a living being
Example:
Cardiac muscle cells → Cardiac tissue → Heart → Cardiovascular system → Human body
Cell Functions and Components
Common Cell Functions
All cells:
• Perform metabolism (chemical reactions that use energy to build cell materials).
• Convert energy from food into usable forms.
• Build proteins for growth and repair.
• Reproduce through cell division.
Metabolism =
1. Breaking down food → energy.
2. Using energy → build needed molecules.
Cell Components (Key Organelles)
Organelle Function
Contains DNA (genetic material); controls
Nucleus
cell activities
Produces energy for cell processes
Mitochondria
(“powerhouse”)
Cytoplasm Jelly-like fluid where reactions occur
Cell membrane Controls what enters and leaves the cell
Ribosomes Make proteins
Transports materials (Smooth = lipids, Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
= proteins)
Golgi apparatus Packages and ships proteins
Lysosomes Break down waste materials
Enzymes Speed up chemical reactions inside the cell
Cell Division
Purpose
• Cell reproduction → growth, repair, and reproduction of organisms.
• Each new (“daughter”) cell is identical to the parent cell.
Mitosis (Body Cells)
Goal: Produce 2 identical body cells (for growth and repair).
Stages:
1. Prophase – DNA condenses into chromosomes;
nucleus disappears.
2. Metaphase – Chromosomes line up in the middle.
3. Anaphase – Chromosomes split and move to opposite
sides.
4. Telophase – Nuclei form; cell starts to divide.
Result: 2 identical daughter cells.
Meiosis (Reproductive Cells)
Goal: Produce 4 unique sex cells (sperm/egg) with half the DNA.
Stages:
Meiosis I:
1. Prophase I: Chromosomes pair and exchange DNA (crossing over).
2. Metaphase I: Pairs line up in the middle.
3. Anaphase I: Pairs separate to opposite sides.
4. Telophase I: Cell divides into 2.
Meiosis II:
1. Prophase II: No new DNA replication.
2. Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up again.
3. Anaphase II: Chromosomes split into chromatids.
4. Telophase II: Each cell divides again.
Result: 4 reproductive cells, each with half the DNA of the original.
Quick Check (Concept Summary)
Concept Mitosis Meiosis
Cell type Body cells Reproductive cells
Result 2 identical cells 4 unique cells
DNA copies Same as parent Half of parent
Crossing over No Yes
Function Growth & repair Sexual reproduction